In ancient times, the Persian empire, stretching from Egypt to the Indus River, was one of the most powerful and powerful empires of his time. It united the once great kingdoms: Neo-Babylonian, Lydian, Median. It also included conquered Egypt, a large number of peoples and tribes.
The formation of the Persian state
After a major uprising in 612 B.C. e. Assyrian power broke up, and on its territory was formed three major states:
- Neo-Babylonian kingdom , uniting Palestine, Syria and Phoenicia. Its capital was the city of Babylon.
- Lydian kingdom - the so-called "golden land" between the Aegean, Mediterranean and Black Seas. The capital is the city of Sardis.
- Median kingdom , located on the high Iranian plateau in the eastern part of Mesopotamia. The capital of Media was the city of Ektobane.
The natural and climatic conditions of this region were very severe, since most of the highlands were ruled by hot deserts and steppes. The Medes included various Iranian tribes that were constantly fighting for their independence. The most active among them were the tribes of the Persians, who lived on the coast of the Persian Gulf.
The formation of the great Persian state dates back to 550 BC. e., when the Persian ruler Cyrus II united the tribes of the Persians and raised them to revolt against the Medes. The confrontation, which lasted three years, ended with the fall of the Median kingdom. Having conquered ancient state, Cyrus II proclaimed himself king of the Persian state.
The rulers of Lydia and Babylon were unable to unite against the Persians, and were also defeated.
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Rice. 1. Cyrus II.
No one has ever managed to win so many high-profile victories before. Cyrus the Great became the ruler of such a vast state as no one had ever possessed before. His empire occupied a vast territory, from the borders with India in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the western outskirts. The city of Persepolis became the capital of the Persian state.
The power of the Persian kingdom was further strengthened when, in 525 BC. e. the son of Cyrus II Cambyses led military campaigns and captured Egypt.
Table “Persian Power”
Persian power of the king of kings
At the end of the reign of Cambyses, a troubled time began in Persia, when the nobility began an active struggle for power in the great empire. As a result, Darius I became the ruler of Persia, whose name went down in history as the "King of Kings".
Rice. 2. Darius I.
Darius I managed to further expand the borders of the Persian kingdom, uniting many peoples and countries. In addition, he was able to make the following reforms during his reign:
- The division of the state into military-administrative districts - satrapies.
- Streamlining the tax collection system.
- Construction of new trade routes.
- The connection of Egypt with Persia by sea through the Red Sea.
- The minting of a single gold coin called "dariki".
- Mandatory participation of the male population of the conquered countries in conquest campaigns.
- Brutal reprisal against traitors and disaffected.
The Persian Empire during the reign of Darius was so large that the number of its subjects was, presumably, 50 million people. In those days, this figure corresponded to half of the entire population of the Earth.
Rice. 3. Persian state.
During the reign of Darius I, Persia reached its highest peak. However, this did not save the country from constant conspiracies and coups. The Persian state was especially weakened by the confrontation with the Greeks, who had been fighting for independence for many years.
The great state was destroyed a century and a half later, when the turn came to conquer the world to Alexander the Great.
What have we learned?
When studying the topic "Persian Power" under the program of the 5th grade of history ancient world we learned how the great Persian Empire was formed, what prerequisites served for its formation. We found out who was the founder of the Persian state, and under which ruler it reached its highest peak.
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To the east of Mesopotamia lies the vast Iranian Plateau, surrounded on all sides by mountains. In the east it borders the Indus River valley, in the north it reaches the Caspian Sea, and in the south it reaches the Persian Gulf. In most of its part, the sun-scorched desert plains of Deshte-Lut and Deshte-Kevir (Great Salt Desert) are located. There has always been very little rain here, and a few rivers were shallow, many of them dried up during a drought, so water was of great value here. Farming here could be practiced only in the west, in the river valleys, but there were good conditions for the development of cattle breeding: in the hot season, cattle were driven to fat mountain pastures. In addition, the mountainous regions were rich in forests and natural resources such as copper, iron, silver, and lead. Numerous tribes inhabited the Iranian Highlands, some of which are mentioned in the Mesopotamian chronicles. The largest tribal association that inhabited this territory were the Elamites, who conquered the ancient city of Susa located on a fertile plain and founded the powerful state of Elam there. In the Assyrian chronicles, one can also find references to those who inhabited these lands in the 9th century. BC e. large unions of tribes of the Medes and Persians. In the 7th century BC e. a strong state of Media appeared on this territory, and then the Persian kingdom, headed by the king Kurash (Cyrus) Achaemenides. It should be noted that the Persian rulers considered the legendary leader Achaemen, who lived in the 8th-7th centuries, to be their ancestor. BC e. The Persian state reached its greatest power under Kurash's successor, Cyrus II the Great.
Birth of an empire
Cyrus II the Great (558-529 BC)Cyrus the Great (Fig. 4) was one of the largest leaders of the Persians. None of the rulers before possessed such a huge state and did not win as many brilliant victories as Cyrus II.
Rice. 4. Cyrus II the Great
It is believed that it was he who was the true creator of the Persian state, who united under his rule the Persian tribes - the Medes and Pasargadas. There are many legends that tell about the childhood and youth of this great ruler, but almost all of them contain authentic historical information bizarrely intertwined with fairy tales. Some legends say that Cyrus was a foundling who was raised by shepherds, others say that he, like Romulus and Remus, was fed by wild animals.
According to the information left by Herodotus, the mother of Cyrus was the daughter of the Median king Astyages - Mandana, who was predicted that she would give birth to a son who would become the ruler of the world. King Astyages, frightened by the prophecy, ordered the noble Mede Harpagus to kill the baby, but he gave the baby to the shepherd and his wife, and they, instead of leaving the child to be eaten by wild animals, raised the boy as their own son. When Cyrus was ten years old, for a minor offense he was taken to King Astyages, who recognized him as his grandson, forced his adoptive father to tell the truth and severely punished Harpagus for deceit. The boy, safe and sound, was sent to his real parents in Persia.
When Cyrus grew up, he became a brave warrior, and in 558 BC. e. - the king of the Persians, whose state during this period was dependent on the kings of Media. The new ruler decided to put an end to this and in 550 BC. e. captured the Median capital Ecbatana and annexed Media to his state. According to Babylonian historians, "silver, gold and other treasures of Ecbatana were plundered and taken to Anshan." On the site of the decisive battle with the Medes, the first capital of the Persian kingdom, the city of Pasargada, was built. Cyrus did not stop there: he dreamed of creating a great and powerful Persian state.
In the VI century. BC e. originated the ancient Persian calendar. It consisted of twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days, which added up to only 354 days, so an additional thirteenth month was added every three years.
Continuing his policy of conquest, Cyrus the Great captured Armenia, Parthia and Cappadocia. Having defeated the troops of the Lydian king Croesus, who was known throughout the ancient world as the owner of untold wealth, Cyrus annexed this country to his possessions. The historian Herodotus reported how the Lydian king Croesus asked the aracula in Delphi whether he should start a war with Persia, and received the answer: “If the king goes to war against the Persians, he will crush the great kingdom.” And when the defeated and captured Croesus reproached the Delphic priests for deceit, they declared that the great kingdom was really crushed in the war, but not the Persian, but the Lydian.
It should be noted that not only the Persians were interested in creating a huge power: almost the entire population of Western Asia had long needed a strong state capable of ensuring the security of trade routes and relative stability for the activities of Phoenician and Asia Minor merchants interested in expanding their trade and opening a single market between West and East. On the way to the creation of such a powerful state was Babylon, which, despite its powerful, almost impregnable walls, Cyrus the Great managed to take in the autumn of 539 BC. e. Then he showed himself as the greatest politician and diplomat: when wealthy citizens and priests opened the city gates to the Persians without a fight, immunity was promised to the inhabitants, and some independence was preserved for the Babylonian kingdom itself - Babylon became one of the residences of Cyrus the Great.
The peaceful entry of the Persian army into Babylon is told by the manifesto of Cyrus, in which he reports that the capture of the city was forced measure, and the desire of the king was only to protect him from other enemies: “Care for the internal affairs of Babylon and for all its sanctuaries touched me. And the inhabitants of Babylon found the fulfillment of their desires, and the countless yoke was removed from them ... Marduk, the great lord, blessed me, Cyrus, the king who honors him, and Cambyses, my son, and all my army with mercy ... ". After Babylon, the Persian troops moved further to the Mediterranean coast. Having attached the lands of Palestine and Phenicia to his possessions, King Cyrus restored Jerusalem and many Phoenician cities and allowed the Jews to return from Babylonian captivity to their homeland. In Palestine, a theocratic state was created, headed by a high priest, who was both a commander and a judge.
Attaching the conquered lands to their power, the Persians did not destroy the conquered cities, but, on the contrary, respected other people's traditions, faith and culture. The conquered lands were only declared a satrapy (province) of Persia and were subject to tribute. Cyrus proclaimed himself "king of the universe, great king, strong king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world." Under the rule of the Persians was a vast territory stretching from Iran and Central Asia to the Aegean Sea. Egypt was the last independent state in the Middle East.
However, Cyrus did not dare to go on a trip to distant Egypt, since it was very restless in the east. Numerous tribes of Sakas and Massagets, who attacked the Persian possessions from Central Asia, lived there, incessant wars with which were waged until 529 BC. e., until Cyrus died in one of them. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (484–425 BC), his entire army was also defeated: “Most of the Persian army fell on the battlefield, Cyrus himself was killed.” In his "History" he tells the legend that the Massagetae queen Tomiris swore to fill Cyrus with blood, so after defeating the Persians, she ordered to find his body, and, having chopped off his head, put it in a leather fur filled with human blood. Cyrus the Great did not have time to complete the construction of the capital of the Persian state, Pasargada. But already during his reign, houses of hewn stone and brick lined with light sandstone were built on a high terrace, and a magnificent royal palace was erected in the center of the city, surrounded by beautiful four-level gardens and fenced with a high battlement wall. The entrance to the palace was guarded by majestic statues of bulls with human heads, and inside there were magnificent royal chambers and apadana - a hall for ceremonial receptions with many columns. The tomb of Cyrus the Great has survived to our time. Built in the form of a stone house with a gable roof and a small door, it is located on a terrace laid out of stone, to which seven wide steps lead. The entrance to the tomb was decorated with the image of the symbol of the supreme god Ahura Mazda - a winged solar disk. The Greek author Strabo claimed that even under Alexander the Great, there was an inscription on the tomb that read: “Man! I am Cyrus, who left the dominion of Persia and was the lord of Asia."
Cambyses II (529-523 BC)After the death of Cyrus the Great, his eldest son Cambyses ascended the throne. With his coming to power, riots began in the multi-tribal and multi-lingual Persian state. Having coped with them, Cambyses decided to undertake a campaign in Egypt. In 525 BC. e. thanks to his huge army and fleet of the Phoenicians, as well as the betrayal of the commander of the Greek mercenaries and the commander of the Egyptian fleet, Cambyses managed to conquer Egypt and was proclaimed its pharaoh, thus founding a new, XXVII dynasty.
The defeat of a strong Egyptian army so frightened some tribes of North Africa that they voluntarily submitted to the Persians. “The fate of Egypt frightened the Libyans who lived in the neighborhood of Egypt, who surrendered to the Persians without a fight, imposed tribute on themselves and sent gifts to Cambyses. Like the Libyans did, being also frightened, the Kireans and Barkians, ”wrote the Greek historian Herodotus.
Croesus - this name became a household name thanks to the legendary wealth of the last king of Lydia (560-547 BC). Croesus became famous not only for his untold fortune, but also for his generous sacrifices to Apollo of Delphi. According to one of the legends, Croesus asked the Greek sage Solon, when he once visited the capital of Lydia - Sardis, can the owner of such great wealth be considered truly the happiest of mortals, to which Solon replied: "No one can be called happy before his death."
Having become the pharaoh of conquered Egypt, Cambyses also dreamed of conquering the mighty Carthage. But he failed to fulfill his plans, since the Phoenicians refused to provide him with a fleet for war with their compatriots, and it was extremely dangerous to make a trip through the scorching sands of the desert. The king, obsessed with victories, did not stop and decided to go deep into the African continent to conquer the gold-rich Nubia and the western oases. However, the expedition sent by him in search of oases disappeared without a trace in the sands of the desert, and the soldiers sent to conquer Nubia died - some from Nubian arrows, some from the sweltering heat. The failures of the Persians provoked an uprising of the Egyptians, but the Persian ruler, returning to Memphis, dealt harshly with the rebels - all the instigators were executed. While Cambyses was in Egypt, disturbances began in Persia itself. During his absence, power in the country was seized by his younger brother Bardia, although later Darius I claimed that power in the country under the guise of Bardia was seized by the magician and impostor Gaumata. Upon learning of this, Cambyses hastened to return to Persia, but on the way he died under mysterious circumstances. A great turmoil began in Persia: the country began to disintegrate, the states previously conquered by the Persians began to regain their independence. Egypt was one of the first to secede.
It thus took only about thirty years for the Persians to develop a great military empire. Like other empires like it, the Persian was created with the help of weapons and retained its superiority as long as ambitious and courageous leaders were in power.
At the peak of power
Darius I the Great (522-486 BC)In the autumn of 522 BC. e. as a result of the struggle for power, Darius I, who was a distant relative of Cyrus the Great, became the ruler of the Persian kingdom. He inherited rebellious Persia. Relying on his army, Darius managed to once again subjugate the seceded territories to his power and keep them in obedience by fear. During twenty battles, in which about 150,000 rebels died, the power of the Persian king was restored throughout the entire territory of the state. Unable to conduct punitive operations simultaneously in all directions, Darius pacified one uprising, and then the same army, with which he suppressed the first uprising, was thrown against other rebels.
As a sign of his success, Darius I ordered a giant inscription to be carved on a sheer cliff in Behistun, reporting on the first years of his reign and his victories, in the three main languages of the state: Old Persian, Akkadian and Elamite. The inscription said that before Darius came to power, confusion and chaos reigned in the state, people killed each other, and he “pacified everyone, putting both rich and poor in their place.”
The inscription was located at a height of more than 100 m above ground level, its height, together with the relief, was 7 m 80 cm, and its width was 22 m. An image of the supreme god Ahura Mazda was placed above the text, holding out a ring to Darius - a symbol of power. The king himself was depicted in full growth - 172 cm, and behind him stood a spearman and an archer. Darius trampled down with his left foot the magician Gaumata, who was trying to seize the royal throne, next to him stood nine kings chained, who opposed the king. In the east, the power of the Persians extended up to the Indus River, in the north Darius enslaved the regions of Central Asia, and in the west he reached the Aegean Sea and captured the islands, he again conquered Egypt and Nubia. Thus, the Persian Empire covered vast territories in Asia and Africa.
“Gaumata is a Persian king who ruled in 522 BC. e. According to official version, set forth by Darius I on the Behistun rock, Gaumata, the Median magician (priest), taking advantage of the absence of Cambyses II, who was at the head of his army in Egypt, seized power into his own hands. To justify his rights to the throne, Gaumata pretended to be Bardia, the younger brother of Cambyses, who was killed by the latter even before his campaign in Egypt. Gaumata's reign lasted less than seven months. In September 522 BC. e. the mage was killed." (Encyclopedic Dictionary).
Having restored great empire, created by Cyrus and Cambyses, having significantly expanded its borders, the young ruler of the Persians began to organize it: the state under Darius I was divided into twenty satrapies, each of which was headed by a ruler appointed by the king - a satrap (“guardian of the kingdom”). The boundaries of the satrapies almost coincided with the boundaries of the former independent states. The satraps reported on their affairs to the king and had to monitor the prosperity of the provinces entrusted to them and the timely payment of taxes to the royal treasury. Each satrap had his own court staff, no less magnificent than the king's, with the same posts and ranks. In order to protect the king from betrayal, each satrap was watched over by a chief overseer, called the "royal eye", as well as secret messengers-spies. In addition to the satrap, a military leader was also appointed to the province, who was obliged to protect it from enemies, to fight against robberies and robberies, and to guard the roads. The satrap had to watch over the general, and the general over the satrap. Darius established a new nationwide tax system. All satrapies were obliged to pay strictly fixed monetary taxes for each region, which were established taking into account the area of cultivated land and the degree of its fertility. For the first time, temples in conquered areas were also taxed.
Persian army
Since the power of the Persians rested on military force, they needed a well-trained and organized army. The Persian army consisted of infantry, cavalry and chariot troops, later Greek mercenaries also began to be included in it. Even under Cyrus, cavalry regiments were formed, in which light war chariots were replaced by stronger ones, the drawbars and wheels of which were equipped with sickles. The warriors who fought on them were dressed in strong shells. The light Persian cavalry were equipped with canvas cuirasses, scaly armour, and armed with swords, bows, and shields. Heavy horsemen wore armor that covered the entire body of a warrior. In addition to swords, bows and shields, she was armed with long spears. Infantry was also divided into light and heavy. The light infantry were armed with spears, swords, bows and shields and were dressed in light armor; heavy infantry - sabers, axes, axes and wore heavy armor. Many Greek historians wrote about the fighting qualities of Persian warriors and the technical equipment of their battles. So, the ancient Greek writer and historian Xenophon in his “Greek History” described the battle of the famous Spartan king Agesilaus with the Persian commander Pharnabaz: “Once, when his soldiers (Agesilaus), scattered across the plain, carelessly and without any precautions took supplies, since before this incident, they had never been in danger, they suddenly encountered Pharnabazus (Persian commander), who had with him about four hundred horsemen and two war chariots armed with sickles. Seeing that the troops of Pharnabazus were rapidly approaching them, the Greeks fled together, about seven hundred in number. Pharnabazus did not hesitate: putting forward the chariots and placing himself with his cavalry behind them, he ordered to advance. Following the chariots that crashed into the Greek troops and upset their ranks, horsemen rushed and laid down up to a hundred people on the spot; the rest fled to Agesilaus, who was nearby with heavily armed soldiers.
The privileged part of the Persian army was the so-called detachments of "immortals", formed only from the Medes, Persians and Elamites. They had 2,000 elite horsemen, 2,000 spearmen on foot and 10,000 foot soldiers. The personal guard of the king, consisting only of representatives of the Persian nobility, numbered a thousand soldiers.
The hallmarks of the "immortals" were gold and silver balls, impaled on the blunt ends of the spears. During the campaign ahead of the troops carried the golden image of an eagle - the military sign of the Achaemenids. The training of these warriors began in childhood, they had to be proficient in weapons. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus in his “History in Nine Books” (5th century BC) wrote about the upbringing of future warriors: “The valor of the Persians is courage. After military prowess, it is considered a great merit to have as many sons as possible. To the one who has the most sons, the king sends gifts every year. After all, they attach the main importance to numbers. From the age of five to the age of twenty, they teach only three things: riding, archery, and truthfulness. Until the age of five, the child is not shown to the father: he is among women. This is done so that in the event of the death of a child in infancy, not to cause grief to the father. It is believed that the name "immortal" appeared because the number of soldiers in these units was unchanged: if one of them died or perished, another immediately took his place.
The main part of the army were Persians, who began to serve from the age of twenty, as well as the Medes. The soldiers who were in the service received a monthly payment with food and everything necessary. Those who retired received small plots of land and were exempted from paying taxes. In case of war, the king collected a huge militia from the whole state: all the peoples who inhabited the huge Achaemenid empire were obliged to allocate a certain number of soldiers for this. The Persian kings placed military garrisons in the conquered lands; so, for example, in Egypt there was always an army of 10,000-12,000 people. According to Xenophon (not later than 444 BC - not earlier than 356 BC), the king annually reviewed his army, which was located around royal residence. In the satrapies, reviews were carried out by specially appointed officials. For the good content of the troops, the king rewarded the satraps, for the bad - removed from office and severely punished.
Under Darius, a fleet appeared in Persia and for naval battles Persians began to use Phoenician, and later Egyptian ships.
Images of the Achaemenid royal standards are preserved on the wall paintings of the Apadan Palace in Persepolis. During excavations in the capital of the Achaemenids, archaeologists discovered a standard depicting a golden eagle with outstretched wings, holding one golden crown in each paw. The standard was red and had a border of red-white-green triangles around the perimeter. The standard of the Achaemenids is mentioned by Xenophon in Anabasis (I, X) and Cyropaedia (VII, 1, 4) as "a golden eagle raised on a long spear".
Good and safe roads were of great importance for the development of trade and the economic life of the country. Such roads were laid between Persian cities. Regular mail was also organized on them: every 1.5–2 km, a rider with a horse stood ready. As soon as he received the package, he raced at full speed to the next post to convey the message to its destination. In addition to mail, hotels were built on the roads every 15–20 km for travelers to rest, and special detachments of guards guarded the roads, making them safe. Those guilty of robbery on the roads were severely punished. According to Herodotus, often along the roads one could see people with severed legs and arms - these were robbers who robbed travelers.
The high-grade gold coin introduced under Darius became the basis of the monetary system of the Achaemenid state. Its weight was 8.4 g. Only the king had the right to mint gold coins, called "dariks", while satraps had the right to mint silver coins, and copper money could also be minted in cities. In addition, Darius was engaged in extensive construction activities. During his reign, numerous roads, bridges, palaces and temples were built. The most grandiose construction enterprise of Darius was the construction of a canal that was supposed to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Red. Such a canal had already been dug during the reign of the Egyptian queen Hatshepsut, but it had long since fallen into disrepair. Herodotus reported that the canal built under Darius and connecting the two seas had a length of 84 km, was laid east of the Nile, crossed the lake; and it took a ship four days to pass over it. Not far from the canal, on the orders of Darius, a stele was erected with the inscription: “I am a Persian from Persia… I conquered Egypt… I decided to dig this canal… And the ships went through this canal from Egypt to Persia as my will.” The power of Darius was distinguished by its despotism. He surrounded himself with unheard-of luxury and even outwardly, in his attire, had to differ from his subjects: wearing purple robes and a crown was the exclusive privilege of the king. At his service were many servants and courtiers, as well as a huge army of officials involved in state affairs. Darius I continued the aggressive policy of Cyrus and Cambyses. In order to strengthen the power of the Persians, he undertook a large campaign against the Saks, and then against the Scythians. The Scythians did not fight the Persians in an open battle - they used the tactics of "scorched earth": they destroyed wells and food along the route of the Persian army, attacked the stragglers of the Persians. Darius tried to impose a decisive battle on the Scythians, but they refused him. When the conquerors went deep into the steppes, the Scythians sent Darius an unusual gift - a bird, a mouse, a frog and five sharp arrows. The Persians wondered for a long time over the meaning of this gift, until the adviser of Darius explained it. It was a kind of ultimatum: "If you Persians, like birds, do not fly into the sky, or, like mice, do not burrow into the ground, or, like frogs, do not jump into the swamp, then you will not return back, struck by these arrows." The forces of the Persians gradually thawed, the king had to stop this unsuccessful campaign and turn back.
Nevertheless, as a result of the aggressive policy of Darius, the Persians managed to capture the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, capture the Greek colony of Byzantium and a number of islands. The power of the Persians also recognized Macedonia. Only Athens and Sparta dared to openly oppose the Persian army. In 590 BC. e. The Athenian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians on the Marathon plain. Such an unexpected resistance to the aggressive aspirations of the Persian king and the defeat did not save Drius from the thought of a new campaign against the recalcitrant Greeks. But it had to be postponed - the uprising that broke out in Egypt against Persian rule prevented it, and Darius, without having had time to restore his power in this country, died at the age of 64.
Persian culture
Culturally, the Persians lagged behind many of the peoples they conquered, who had a rich centuries-old cultural heritage. For this reason, the Persians had to recognize their superiority. The Persians did not even have their own script: first they borrowed the Assyrian cuneiform script, and then began to use the Aramaic language. The state religion of the Persians was Zoroastrianism, named after the legendary prophet Zarathustra. The sacred book of the Persians was called "Avesta", and the supreme god was the god of light and goodness Ahura Mazda, who was depicted as a winged solar disk and personified every good beginning - light, fire, goodness, agriculture and settled cattle breeding. He was opposed by the god of evil and darkness, Ankhra Mainyu (Ahriman), who embodied evil, darkness, gloom and a nomadic lifestyle. By their actions and thoughts, the Persians had to contribute to the victory of good over evil, light over darkness. It was believed that by doing this they would help the victory of Ahura Mazda over Ankhra Mainyu. According to the teachings of the Zoroastrian priests, all world history lasts twelve thousand years. The first three thousand years is the golden age. Then Ahura Mazda ruled. At that time there was no cold, no heat, no disease, no death, no old age. There were many livestock on the land. But the "golden age" ended, and AnhraManyu caused famine, disease and death. However, a savior will soon come to the world. He will be from the tribe of Zoroaster, and then good will triumph over evil. Peace will come on earth, in which Ahura Mazda will rule. The sun will shine forever, and evil will disappear forever.
The Persians also revered the ancient pagan gods - the patrons of the earth, sky and water, among which the sun god Mithra enjoyed the greatest reverence. Subsequently, belief in the afterlife was associated with his cult, which became widespread.
Since the Persian state was very large, there were several capital cities in it - Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon and Pasargada. The kings lived first in one capital, then in another: in the spring, Darius, together with the whole court, moved from Susa to cool Ecbatana, and in winter he preferred to live in Babylon. The custom demanded that once a year the ruler visit the ancestral city Persian kings- Pasargades. So, Darius decided not far from Pasargad to build a new luxurious palace in a picturesque valley, which later became a symbol of the power and splendor of the empire. But Darius himself did not have to see the end of its construction, and the palace was already completed by his successors. The palace and other buildings of the city were built of limestone on a gigantic, almost rectangular stone platform fifteen meters high and with an area of 135,000 m 2 . Greek writers reported with admiration of its splendor, calling it Persepolis, which meant "City of the Persians." The city was protected by a triple system of fortifications.
Behind Persepolis, on the slopes of the mountain, archaeologists discovered the tombs of kings carved into the rock: Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III - and the unfinished tomb of Darius III. A few kilometers to the north, on the opposite bank of the Pulvara River, on a sheer cliff, there are the tombs of Darius I, Xerxes, Artaxerxes I and Darius II. Currently, this place is called Nakshi-Rustem ("Drawings of Rustem").
front hall royal palace with an area of 3600 m 2 was square, and its ceiling rested on 72 twenty-meter stone columns. Next was another grandiose front room - the "Hall of a Hundred Columns", which was already erected by the son of Darius Xerxes. On the high stone terrace, on which the palace was built, a wide staircase carved into the rock, two spans and seven meters wide, consisting of 110 steps, led. Opposite the stairs were the main gate, decorated with giant sculptures of winged bulls carved from limestone. On the other side, the gate was guarded by majestic winged bulls with a human head, similar to the Assyrian shedu. An inscription was placed on the gate: "Thus the king Xerxes said: by the grace of Agura Mazda I built this gate, called the World Gate." The walls of the palace chambers were decorated with magnificent sculptural reliefs that glorified the king and told about the luxurious court life. The palace in Persepolis embodied Darius's idea of a single state. So, on one of the stairs, a bas-relief was carved depicting a procession of representatives of 33 peoples inhabiting the state, who carried all kinds of gifts and tributes to the Persian king. Each nation was depicted in its national dress, various faces and hairstyles corresponded to their ethnic type: the leaders of the Sakas walked in high pointed hats and with long beards, the inhabitants of Babylon marched in long clothes, here one could see noble Syrian, Indian and Persian nobles, Thracians and Ethiopians. And they all carried expensive gifts: precious robes and gold jewelry, magnificent weapons, led horses, two-humped camels, wild lions and giraffes. The bas-reliefs that adorned the outer side of the main staircase depicted the solemn procession of the royal guard.
The palace also housed living quarters and the royal treasury. Darius spared no expense for the construction of his magnificent palace; for its decoration, the necessary materials were delivered from different parts of the empire: precious Lebanese cedar wood, teak and ebony, gems and ivory, gold and silver. In biblical legends, one can find a mention of its decoration: “White paper and yakhon-colored woolen fabrics, attached with linen and purple cords, hung on silver rings and marble pillars ... Gold and silver lodges were on a platform covered with green stones and marble, and mother-of-pearl , and black stones. ( Old Testament. Book of Esther. Ch. 1).
To the right of the apadana, the central large hall, was the residential palace of Darius I. In the palace itself, the inscription was preserved: “I, Darius, the great king, king of kings, king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, Achaemenides, built this palace.” Wooden doors were sheathed with thin bronze sheets and decorated with reliefs made of precious metals. During archaeological excavations, fragments of similar sheets were found. Persian craftsmen achieved amazing mastery in metal processing: they created amazing things, amazing with their fine finish and originality of forms. The amazingly beautiful golden goblet in the form of a horn has survived to our time, the lower part of which is made in the form of a beast.
In addition to city palaces, the tsar owned country estates with luxurious and landscaped parks, orchards, with grounds for royal hunting. According to legend, the magnificent palace in Persepolis was destroyed and burned by Alexander the Great. According to the famous Greek historian Plutarch, in order to transport all the wealth captured by Alexander in the city, it took 10,000 pairs of mules and 5,000 camels. The death of the sacred city of the Persians - the city where the kings were buried and where tribute was delivered from all subject lands - marked the end of the greatest Achaemenid empire.
Decline of an empire
The dream of Darius about the dominance of Persia over the whole world was also tried by his successor, the son of Xerxes. Herodotus, who at one time described the Greco-Persian wars in his “History”, put the following words into the mouth of Xerxes: “If we conquer the Athenians and their neighboring people, occupying the lands of the Phrygian Pelops, then we will expand the boundaries of the Persian land to the ether of Zeus. The sun will not look at any country outside ours: together with you I will go through all of Europe and turn all the lands into one. If we conquer the peoples named here, then, as they say, there will be no more cities, not a single people left that would dare to fight with us. So, we will impose the yoke of slavery both on the guilty before us and on the innocent. Xerxes begins to energetically prepare for a new campaign against Greece. He enlisted the support of Carthage and decided to attack the Greeks from the sea. Xerxes used all the engineering experience accumulated before. By his order, a canal was built across the isthmus in Halkidiki. Many workers from Asia and from the adjacent coast were driven to the construction. Food warehouses were created along the coast of Thrace, two pontoon bridges 7 stages long (about 1360 m) each were thrown across the Hellespont. The reliability of the bridges allowed Xerxes to move troops back and forth as needed. And in the summer of 480 BC. e. a huge Persian army, numbering about 75,000 according to modern historians, began to cross the Hellespont. The many years of Greco-Persian wars (500-449 BC) ended with the victory of the Greeks, who, united, managed to defend the freedom and independence of their homeland. History included the battles of Marathon, Plataea and Salamis, the feat of three hundred Spartans led by King Leonidas. The Persian soldiers participating in the new battle were able to hold the superior enemy forces for two days, but all died in this unequal battle. On their mass grave was carved the inscription “Wanderer! Take the message to all the citizens of Lacedaemon. Having honestly fulfilled our duty, here we lie in the grave. The defeat in this war showed the fragility of the Persian empire, the power of which began to melt before our very eyes.
According to the teachings of the Zoroastrian priests, the entire world history lasted 12,000 years. The first 3,000 years is the golden age. Then Ahura Mazda ruled. At that time there was no cold, no heat, no disease, no death, no old age. But the "golden age" ended, and Angra Mainyu caused famine, disease and death. However, a savior will soon come to the world. He will be from the tribe of Zoroaster, and then good will triumph over evil.
Feeling the weakness of Persia, the former Persian provinces began to rise up and gradually separate: Babylonia, Egypt, Media, Asia Minor, Syria, etc. In 336, Darius III came to power; later he will be called the king who lost the empire. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander the Great marched against the Persians at the head of the united Macedonian-Greek army (Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Alexander the Great
His army consisted of 30,000 infantry: heavily armed and lightly armed warriors, as well as five thousand cavalry. The Persian army was several times superior to the army of Alexander, but most of it was made up of warriors recruited from conquered countries. On the banks of the Granik River, the first major battle between Macedonians and Persians took place. Macedonian troops led by Alexander defeated the Persians, and then captured the Greek cities in Asia Minor and went inland. They captured the cities of Palestine and Phenicia, Egypt, crossed the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. A decisive battle took place near the city of Gaugamela, from which the Macedonians again emerged victorious. Having lost his temper Darius III (about 38-30 BC), without even waiting for the outcome of the battle, fled with the miserable remnants of his army to Ecbatana, where he was killed on the orders of the satrap Bessus, who hoped that this would slow down the advance of the troops Alexandra. Alexander ordered to find and execute the murderers of Darius, then giving the Persian king a magnificent funeral. Darius III became the last king Achaemenid dynasty. So the great Persian Empire of the Achaemenids completed its historical path, and all its possessions became part of the empire of Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander the Great, the Iranian Highlands became part of the Seleucid state, which got its name from one of its generals, and then became part of the Parthian state.
History of Iran / M.S. Ivanov. - M. : MGU, 1977. - S. 488.The satrap dynasty of the Orontes sat under the Achaemenids in eastern Armenia (in the 18th satrapy, the land of the Matien-Hurrians, Saspeir-Iberians and Alarodii-Urartians; however, as the name itself shows, Armenians already lived here) ...
Original text (Russian)
The Colchians from time to time sent symbolic tribute to the Achaemenids by slaves, possibly captured from neighboring mountain tribes, and supplied auxiliary detachments, apparently at the disposal of the satrap of Western (or proper) Armenia (the 13th satrapy of the Achaemenids, originally called Melitene; North-Eastern Armenia , which continued to be called Urartu, was the 18th satrapy and at that time, in all likelihood, was not yet fully Armenianized in terms of language; along with the Armenians, Urartians-Alarodies and Hurrians-matiens, it also included the eastern Proto-Georgian tribes - the Saspirs)
Original text (English)
Page 39
By 585 B.C., the power of the Medes extended as far as the Halys River; they were thus in possession of the entire Arm. plateau and the former territories of Urartu.
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The Armenians, as we have seen, appear to have settled in the area of Van and in the northeast, in the region of Ararat. Numerous other peoples also inhabited the plateau: Herodotus mentions the Suspyrians, Alarodians and Matieni; and Xenophon met on his march the Chaldaeans, Chalybians, Mardi, Hesperites, Phasians and Taochi.
Page 45
Armenia was divided into two satrapies, the 13th and 18th, by the Persians, and several sites mentioned in the inscriptions at Behistun have been identified in the south and west of the Armenian plateau, in the provinces of Aljnik and Korcayk.
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The 18th satrapy included the regions around Ararat; we shall discuss below the principal sites of the Achaemenian period from that region: Arin-berd (Urartean Erebuni) and Armawir (Urartean Argistihinili).
Original text (English)
Armenia is listed as the 10th satrapy in the Persian inscriptions at Naqsh-e Rostam. In the fifth century Herodotus mentions Armenians occupying the 13th satrapy, while the remnants of the Urartians (Alarodians) lived in the 18th satrapy. Armenians soon became the dominant force in those satrapies and subjugated or assimilated the other groups.
The Persian state had a huge impact on the history of the Ancient World. Formed by a small tribal union, the state of the Achaemenids lasted about two hundred years. The splendor and power of the country of the Persians are mentioned in many ancient sources, including the Bible.
Start
For the first time, the mention of the Persians is found in Assyrian sources. In an inscription dated to the ninth century BC. e., contains the name of the land of Parsua. Geographically, this region was located in the Central Zagros region, and during the mentioned period, the population of this region paid tribute to the Assyrians. Tribal unions did not yet exist. The Assyrians mention 27 kingdoms under their control. In the 7th century the Persians, apparently, entered into a tribal union, since references to kings from the Achaemenid tribe appeared in the sources. The history of the Persian state begins in 646 BC, when Cyrus I became the ruler of the Persians.
During the reign of Cyrus I, the Persians significantly expanded the territories under their control, including taking over most of the Iranian plateau. At the same time, the first capital of the Persian state, the city of Pasargada, was founded. Part of the Persians was engaged in agriculture, part led
Rise of the Persian Empire
At the end of the VI century. BC e. the Persian people were ruled by Cambyses I, who was dependent on the kings of Media. The son of Cambyses, Cyrus II, became the lord of the settled Persians. Information about the ancient Persian people is scarce and fragmentary. Apparently, the main unit of society was the patriarchal family, headed by a man who had the right to dispose of the life and property of his loved ones. The community, at first tribal, and later rural, for several centuries was a powerful force. Several communities formed a tribe, several tribes could already be called a people.
The emergence of the Persian state came at a time when the entire Middle East was divided between four states: Egypt, Media, Lydia, Babylonia.
Even in its heyday, Media was actually a fragile tribal union. Thanks to the victories of King Cyaxares of Media, the state of Urartu and the ancient country of Elam were conquered. The descendants of Cyaxares could not keep the conquests of their great ancestor. The constant war with Babylon required the presence of troops on the border. It weakened internal politics Mussels, which the vassals of the Median king took advantage of.
Reign of Cyrus II
In 553, Cyrus II revolted against the Medes, to whom the Persians paid tribute for several centuries. The war lasted three years and ended in a crushing defeat for the Medes. The capital of Media (the city of Ektabani) became one of the residences of the ruler of the Persians. Having conquered ancient country, Cyrus II formally retained the Median kingdom and assumed the titles of Median rulers. Thus began the formation of the Persian state.
After the capture of Media, Persia declared itself as a new state in world history, and for two centuries played important role in the events taking place in the Middle East. In 549-548 years. the newly formed state conquered Elam and subjugated a number of countries that were part of the former Median state. Parthia, Armenia, Hyrcania began to pay tribute to the new Persian rulers.
War with Lydia
Croesus, the lord of powerful Lydia, was aware of what a dangerous adversary the Persian state was. A number of alliances were made with Egypt and Sparta. However, the Allies did not manage to start full-scale military operations. Croesus did not want to wait for help and went out alone against the Persians. In the decisive battle near the capital of Lydia - the city of Sardis, Croesus brought his cavalry to the battlefield, which was considered invincible. Cyrus II sent out warriors on camels. The horses, seeing unknown animals, refused to obey the riders, the Lydian horsemen were forced to fight on foot. The unequal battle ended with the retreat of the Lydians, after which the city of Sardis was besieged by the Persians. Of the former allies, only the Spartans decided to come to the aid of Croesus. But while the campaign was being prepared, the city of Sardis fell, and the Persians subjugated Lydia.
Expanding the boundaries
Then came the turn of the Greek policies that were on the territory.
At the end of the 6th century, the Persian state expanded its borders to the northwestern regions of India, to the cordons of the Hindu Kush and subjugated the tribes living in the basin of the river. Syrdarya. Only after strengthening the borders, suppressing rebellions and establishing royal power, Cyrus II turned his attention to powerful Babylonia. On October 20, 539, the city fell, and Cyrus II became the official ruler of Babylon, and at the same time the ruler of one of the largest powers of the Ancient World - the Persian kingdom.
Reign of Cambyses
Cyrus died in battle with the Massagetae in 530 BC. e. His policy was successfully carried out by his son Cambyses. After a thorough preliminary diplomatic preparation, Egypt, another enemy of Persia, found itself completely alone and could not count on the support of the allies. Cambyses carried out his father's plan and conquered Egypt in 522 BC. e. Meanwhile, in Persia itself, discontent was ripening and a rebellion broke out. Cambyses hurried to his homeland and died on the road under mysterious circumstances. After some time, the ancient Persian state provided an opportunity to gain power to the representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenids - Darius Hystaspes.
The beginning of the reign of Darius
The seizure of power by Darius I caused discontent and grumbling in the enslaved Babylonia. The leader of the rebels declared himself the son of the last Babylonian ruler and became known as Nebuchadnezzar III. In December 522 BC. e. Darius I won. The leaders of the rebels were put to public execution.
Punitive actions distracted Darius, and meanwhile rebellions rose in Media, Elam, Parthia and other areas. It took the new ruler more than a year to pacify the country and restore the state of Cyrus II and Cambyses to its former borders.
Between 518 and 512, the Persian empire conquered Macedonia, Thrace and part of India. This time is considered the heyday of the ancient kingdom of the Persians. The state of world significance united dozens of countries and hundreds of tribes and peoples under its rule.
The social structure of ancient Persia. Reforms of Darius
The Persian empire of the Achaemenids was distinguished great variety social structures and customs. Babylonia, Syria, Egypt long before Persia were considered highly developed states, and the recently conquered tribes of nomads of Scythian and Arab origin were still at the stage of a primitive way of life.
Chain of uprisings 522-520 showed the inefficiency of the previous scheme of government. Therefore, Darius I carried out a number of administrative reforms and created a stable system of state control over the conquered peoples. The result of the reforms was the first effective administrative system in history, which served the rulers of the Achaemenids for generations.
An effective administrative apparatus is a clear example of how Darius ruled the Persian state. The country was divided into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. The sizes of the satrapies were much larger than the territories of the early states, and in some cases coincided with the ethnographic boundaries of the ancient peoples. For example, the satrapy of Egypt territorially almost completely coincided with the borders of this state before its conquest by the Persians. The districts were led by state officials - satraps. Unlike his predecessors, who were looking for their governors among the nobility of the conquered peoples, Darius I put only nobles of Persian origin in these positions.
Functions of governors
Previously, the governor combined both administrative and civil functions. The satrap of the time of Darius had only civil powers, the military authorities were not subordinate to him. The satraps had the right to mint coins, were in charge of the economic activities of the country, collected taxes, and ruled the court. In peacetime, the satraps were provided with little personal protection. The army was subordinated exclusively to military leaders, independent of the satraps.
Implementation government reforms was the reason for the creation of a large central administrative apparatus headed by the royal office. Public administration led by the capital of the Persian state - the city of Susa. Big cities of that time Babylon, Ektabana, Memphis also had their own offices.
Satraps and officials were under the vigilant control of the secret police. In ancient sources, it was called "the ears and the eye of the king." The control and supervision of the officials was entrusted to the Khazarapat - the chief of the thousand. State correspondence was conducted on which almost all the peoples of Persia owned.
Culture of the Persian Empire
Ancient Persia left a great architectural heritage to the descendants. The magnificent palace complexes in Susa, Persepolis and Pasargada made a stunning impression on contemporaries. The royal estates were surrounded by gardens and parks. One of the monuments that have survived to this day is the tomb of Cyrus II. Many similar monuments that arose hundreds of years later took the architecture of the tomb of the Persian king as a basis. The culture of the Persian state contributed to the glorification of the king and the strengthening of royal power among the conquered peoples.
The art of ancient Persia combined the artistic traditions of the Iranian tribes, intertwined with elements of Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian cultures. Among the items that have come down to the descendants, there are many decorations, bowls and vases, various goblets, decorated with exquisite paintings. A special place in the finds is occupied by numerous seals with images of kings and heroes, as well as various animals and fantastic creatures.
The economic development of Persia in the time of Darius
A special position in the Persian kingdom was occupied by the nobility. The nobles owned large land holdings in all the conquered territories. Huge plots were placed at the disposal of the "benefactors" of the tsar for personal services to him. The owners of such lands had the right to manage, transfer allotments as inheritance to their descendants, and they were also entrusted with the exercise of judicial power over subjects. The system of land use was widely used, in which the plots were called allotments of a horse, bow, chariot, etc. The king distributed such lands to his soldiers, for which their owners had to serve in active army as horsemen, archers, charioteers.
But as before, huge tracts of land were in the direct possession of the king himself. They were usually rented out. The products of agriculture and cattle breeding were accepted as payment for them.
In addition to the lands, canals were in the immediate royal power. The administrators of the royal property rented them out and collected taxes for the use of water. For the irrigation of fertile soils, a fee was charged, reaching 1/3 of the landowner's crop.
Persia workforce
Slave labor was used in all sectors of the economy. The bulk of them were usually prisoners of war. Bonded slavery, when people sold themselves, did not become widespread. Slaves had a number of privileges, for example, the right to have their own seals and participate in various transactions as full partners. A slave could redeem himself by paying a certain dues, and also be a plaintiff, witness or defendant in legal proceedings, of course, not against his masters. The practice of recruiting hired workers for a certain amount of money was widespread. The work of such laborers was particularly widespread in Babylonia, where they dug canals, made roads, and harvested crops from royal or temple fields.
Financial policy of Darius
Taxes were the main source of funds for the treasury. In 519, the king approved the basic system of state taxes. Taxes were calculated for each satrapy, taking into account its territory and land fertility. The Persians, as a conquering people, did not pay a cash tax, but were not exempt from tax in kind.
Various monetary units that continued to exist even after the unification of the country brought a lot of inconvenience, so in 517 BC. e. The king introduced a new gold coin, called the darik. The medium of exchange was the silver shekel, which was worth 1/20 of a darik and served in those days. On the reverse of both coins was placed the image of Darius I.
Transport routes of the Persian state
The spread of the road network contributed to the development of trade between the various satrapies. The royal road of the Persian state began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and passed through Babylon, and from there to Susa and Persepolis. The sea routes laid by the Greeks were successfully used by the Persians in trade and for the transfer of military force.
The sea expeditions of the ancient Persians are also known, for example, the voyage of the navigator Skilak to the Indian shores in 518 BC. e.
(power of the Achaemenids) - an ancient state that existed in the VI-IV centuries BC. e. in the territory of Western Asia and northeast Africa, created by the Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids. By the end of the 6th century BC, the borders of the Achaemenid state stretched from the Indus River in the east to the Aegean Sea in the west, from the first threshold of the Nile in the south to Transcaucasia in the north. The population of the empire ranged from 25 to 50 million people, which corresponded to half the population of the Earth in the 5th-4th centuries. BC.
Persians- one of the Iranian-speaking tribes that came to Iran through the Caucasus or Central Asia around the 15th century BC. e .. At the end of the 9th century BC. e. a group of Persian tribes was located near the borders of Elam, then widely settled in Kerman and Fars.
The founder of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty is Cyrus II the Great(559-529 BC). He defeated his grandfather Astyages, the ruler of Media, and united the two kingdoms (550 BC). He also captured the kingdom of Lydia and Babylon. His son Cambyses II conquered Egypt and assumed the title of "King of Egypt".
The most powerful king Darius I(522-485 BC) established a fair set of laws, divided the kingdom into regions (satrapies) headed by satrap; and streamlined the collection of taxes. Under him, a network of roads was built connecting all regions of Persia, including the famous royal road .
Darius III unable to defend the independence of Persia. Alexander the Great conquers the Persians and creates his empire on their territory.
The state religion of the Persians was formed on the basis of the revelation of the prophet Spitama Zarathushtra (the Greek form of the name is Zoroaster), which he received from the god Ahura Mazda. First of all, Zoroastrianism attaches importance to rituals and ceremonies. The main goal of the rites is the fight against all impurity, material and spiritual. Some purification rituals may involve dogs and birds. It is believed that these animals have the ability to cast out evil spirits with their presence and gaze. Sacred fire plays an extremely important role in Zoroastrianism, since fire is the image of God on earth.
Chronology of events of the empire
- 550 BC e. - capture of Media.
- 549 - 548 BC e. - Parthia, Hyrcania, and, probably, Armenia obeyed the Persians.
- 547 BC e. - Cyrus II defeated the Lydian troops, led by Croesus. As a result, Lydia, Lycia and Ionia become provinces of the empire.
- 539 BC e. - Babylonian troops were defeated by the Persians. Babylon became one of the residences of the Persian king. Cyrus II takes the title "King of Babylon, King of the Countries". His son Cambyses II becomes the first Persian governor of Babylon.
- 525 BC e. - near the Egyptian city of Pelusium, a major battle took place between the Persian and Egyptian troops. As a result of this battle, the Egyptians were defeated. Cambyses II was officially recognized as the king of Egypt and took the title "king of Egypt, king of the countries."
- 482 BC e. - In Babylon, the uprising was crushed by the Persian army. Cast from 12 talents of pure gold, the statue of the idol of Bel-Marduk is taken out by the Persians from Babylon and melted down. Eliminate the autonomy of Babylonia.
- 480 BC e. - invasion of Greece armies Xerxes. This campaign is known, first of all, for the battles at Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea, which showed the superiority of the Greek military art and the heroism of the warriors of Hellas. For example, these events formed the basis of the movie "300 Spartans".
- 404 BC e. - the separation of Egypt from the Persian Empire and the restoration of independence with the indigenous pharaohs of the XXIX dynasty (404-343 BC).
- 401-400 BC e. - dynastic struggle in the Persian Empire.
- 334 BC e. - Macedonian king Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid state. As a result, King Darius III began to suffer defeat.
- 331 BC - the decisive battle of Gaugamela, after which the Persian state ceased to exist. As a result, the countries and peoples of the former empire submitted to Alexander the Great.
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