Electrical dissociation of water. Dissociation of water. Hydrogen indicator. Electron clouds of orbitals with different values of l have different configurations, and those with the same l have a similar configuration

Pure water, although poorly (compared to electrolyte solutions), can conduct electric current. This is caused by the ability of a water molecule to disintegrate (dissociate) into two ions, which are conductors of electric current in pure water (below, dissociation means electrolytic dissociation - disintegration into ions):

Hydrogen index (pH) is a value characterizing the activity or concentration of hydrogen ions in solutions. The hydrogen indicator is designated pH. The hydrogen index is numerically equal to the negative decimal logarithm of the activity or concentration of hydrogen ions, expressed in moles per liter: pH=-log[ H+ ] If [ H+ ]>10-7mol/l, [ OH-]<10-7моль/л -среда кислая; рН<7.Если [ H+ ]<10-7 моль/л, [ OH-]>10-7mol/l - alkaline environment; pH>7. Hydrolysis of salts- this is the chemical interaction of salt ions with water ions, leading to the formation of a weak electrolyte. 1). Hydrolysis is not possibleSalt formed by a strong base and a strong acid ( KBr, NaCl, NaNO3), will not undergo hydrolysis, since in this case a weak electrolyte is not formed. pH of such solutions = 7. The reaction of the medium remains neutral. 2). Hydrolysis by cation (only the cation reacts with water). In a salt formed by a weak base and a strong acid

(FeCl2,NH4Cl, Al2(SO4)3,MgSO4)

The cation undergoes hydrolysis:

FeCl2 + HOH<=>Fe(OH)Cl + HCl Fe2+ + 2Cl- + H+ + OH-<=>FeOH+ + 2Cl- + H+

As a result of hydrolysis, a weak electrolyte, H+ ion and other ions are formed. solution pH< 7 (раствор приобретает кислую реакцию). 3). Гидролиз по аниону (в реакцию с водой вступает только анион). Соль, образованная сильным основанием и слабой кислотой

(KClO, K2SiO3, Na2CO3,CH3COONa)

undergoes hydrolysis at the anion, resulting in the formation of a weak electrolyte, hydroxide ion OH- and other ions.

K2SiO3 + HOH<=>KHSiO3 + KOH 2K+ +SiO32- + H+ + OH-<=>НSiO3- + 2K+ + ОН-

The pH of such solutions is > 7 (the solution becomes alkaline). 4). Joint hydrolysis (both the cation and the anion react with water). Salt formed by a weak base and a weak acid

(CH 3COONH 4, (NН 4)2СО 3, Al2S3),

hydrolyzes both the cation and the anion. As a result, a slightly dissociating base and acid are formed. The pH of solutions of such salts depends on the relative strength of the acid and base. A measure of the strength of an acid and a base is the dissociation constant of the corresponding reagent. The reaction of the medium of these solutions can be neutral, slightly acidic or slightly alkaline:

Al2S3 + 6H2O =>2Al(OH)3v+ 3H2S^

Hydrolysis is a reversible process. Hydrolysis is irreversible if the reaction results in the formation of an insoluble base and (or) a volatile acid

The textbook is intended for students of non-chemical specialties of higher educational institutions. It can serve as a guide for individuals independently studying the basics of chemistry, and for students of chemical technical schools and senior high schools.

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Pure water is a very poor conductor of electricity, but still has measurable electrical conductivity, which is explained by the slight dissociation of water into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions:

Based on the electrical conductivity of pure water, the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in water can be calculated. At 25°C it is 10 -7 mol/l.

Let's write an expression for the water dissociation constant:

Let's rewrite this equation as follows:

Since the degree of dissociation of water is very small, the concentration of undissociated H 2 O molecules in water is almost equal to the total concentration of water, i.e. 55.55 mol/l (1 liter contains 1000 g of water, i.e. 1000:18.02 = 55.55 mol). In dilute aqueous solutions, the concentration of water can be considered the same. Therefore, replacing the product in the last equation with a new constant K H 2 O we will have:

The resulting equation shows that for water and dilute aqueous solutions at a constant temperature, the product of the concentrate of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is a constant value. This constant value is called the ionic product of water. Its numerical value can be easily obtained by substituting the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions into the last equation. In pure water at 25°C ==1·10 -7 mol/l. Therefore, for the specified temperature:

Solutions in which the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are the same are called neutral solutions. At 25°C, as already mentioned, in neutral solutions the concentration of both hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is 10 -7 mol/l. In acidic solutions the concentration of hydrogen ions is higher, in alkaline solutions the concentration of hydroxide ions is higher. But whatever the reaction of the solution, the product of the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions remains constant.

If, for example, enough acid is added to pure water so that the concentration of hydrogen ions increases to 10 -3 mol/l, then the concentration of hydroxide ions will decrease so that the product remains equal to 10 -14. Therefore, in this solution the concentration of hydroxide ions will be:

10 -14 /10 -3 =10 -11 mol/l

On the contrary, if you add alkali to water and thereby increase the concentration of hydroxide ions, for example, to 10 -5 mol/l, then the concentration of hydrogen ions will be:

10 -14 /10 -5 =10 -9 mol/l

These examples show that if the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution is known, then the concentration of hydroxide ions is also determined. Therefore, both the degree of acidity and the degree of alkalinity of a solution can be quantitatively characterized by the concentration of hydrogen ions:

The acidity or alkalinity of a solution can be expressed in another, more convenient way: instead of the concentration of hydrogen ions, indicate its decimal logarithm, taken with the opposite sign. The last value is called the hydrogen index and is denoted by pH:

For example, if =10 -5 mol/l, then pH=5; if = 10 -9 mol/l, then pH = 9, etc. From here it is clear that in a neutral solution (= 10 -7 mol/l) pH = 7. In acidic solutions pH<7 и тем меньше, чем кислее раствор. Наоборот, в щелочных растворах pH>7 and the more, the greater the alkalinity of the solution.

There are various methods for measuring pH. The approximate reaction of a solution can be determined using special reagents called indicators, the color of which changes depending on the concentration of hydrogen ions. The most common indicators are methyl orange, methyl red, and phenolphthalein. In table 17 provides characteristics of some indicators.

For many processes, pH plays an important role. Thus, the pH of human and animal blood has a strictly constant value. Plants can grow normally only at pH values of the soil solution that lie within a certain range characteristic of a given plant type. The properties of natural waters, in particular their corrosiveness, strongly depend on their pH.

Table 17. Key indicators

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H 2 O ↔ H + + OH -

For approximately 556,000,000 non-dissociated water molecules, only 1 molecule dissociates, but this is 60,000,000,000 dissociated molecules in 1mm3. Dissociation is reversible, that is, the H + and OH - ions can form a water molecule again. Eventually it comes dynamic equilibrium in which the number of decayed molecules is equal to the number of H + and OH - ions formed. In other words, the speeds of both processes will be equal. For our case, the equation for the rate of a chemical reaction can be written as follows:

υ 1 = κ 1 (for water dissociation)

υ 2 = κ 2 (for the reverse process)

Where υ - speed reaction; κ - reaction rate constant (depending on the nature of the reactants and temperature); , And - concentration (mol/l).

In a state of balance υ 1 = υ 2, hence:

κ 1 = κ 2

Let's do some simple math and get:

κ 1 /κ 2 = /

κ 1 /κ 2 = K

K- equilibrium constant, and in our case, dissociation constant, which depends on the temperature and nature of the substances, and does not depend on concentrations (as well as κ 1 and κ 2). K for water 1.8 10 -16 at 25 °C (reference value).

Due to the very small number of dissociated molecules, the concentration can be taken to be equal to the total concentration of water, and the total concentration of water in dilute solutions as a constant value:

=1000(g/l)/18(g/mol)=55.6 mol/l.

Replacing κ 1 / κ 2 on K and using the magnitude , we determine what the product of concentrations is equal to And which is called - ionic product of water:

K = /55.6 mol/l
1.8 10 -16 55.6 mol/l =
10 -14 =

Since, at a certain temperature, the quantities used in calculating the ionic product of water ( K, ) are constant, the value of the ionic product of water just the same all the time. And since the dissociation of a water molecule produces the same number of ions And , it turns out that for pure water the concentration And will be equal 10 -7 mol/l. From the constancy of the ionic product of water, it follows that if the number of H + ions becomes larger, then the number of HO - ions becomes smaller. For example, if a strong acid HCl is added to pure water, it, as a strong electrolyte, will completely dissociate into H + and Cl -, as a result, the concentration of H + ions will increase sharply, and this will lead to an increase in the rate of the process opposite to dissociation, since it depends on the concentration of ions H+ and OH-:

υ 2 = κ 2

During the accelerated process opposite to dissociation, the concentration of HO - ions will decrease to a value corresponding to the new equilibrium, at which there will be so few of them that the rates of dissociation of water and the reverse process will again be equal. If the concentration of the resulting HCl solution is 0.1 mol/l, the equilibrium concentration will be equal to:

= 10 -14 /0.1 = 10 -13 mol/l

When adding the strong base NaOH, the shift will be towards a decrease in the H + concentration.

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Electron clouds of orbitals with different values of l have different configurations, and those with the same l have a similar configuration

Modern quantum mechanical theory states that an atom of any element has a complex structure; the positive part of the atom is a positive charge.. quantum theory implies that the energy of an electron can only be received.. so at l s, the orbital for an electron with any value of the principal quantum number n, the electron cloud is limited..

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The structure of atoms and the Pauli principle
The Pauli principle helps explain a variety of physical phenomena. A consequence of the principle is the presence of electron shells in the structure of the atom, from which, in turn, follows a variety of chemical

Basic types of chemical bonds. Covalent bond. Basic principles of the valence bond method. Sigma and Picovalent bonds
atoms can combine with each other to form both simple and complex substances. In this case, various types of chemical bonds are formed: ionic, covalent (non-polar and polar), metal

Sp hybridization
Occurs when one s- and one p-orbital mix. Two equivalent sp-atomic orbitals are formed, located linearly at an angle of 180 degrees and directed in different directions from the nucleus of the atom

Geometric shape and polarity of molecules
Hybridization Geometric shape Angle between bonds sp Linear 180° sp

Ionic bond as a limiting case of covalent bond polarization. Electrostatic interaction of ions
An ionic bond is a very strong chemical bond formed between atoms with a large difference (>1.5 on the Pauling scale) of electronegativity, at which the shared electron pair

Chemical properties of basic oxides
1. Water-soluble basic oxides react with water to form bases: Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH. 2. Interact with acid oxides, causing

Chemical properties of acid oxides
1. React with water to form an acid: SO3 + H2O → H2SO4. But not all acid oxides react directly with water (SiO

Chemical properties of amphoteric oxides
1. React with acids, forming salt and water: ZnO + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O. 2. React with solid alkalis (during fusion), resulting in the formation

Grounds. Chemical properties of bases. Amphoteric states, reactions of their interaction with acids and alkalis
A base is a chemical compound capable of forming a covalent bond with a proton (Brønsted base

Characteristic reactions
Amphoteric oxides react with strong acids, forming salts of these acids. Such reactions are a manifestation of the basic properties of amphoteric oxides, for example: ZnO + H2SO4

Acids. Anoxic and oxygenic acids. Properties of acids (sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric)
Acids are complex substances whose molecules consist of substitutable hydrogen atoms and acidic residues. The acid residue has a negative charge.

Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 is a strong dibasic acid corresponding to the highest oxidation state of sulfur (+6). Under normal conditions, concentrated sulfuric acid

Nitrates
Nitric acid is a strong acid. Its salts - nitrates - are obtained by the action of HNO3 on metals, oxides, hydroxides or carbonates. All nitrates are highly soluble in water. Nitrate ion in

Homogeneous catalysis
An example of homogeneous catalysis is the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in the presence of iodine ions. The reaction occurs in two stages: H2O2 + I → H2O + IO

Heterogeneous catalysis
In heterogeneous catalysis, the acceleration of the process usually occurs on the surface of a solid body - the catalyst, therefore the activity of the catalyst depends on the size and properties of its surface. In practice

The effect of concentration on the rate of a chemical reaction. Law of mass action
For substances to react, their molecules must collide. The likelihood of two people colliding on a busy street is much higher than on a deserted one. Same with molecules. It is obvious that in

The influence of temperature on the rate of a chemical reaction. Activation energy
The effect of temperature on the number of molecular collisions can be shown using a model. To a first approximation, the effect of temperature on the reaction rate is determined by the van’t Hoff rule (formulated

Reactions without and with the participation of electrons. Ion exchange and redox reactions
Valence electrons determine the behavior of a chemical element in chemical reactions. The fewer valence electrons an element has, the more easily it gives up these electrons (it exhibits the properties of reducing

Image of ion exchange reactions
An exchange reaction in a solution is usually represented by three equations: molecular, full ionic and abbreviated ionic. In the ionic equation, weak electrolytes, gases and poorly soluble substances are represented by m

Rules for writing ion exchange reactions
When writing ionic equations, you should be sure to follow the table of solubility of acids, bases and salts in water, that is, be sure to check the solubility of the reagents and products

Oxidation
Oxidation is the process of losing electrons, with an increase in the degree of oxidation. When a substance is oxidized, its oxidation state increases as a result of the loss of electrons. At

Recovery
Reduction is the process of adding electrons to an atom of a substance, while its oxidation state decreases. When reducing atoms or ions I add

Redox couple
An oxidizing agent and its reduced form, or a reducing agent and its oxidized form constitute a conjugated redox pair, and their interconversions are oxidation-in

Types of redox reactions
Intermolecular - reactions in which oxidizing and reducing atoms are located in molecules of different substances, for example: H2S + Cl2 → S + 2HCl Int.

Oxidation, reduction
In redox reactions, electrons are transferred from one atom, molecule, or ion to another. The process of losing electrons is oxidation. During oxidation, the oxidation state increases:

Interaction with simple substances
Interaction with metals: 2Na + Cl2 = 2NaCl, Fe + S = FeS, 6Li + N2 = 2Li3N, 2Ca + O2

Mass fraction
Mass fraction is the ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution. Mass fraction is measured in fractions of a unit or as a percentage:

Molality (molar weight concentration, molal concentration)
Molality is the amount of solute (number of moles) in 1000 g of solvent. Measured in moles per kg, the expression "molality" is also common. So, a solution with a concentration of 0.

Solution titer
Main article: Solution titer Solution titer is the mass of the dissolved substance in 1 ml of solution.

Solubility. Equilibrium in heterogeneous systems. Product of solubility of poorly soluble inorganic substances
Solubility is the ability of a substance to form homogeneous systems with other substances - solutions in which the substance is in the form of individual atoms, ions, molecules or

Aqueous solutions of electrolytes. Strong and weak electrolytes. Constant and degree of dissociation. Ostwald's dilution law
SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES contain noticeable concentrations of ions-cations and anions formed as a result of electrolytic dissociation

Water pH
For convenience, concentrations are expressed as pH and hydroxyl pH.

Dissociation of strong electrolytes. Activity of ions in solutions. Activity coefficient. Understanding the ionic strength of solutions
Strong electrolytes are chemical compounds whose molecules in dilute solutions are almost completely dissociated into ions. The degree of dissociation of such electrolytes is close to

Degree of hydrolysis
The degree of hydrolysis refers to the ratio of the portion of the salt undergoing hydrolysis to the total concentration of its ions in solution. Denoted α (or hhydr);

Electrode potential. The appearance of a potential jump at the interphase boundary. Hydrogen electrode. Standard hydrogen electrode
Electrode potential is the difference in electrical potential between the electrode and the electrolyte in contact with it (most often between a metal and an electrolyte solution

Electrochemical corrosion of metals in various environments
Contact bimetallic corrosion is a type of electrochemical corrosion caused by the contact of metals having different electrode potentials in the electrolyte. At the same time, metal corrosion

Chemical interaction of metals with solutions of ordinary acids and oxidizing acids
Hydrochloric acid is the technical name for hydrochloric acid. It is obtained by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas – HCl – in water. Due to its low solubility in water, the concentration with

Dilute sulfuric acid
In a dilute aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, most of its molecules dissociate: H2SO4

Concentrated sulfuric acid
In a concentrated solution of sulfuric acid (above 68%), most of the molecules are in a non-dissociated state, so sulfur acts as an oxidizing agent

Electrolysis process. Cathode and anodic processes. The order of particle discharge at the anode and cathode depending on the value of their electrode potential
Electrolysis is a physical and chemical process consisting of the release on electrodes of the constituent parts of dissolved substances or other substances resulting from secondary

Cathode reactions
The last reaction proceeds with the evolution of hydrogen. When elek

Mathematical view
Faraday's laws can be written as the following formula: where:

Configuration of atoms and ions
The solubility of salts and hydroxides of cations, which underlies the analytical classification, like all other properties of cations, is functionally related to the position of the corresponding elements in the periodic cycle.

Types of titration
There are direct, reverse and substituent titrations. During direct titration to a solution of the analyte (aliquot or sample, titrated substance) d

Types of titrimetric analysis
Titrimetric analysis can be based on various types of chemical reactions: acid-base titration - neutralization reactions; redox titers

Equivalent molar mass of a substance
Molar mass equivalents are usually written as or

Equivalence number
The equivalence number z is a small positive integer equal to the number of equivalents of a substance contained in 1 mole of that substance. Factor equivalent

Features of the structure of the carbon atom. Inorganic carbon compounds (oxides, carbonates and bicarbonates, carbides) and their properties
Carbon is the basis of organic and bioorganic compounds and many polymers. Most carbon compounds belong to organic substances, but in this work we will pay attention to

Pure water is a very poor conductor of electricity, but still has measurable electrical conductivity, which is explained by the slight dissociation of water into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions:

Based on the electrical conductivity of pure water, the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in water can be calculated. At it is equal to mol/l.

Let's write an expression for the water dissociation constant:

Let's rewrite this equation as follows:

Since the degree of dissociation of water is very small, the concentration of undissociated molecules in water is almost equal to the total concentration of water, i.e. 55.55 mol/l (1 liter contains 1000 g of water, i.e. mol). In dilute aqueous solutions, the concentration of zoda can be considered the same. Therefore, replacing the product in the last equation with a new constant, we will have:

Solutions in which the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are the same are called neutral solutions. At , as already mentioned, in neutral solutions the concentration of both hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is equal to mol/l. In acidic solutions there is a higher concentration of hydrogen ions, in alkaline solutions there is a higher concentration of hydroxide ions. But whatever the reaction of the solution, the product of the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions remains constant.

If, for example, enough acid is added to pure water so that the concentration of hydrogen ions increases to mol/l, then the concentration of hydroxide ions will decrease so that the product remains equal. Therefore, in this solution the concentration of hydroxide ions will be:

On the contrary, if you add alkali to water and thereby increase the concentration of hydroxide ions, for example, to mol/l, then the concentration of hydrogen ions will be:

For example, if mol/l, then ; if mol/l, then etc. From here it is clear that in a neutral solution (mol/l). In acidic solutions, the more acidic the solution, the less. On the contrary, in alkaline solutions the greater the alkalinity of the solution.

An extremely important role in biological processes is played by water, which is an essential component (from 58 to 97%) of all cells and tissues of humans, animals, plants and simple organisms. this is the environment in in which a wide variety of biochemical processes occur.

Water has good dissolving ability and causes electrolytic dissociation of many substances dissolved in it.

The process of water dissociation according to the Brønsted theory proceeds according to the equation:

N 2 0+H 2 0 N 3 ABOUT + + HE - ; ΔН dis = +56.5 KJ/mol

Those. one water molecule donates, and the other adds a proton, autoionization of water occurs:

N 2 0 N + + HE - - deprotonation reaction

N 2 0 + N + N 3 ABOUT + - protonation reaction

The dissociation constant of water at 298°K, determined by the electrical conductivity method, is equal to:

a(H +) - activity of H + ions (for brevity, instead of H3O + write H +);

a(OH -) - activity of OH - ions;

a(H 2 0) - water activity;

The degree of dissociation of water is very small, so the activity of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in pure water is almost equal to their concentrations. The concentration of water is constant and equal to 55.6 mol.

(1000g: 18g/mol= 55.6 mol)

Substituting this value into the expression for the dissociation constant Kd(H 2 0), and instead of the activities of hydrogen and hydroxide ions, their concentrations, a new expression is obtained:

K(H 2 0) = C (H +) × C (OH -) = 10 -14 mol 2 / l 2 at 298 K,

More precisely, K(H 2 0) = a(H +) × a(OH -) = 10 -14 mol 2 l 2 -

K(H 2 0) is called ionic product of water or autoionization constant.

In pure water or any aqueous solution at a constant temperature, the product of the concentrations (activities) of hydrogen and hydroxide ions is a constant value, called the ionic product of water.

The constant K(H 2 0) depends on temperature. As the temperature rises, it increases, because The process of water dissociation is endothermic. In pure water or aqueous solutions of various substances at 298K activity (concentration), hydrogen and hydroxide ions will be:

a(H +)=a(OH -)=K(H 2 0) = 10 -14 =10 -7 mol/l.

In acidic or alkaline solutions, these concentrations will no longer be equal to each other, but will change conjugately: as one of them increases, the other will correspondingly decrease and vice versa, for example,

a(H +)=10 -4, a(OH -)=10 -10, their product is always 10 -14

pH value

Qualitatively, the reaction of the medium is expressed through the activity of hydrogen ions. In practice, they do not use this value, but the hydrogen indicator pH - a value numerically equal to the negative decimal logarithm of the activity (concentration) of hydrogen ions, expressed in mol/l.

pH= -lga(H + ),

and for dilute solutions

pH= -lgC(H + ).

For pure water and neutral media at 298K pH=7; for acidic pH solutions<7, а для щелочных рН>7.

The reaction of the medium can also be characterized by the hydroxyl index:

pOH= -lga(OH - )

or approximately

pOH= -IgC(OH - ).

Accordingly, in a neutral environment pH = pH = 7; in an acidic environment pOH>7, and in an alkaline environment pOH<7.

If we take the negative decimal logarithm of the expression for the ionic product of water, we get:

pH + pH = 14.

Therefore, pH and pOH are also conjugate quantities. Their sum for dilute aqueous solutions is always equal to 14. Knowing the pH, it is easy to calculate pOH:

pH=14 – pH

and vice versa:

ROH= 14 - pH.

Solutions are distinguished between active, potential (reserve) and total acidity.

Active acidity measured by the activity (concentration) of hydrogen ions in a solution and determines the pH of the solution. In solutions of strong acids and bases, pH depends on the concentration of the acid or base, and the activity of H ions + and he - can be calculated using the formulas:

a(N + )= C(l/z acid)×α each; pH= - log a(H + )

a(OH - )=C(l/z base)×α each; pH= - log a(OH - )

pH= - logC(l/z acid) – for extremely dilute solutions of strong acids

pOH= - logC(l/z base) - for extremely dilute solutions of bases

Potential acidity measured by the number of hydrogen ions bound in acid molecules, i.e. represents a “reserve” of undissociated acid molecules.

Total acidity- the sum of active and potential acidity, which is determined by the analytical concentration of the acid and is established by titration

One of the amazing properties of living organisms is acid-base

homeostasis - constancy of pH of biological fluids, tissues and organisms. Table 1 presents the pH values of some biological objects.

Table 1

From the table data it can be seen that the pH of various fluids in the human body varies over a fairly wide range depending on location. BLOOD, like other biological fluids, it strives to maintain a constant pH value, the values of which are presented in Table 2

table 2

Changes in pH from the indicated values by only 0.3 towards an increase or decrease leads to a change in the exchange of enzymatic processes, which causes a severe painful condition in humans. A pH change of just 0.4 is no longer compatible with life. Researchers have found that the following blood buffer systems are involved in the regulation of acid-base balance: hemoglobin, bicarbonate, protein and phosphate. The share of each system in the buffer capacity is presented in Table 3.

Table 3

All buffer systems of the body have the same mechanism of action, because They consist of a weak acid: carbonic, dihydrophosphoric (dihydrogen phosphate ion), protein, hemoglobin (oxohemoglobin) and salts of these acids, mainly sodium, which have the properties of weak bases. But since the bicarbonate system in the body has no equal in terms of speed of response, we will consider the ability to maintain a constant environment in the body using this system.

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Electron clouds of orbitals with different values of l have different configurations, and those with the same l have a similar configuration