Peter the Great - a successful reformer of Russia

The reforms of Peter the Great are a topic of extreme importance today. Peter is a symbol of the urgent social need for change, and for cardinal, fast and at the same time successful change. Such a need, even a need, still exists today. And the experience of the transformations of those years can be invaluable for today's reformers in Russia. They can avoid those excesses that Peter allowed, trying to raise the country from its knees.

We present to your attention the table of reforms of Peter 1. This includes the main transformations of the emperor, the approximate time of their implementation, summary and results.

Public Administration Reform

1699-1721

Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums with a specific scope of activity and authority.
The system of state administration has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

1708-1715 and 1719-1720.

At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberia. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by governors, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of their administrative power and were in charge of judicial and military matters.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

1697, 1719, 1722

Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms

from 1699

The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction using the "Table of Ranks" military ranks, common for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725 and a strong Navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.

Church reform

1700-1701; 1721.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

Almost the entire reign of Peter 1

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, the monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of the coin. The penny becomes the main coin. Transition to the poll tax.
Increase in revenues of the treasury several times. But firstly, it was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population, and secondly, most of these incomes were embezzled.

The reforms of Peter I are changes that affected the public and state life of Russia during the reign of the emperor. At the initial stages, they were hasty and not always deliberate. After the end of the Northern War, they became more systematic.

In the 17th-18th centuries, transformations took place in Russia that covered all aspects of the life of the country. Most of them were connected with the activities of Tsar Peter I. The reforms that he carried out were aimed not at the interests of one estate, but at the prosperity of the state as a whole. Their goal was to make Russia one of the strongest countries in the world.

Pyotr Alekseevich Romanov was born in 1672. Father - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, mother - Natalya Kirillovna from the Naryshkin family. From 1689 to 1696 he ruled jointly with his brother Ivan until the death of the latter.
In 1697 - 1698 he traveled around Europe under a false name. He received great knowledge in the sciences, shipbuilding, and mechanics. He made acquaintances with many European kings.

During his reign, he carried out many reforms that affected the system of government, the economy, industry, science and culture. The church was subordinate to the state, the power of the monarch became absolute. New cities, factories, manufactories, shipyards were built.

Participated in the battles of the Northern War, Azov, Prut, Persian military campaigns. He died in 1725 from pneumonia.

Basic conversions

Burmister Chamber- the central body in charge of the self-government of the urban population and the collection of taxes.

Stamped paper- a special paper with a coat of arms that was sold by the government. It was used to draw up official documents, contracts, etc.

Table of ranks- a list of military, civil and court positions introduced by Peter.

Significance and consequences of reforms

Thanks to innovations, the efficiency of power in Russia has increased significantly.
The country confidently became part of the European community. Great achievements have been noted in industry and commerce, science and art. Along with this, the role of the monarch in the role of the state increased, his power became absolute.

However, the increase in tax collections led to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population. The introduction of European traditions and cultural values, as well as the decline in the influence of the church, led to an aggravation of social problems.

References:

1. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the First. Moscow: Young Guard, 1975
2. Platonov S.F. A complete course of lectures on Russian history. Domestic activity of Peter since 1700. M., 1996
3. History of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century. Under the editorship of academician Milov L.V.
4. Solovyov S.M. History of Russia since ancient times. Volume 18
5. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. Leningrad, 1989

Most of all, Peter I was occupied with the thought of the fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Great Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where he saw how far Russia lagged behind in its development.

This event in the life of the young tsar marked the beginning of his transformational activity. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing the external signs of Russian life: he ordered beards to be shaved and ordered to dress in European clothes, he introduced music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked him.

By decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the reckoning from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the new year on January 1.

Foreign policy of Peter I

main goal foreign policy Peter I had access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Great Northern War, on October 20, 1721, the Senate and the Synod awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the vigorous activity of Peter I was also aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, strengthen the power and international position Russia. A lot has been done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The control system also operated Secret police- Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 into the Town Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the City Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each estate - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

1. Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
2. Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
3. Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance only to one of his sons.
4. Table of Ranks (1722): the service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - the army, the state and the court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Kholops could sign up as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

• state, with personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
• palace, which belonged personally to the king;
• sessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". The regular ones were divided into guilds: the 1st guild - the richest, the 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or "mean people", made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of one craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. Courts of appeal and provincial courts headed by governors operated in the provinces. The provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the Zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegiate supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes (bath, horse, beard, etc.) were introduced.

In 1704, a monetary reform, according to which the penny became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from the household taxation to the poll tax. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education of children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university, and with him the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated literacy and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Medical reforms of Peter I

The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, which trained doctors and pharmacists.

In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.

For growing, studying, creating collections medicinal plants Pharmaceutical gardens were created, where seeds and foreign flora were imported.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment sets of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, outlining the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

The reform activities of Peter had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and the clergy, because. transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

The results of the reforms of Peter I

1. The regime of absolutism is established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced system of government, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
2. Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
3. The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
4. Enormous progress has been made in science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of a Russian medical education, as well as the beginning of Russian surgery.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

1. The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
2. Lack of reform system.
3. The reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
4. Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

TO XVIII century Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and the noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

In the course of the history of our country by this time, significant shifts in its development had already taken place. The city separated from the countryside, agriculture and handicrafts were separated, industrial enterprises of the manufactory type arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed from Western Europe technology and science, culture and education, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground for Peter's reforms had already been prepared.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. Russia embarked on the path of modernization, the beginning of which was laid by the reforms of Peter I, which covered many spheres of society.

Background and reasons for the reforms

The basis of the feudal economy of the country was agriculture, which was distinguished by routine methods of farming and the use of forced labor of a serf. Russia was inferior to Western European countries in terms of the volume of industrial output and technical equipment of production, the level of education and culture. The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not take into account the national interests of the country in the struggle to maintain its position. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed and trained. The reason for the reforms was the backwardness of Russia, which Peter wanted to overcome using European experience. The methods of carrying out reforms are peculiar: the tsar relied not on the initiative of the people, but on the state mechanism.

From the document (E. V. Anisimov. Time of Peter's reforms):

"The time of Peter's $-$ reforms is the time of the foundation of a totalitarian state, a vivid sermon and the introduction of a cult into the mass consciousness strong personality$-$ leader, "teacher of the people." This is also the time of launching the “perpetual motion machine” of the domestic bureaucratic machine... This is a comprehensive system of control, fiscal and denunciation... The time of Peter $-$ is also fear, indifference, so characteristic of our society, ... external and internal lack of freedom of the individual.

The reforms of Peter I were a continuation of the changes in society that began in the 17th century. under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. By the strength of his character, the king accelerated the processes of transformation. He did not have a pre-conceived reform plan, so decrees and prescriptions often contradicted each other.

Starting the reforms, Peter I pursued the main goal of $-$ the creation of a powerful defense-capable state with high international prestige. On the one hand, his activities were aimed at developing market relations, entrepreneurship, raising the general educational level of people, on the other hand, he staked on the state apparatus, which led to the total nationalization of society.

The Northern War (1700-1721) became an important stimulus for the reforming activity of Peter I, during which it was necessary to create a strong army and navy, an effective management system, and a developed economy.

Peter's reforms

The Northern War began for Russia with a defeat in November 1700 near Narva. Peter developed a storm of activity to create a professional regular army, completed through recruitment kits. The officers were recruited from the nobility, who were required to be in the military or civil service. The state took over the maintenance of soldiers and officers.

Administrative reforms, taxes

To win the war with Sweden, a new state apparatus was needed. In 1704 was created Cabinet$-$ Peter's personal office. In 1711 the highest body of state power $-$ Senate$-$ replaced the Boyar Duma. Senators were appointed by the tsar, since 1722 the head of the Senate was the prosecutor general (“the sovereign's eye”). Prosecutors and fiscals were subordinate to him. In 1711 the Institute was established fiscals for secret supervision of affairs, which included the chief fiscal, provincial and collegiate fiscals. In 1714, the scope of the fiscals was clarified: they were supposed to expose the crimes of decrees, bribes, theft of the treasury and other crimes that harm the “state interest”. In 1718–1721 the order system was abolished, colleges. The main feature of the management system through boards was a clear division of functions between them. The procedure for the work of the collegiums was determined by special regulations, and the general principles of the work of the central authorities were set out in General Regulations (1719–1724). The decision-making was based on the principle of collegiality. Each collegium consisted of a presence and an office, headed by the president, advisers, and assessors.

Board name	Competence
Military	Army
Admiralteyskaya	Fleet
Foreign (Foreign) Affairs	Foreign policy
Berg College	heavy industry
Manufactory College	Light industry
College of Commerce	Trade
Board of Chambers	Government revenue
State-offices-collegium	Government spending
Revision Board	Financial control
Justice College	Judicial control
patrimonial board	land tenure
Chief Magistrate	City government

In 1708–1710 A new administrative division has been created in Russia. The whole country was divided into eight provinces, which were headed by governors with full executive and judicial power in the field. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those $-$ into counties. At the head of the provinces was the governor, the county was headed by the zemstvo commissar.

The maintenance of the regular army and the new state apparatus required huge funds, to attract which tax reform. In 1718 the state has started population census, which resulted in "Revision Tales". Peter replaced the household tax with a poll tax, now it was levied on every male soul and amounted to: 74 kopecks from a landlord peasant. per year, from a townsman $-$ 1 rub. 14 kop.

Important for the spiritual life of Russians was church government reform. After the death in 1700 of Patriarch Andrian, no elections were held for a new patriarch. To manage church affairs in accordance with "Spiritual regulation" in 1721 a new collegium was created $-$ Holy Synod. The synodal period of the church's activity lasted until August 1917. The synod managed church affairs: it dealt with the property of the church, the appointment of senior officials, and oversaw religious and moral education and upbringing.

The creation of the Synod meant the subordination of the spiritual authority to the secular one. The church under Peter turned into one of the state institutions and had to directly serve state interests. As a result Orthodox Church was administratively restricted. Unlike the Catholic Church, which played an independent political role, the Russian Church found itself in the position of serving the regime.

The unlimitedness of royal power allowed Peter to interfere in the activities of the Senate, collegiums and other state institutions. In 1721 Peter I took the title emperor, i.e., heads of secular and spiritual authorities.

Peter I takes the title of Father of the Fatherland, All-Russian Emperor and Great, 1721

Peter did not perceive the European social structure where the autonomy of society from the government was provided. “English liberty is out of place here, like peas in a wall. It is necessary to know the people, how to govern them”, $-$ asserted Peter. The system of power he created in Russia is commonly called absolutism. Power structures were used to achieve state goals. In 1722, the system of succession to the throne was changed, from now on the emperor could appoint a successor to himself.

Transformations in industry and commerce

The initiator of the development of industry was the state. 43% founded at the beginning of the XVIII century. enterprises were created with public funds. Half of them were intended to supply the army and navy. Especially great importance acquired the Ural metallurgical region, the factories of which produced cannons, cannonballs, grenades, guns, bayonets, anchors, sabers.

In 1719, the "Berg Privilege" was announced, which allowed to find ores and establish factories. Merchants who built factories received benefits. So, thanks to the patronage of the state, the former Tula gunsmith N. Demidov, the founder of the Demidov dynasty, became the largest breeder. Private manufactories carried out state orders. The surplus was brought to the market.

Cloth, linen and sailing industrial enterprises were founded. During the reign of Peter I, Moscow became the center of the textile industry. New branches of industry arose: faience, shipbuilding, silk weaving, and paper production.

To manage merchants and artisans was created Chief Magistrate. by decree 1722 g. craftsmen united in workshops, which testified to the desire of the state to streamline and regulate small-scale production, to put it under the tutelage of the authorities.

As a result of the measures taken, by 1725 there were 221 industrial enterprises in Russia, of which 86 were metallurgical plants. Of these factories, only 21 were founded before Peter and continued to operate under him. In addition, a number of enterprises that arose in 1726–1730 were designed under him. The created industrial base provided for the needs of the regular army. Modern fleet contributed to the development of trade relations.

Peter I spent protectionist policy in relation to Russian industry. She was infused with the spirit mercantilism, justifying government intervention in economic activity. Entrepreneurs received various privileges, subsidies, equipment, raw materials. As a result, dependence on imports has been significantly reduced. Products from Russian manufactories spread widely throughout the country. In 1724 was introduced customs tariff(high duties restricted the import of foreign goods and favorable conditions encouraged the import of raw materials for industry and the export of finished products). By 1726, Russia was exporting twice as much goods as it was importing. Wood, leather, flax, hemp, iron, linen were exported. They imported paints, wines, silk, spices, luxury items.

Transformations in the field of culture. Culture of the first quarter of the XVIII century.

Transformations in the field of culture were built without taking into account the national-historical traditions of Rus'. A system of secular education begins to take shape. In 1701 in Moscow were opened mathematics and navigation school for children of officials and nobles aged 12–14. The teachers were L. Magnitsky, Professor G. Farvarson. In 1705 the first gymnasium was founded in Moscow. Since studying at school was equated to public service, by 1725 at 42 digital schools 2 thousand people studied in provincial cities. The need for professional personnel led to the opening of artillery, engineering, naval, and surgical schools. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, $-$ theological schools were opened for the training of clergy. Higher education children of nobles received abroad. Promotion and marriage were made dependent on education. Started work in 1715 Marine Academy. After the second trip of Peter I to Europe, he approved Charter of the Academy of Sciences which opened in 1725.

The publishing business developed, new printing houses were opened. Arithmetic by L. Magnitsky and Grammar by M. Smotrytsky were popular. In 1703, the printed newspaper Vedomosti began to appear. In 1708 the Church Slavonic font was replaced by a secular one.

The establishment of a museum contributed to the establishment of secular principles in culture ( Kunstkamery), libraries, organizing geographical expeditions, prospecting for minerals.

Decree of December 19, 1699 introduced in the country new calendar. New Year from now on, it began not from September 1, but from January 1 (according to the Julian calendar), the chronology was conducted not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ (1700 instead of 7208 according to the old chronology). The king ordered to celebrate the New Year, arrange fireworks, decorate houses with spruce branches.

The changes that took place affected the life of the Russian people. Peter I swung at the ancient customs, the way of life of the Russian boyars. In the heat of anger, he personally cut off the beards of the boyar A. Shein and Prince F. Romadanovsky. It was forbidden to wear beards to everyone except church officials. Those who did not want to obey paid a tax (60–100 rubles per year). Peasants did not have to shave their beards, but when entering and leaving the city they paid a penny. Those who paid the tax received a special medal, which they wore around their necks. Peter ordered to change the long-brimmed old clothes for a European suit.

G. von Urlaub. Reforms of Peter (ban on beards and traditional dress)

The symbol of change was introduced by Peter in 1718. assembly$-$ meetings of boyars and nobles for entertainment. Selected societies were invited to the assemblies. They began at 16-17 hours and continued until 22 hours. The hosts provided light refreshments, drinks, tables for playing chess. The guests ate, talked, danced. The assemblies were attended by women. By decrees of Peter I, forced marriage and marriage were prohibited.

N. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky. Assembly under Peter the Great. Treating a guilty guest with a goblet of the "Great Eagle"

The result of concern for the rules of etiquette was the preparation of instructions by the king “An honest mirror of youth, or an indication for worldly behavior» which laid down the rules of conduct for young people.

Changes in Russian culture in the first quarter of the 18th century. asserted its secular nature, emphasized the personal beginning. The penetration of the values ​​of Western European civilization began into Russian life, a gap between the noble and folk cultures became apparent.

Opponent of secular culture was I. T. Pososhkov, the greatest publicist of the 18th century. His works “Report on Military Conduct”, “Paternal Testament to His Son”, “The Book of Poverty and Wealth” testify to the patriotism of the author, who is sure that “many Germans are smarter than us in sciences, and our sharpness ... no worse than them ... ". In his works, Pososhkov honors the tsar "like God." A supporter of serfdom, Pososhkov is developing measures to improve the situation of the peasants. The tsar, according to the author, must protect the peasants from the arbitrariness of the landowners.

An adherent of absolutism and a supporter of Peter was F. Prokopovich, former teacher Kiev-Mohyla Academy, writer-preacher. It was to him that Peter entrusted the ideological substantiation of state reforms. In the “Laudable Word about the Russian Fleet,” Prokopovich justified the right of the monarch to dispose of the throne. In the "case of Tsarevich Alexei" he is on the side of the king. Prokopovich proves the need for unlimited autocratic power in the "Sermon on Tsar's Power and Honor".

In 1702, the first public theater was opened in Moscow on Red Square in the Comedy Mansion. A troupe of foreign actors acted out plays by J.-B. Molière, tragedies from ancient life.

Architecture of the first quarter of the XVIII century. associated with the activities of Peter I. Architectural and planning plan Russian cities has changed. Many industrial cities and towns were built. Since 1710, brick has been actively used in the construction. If before Peter's reforms the most majestic buildings were churches and royal palaces, then from the beginning of the XVIII century. more attention is paid to the appearance of civil buildings, residential buildings, town halls, schools, hospitals. By decree of Peter, a commission is being created, which will become the main body for the design of the capital. Civil construction prevailed over church construction. Houses in cities began to be built with facades along the streets, and the buildings were decompacted for fire prevention purposes. St. Petersburg became the main architectural object in general. Foreign architects came to Russia at the invitation of the Tsar D. Trezzini, J.-B. Leblon, G. I. Shedel, B. K. Rastrelli(father), who made a great contribution to the development of architecture of the XVIII century. The construction of St. Petersburg begins with the laying of the Peter and Paul Fortress in 1703 and the Admiralty in 1704.

Peter and Paul Cathedral, architect $-$ D. Trezzini Admiralty on engraving 1716

The main trend in architecture is baroque(ital. barocco$-$ bizarre), which is characterized by splendor, contrast, exaltation of the image, the combination of reality and illusions. During this period, the Peter and Paul Cathedral was created, summer palace Peter the Great, Kunstkamera, Menshikov Palace, building of the Twelve Colleges in St. Petersburg. In Moscow, these are the churches of the Archangel Gabriel and John the Warrior on Yakimanka. The main entrance to the Arsenal courtyard of the Kremlin is decorated with characteristic elements typical of this period. Among the important objects of provincial cities, it is worth noting the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Kazan.

Peter's Summer Palace, architect D. Trezzini Church of John the Warrior on Yakimanka

Evidence of the secularization of culture in the first quarter of the 18th century. became secular portraiture. Outstanding Portrait Painter I. N. Nikitin asserted the principles of the new secular art. Among the gallery of works created by him, the portrait of the outdoor hetman stands out with an underlined modesty. Its significance lies in the fact that it opposes the Western tradition of the ceremonial portrait. In the "Outdoor Hetman" the features of the national identity of Russian art appeared.

There is nothing ostentatious in the hetman's pose. The artist conveyed an expression that reveals the essential character traits of the depicted person. The appearance of the hetman is not distorted by a fashionable wig and court clothes. His hair is cut in a Cossack style, "in a circle", a worn brown caftan with faded gold lace is unbuttoned. The artist portrayed his hero as he saw him in life. This striving for naturalness and life's truth $-$ is one of the main advantages of Nikitin's portrait.

Attempts by archivists and museum workers to identify the depicted person did not lead to positive results. The inscription on reverse side The portrait says that we have before us a floor hetman (combat commander of field Cossack detachments). The power of Nikitin's generalization makes this portrait one of the most important historical monuments of the time of Peter the Great. Military leaders, similar to the floor hetman, at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. guarded the southern borders of Russia, fought for access to the sea, fought near Azov.

I. N. Nikitin. Portrait of a Floor Hetman (1720s)

Social politics

Under Peter I, the nobility was consolidated into a closed privileged structure, dependent on the monarch and obliged to serve the tsar and the state. For service, the nobility was provided with land, soul ownership and was exempted from numerous taxes. In 1714 was accepted Decree on unity of succession, equalized the rights of the noble estate and the boyar estate. From now on, land ownership was transferred from father to eldest son, the principle of primacy was introduced. The remaining members of the genus were required to perform compulsory service in public institutions, in the army, in the navy. Service career depended on personal length of service or merit before the king. The royal decree forbade the nobles to marry before receiving education. A military career began from infancy, when the children of the nobles were enrolled in the service in order to receive a junior officer rank by joining the army.

In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" streamlined the service, dividing it into civil, court and military, introduced a system of hierarchy of officials (14 classes), strengthened the principle of personal service and merit (new criteria for career advancement), created incentives for official zeal.

The table opened the possibility for persons of taxable estates to enter the nobility: the rank of the XIV class elevated to personal nobility, and the VIII class opened access to hereditary nobility.

From the document (Yu. M.Lotman.Conversations about Russian culture):

"What was the Table of Ranks? The main, first thought of the legislator was, on the whole, quite sober: people should hold positions according to their abilities and according to their real contribution to public affairs. The Table of Ranks established the dependence of a person's social position on his place in the official hierarchy The latter, ideally, should have corresponded to merit to the tsar and the fatherland ...

Such a wording of the law opened, according to Peter I, access to the highest state class to people of different social groups who distinguished themselves in the service, and, on the contrary, closed access to "impudent and parasites" ... ".

The peasantry under Peter I was divided into two groups: serfs and state (odnodvortsy, chernososhnye peasants, Tatars, population of Siberia). Kholops were among the serfs. A new category of peasants $-$ possessive peasants assigned to manufactories. The decree of 1721 allowed the nobles and merchants-factories to buy peasants to work in manufactories. They were attached to production. It was impossible to sell them separately from the manufactory.

The townspeople (merchants, artisans) were divided into guilds, workshops and submitted to the magistrate. The urban population was also subdivided into regular (industrialists, merchants, craftsmen) and irregular (other) citizens. The first participated in city government, paid taxes, were members of a guild or workshop.

Popular unrest in the first quarter of the XVIII century.

	Astrakhan uprising of 1705–1706	The uprising of K. Bulavin
time and place	1705–1706, Astrakhan	1707–1709 Don
Members	Soldiers, townspeople, exiled archers	Cossacks, runaway people
Causes	The dissatisfaction of the townspeople with the increase in taxes, the arbitrariness of the voivode T. Rzhevsky, the decree on the introduction of the Western way of life	The brutal actions of the punitive expedition of Prince Dolgoruky, sent to the Don in order to detect the fugitives. The government's attack on the autonomy of the Don
Main events	On June 30, 1705, the rebels invaded the Kremlin, cracked down on officers, officials, and the governor. A council of elders has been formed. The circle $-$ gathering of rebels $-$ abolished taxes, elected a new command of the garrison. The neighboring cities of the Volga and Caspian regions joined the rebels. On March 13, 1706, the punitive detachment of Field Marshal Sheremetev took Astrakhan. Rebellion put down	On October 9, 1707, the rebels, led by K. Bulavin, destroyed one of the detachments of Prince Dolgoruky. In the spring of 1708, the movement expanded at the expense of Kozlovsky and Tambov counties. Bulavin captured the capital of the Don Cherkassky. The military ataman Maximov was executed. The Cossack circle elected Bulavin as ataman. The rebel army was divided into parts: one set out to meet the tsarist troops, the other went to the Volga region, the third, led by Bulavin, tried to capture Azov. July 1708 Cherkasy Cossack foreman dealt with Bulavin. The leadership of the uprising passed to I. Nekrasov. The performances of the Cossacks continued in the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, the Volga region, Sloboda Ukraine until 1709, until they were finally suppressed by the tsarist troops
Results	The instigators of the uprising were captured and sent to Moscow, where they were executed. Many participants in the rebellion were exiled to Siberia	The punitive detachments brutally dealt with the participants in the uprising. 8 Don villages were destroyed. For intimidation, rafts with the executed were launched along the Don. The ancient law “There is no extradition from the Don” has ceased to operate. Part of the Cossacks, led by I. Nekrasov, emigrated to Turkey

Astrakhan rebellion of 1705 K. A. Bulavin

"The Case of Tsarevich Alexei"

Peter's reforms were opposed by the opposition-conservative part of society. Opponents of the tsar used Tsarevich Alexei to fight him. Peter, absorbed in reforming activity, paid little attention to his son. Alexei was influenced by his mother, her relatives and the Tsarevich's confessor Ya. Ignatiev, Peter's opponent. When he was 8 years old, Empress Evdokia was imprisoned in a monastery. Peter did not show love and care for his son, as a result he became a stranger to him. When almost simultaneously the wife of Alexei and Tsarina Catherine gave birth to sons named Peter, a conflict began between the tsar and Alexei. Having left for Copenhagen on matters of war, Peter, who did not trust Alexei, in August 1716 summoned him to his place. However, the prince secretly fled to Austria, where he asked for protection from Charles VI of Habsburg. In 1718, through the efforts of diplomats P. Tolstoy and A. Rumyantsev, Alexei was returned to Russia. On February 3, 1718, a royal decree was announced depriving Tsarevich Alexei of the right to the royal throne. The new heir was proclaimed Peter, the king's son from Catherine. Soon, Alexei's accomplices and ill-wishers of Tsar Kikina, Vyazemsky, Dolgoruky were arrested. In the "Secret Office" they were tortured and then sentenced to death. Two days after the announcement of the verdict, Alexei died under unclear circumstances.

Subsequently, a decree of 1722 on succession to the throne was adopted, allowing the emperor to appoint heirs to the throne in his own right.

N. N. Ge. Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei

From the document ("Charter on the Succession to the Throne"):

"... Because everyone knows what kind of Absalom anger our son Alexei was arrogant, and that it was not through his repentance that this intention, but by the grace of God to our entire fatherland, was stopped ... and this has grown for nothing else, only from the custom of the old, that an inheritance was given to a big son besides, he was then the only male of our surname, and for that he did not want to look at any paternal punishment.

... to do this Charter so that this is always in the will of the ruling sovereign, to whom he wants, he will determine the inheritance and to a certain one, seeing what indecency, he will still cancel, so that children and descendants do not fall into such anger, as it is written above, having this bridle on yourself…"

Shortly after the death of Alexei, Peter I lost his son Peter. He began to think about securing the rights of Ekaterina Alekseevna as his successor. In 1723 he issued a manifesto in which he listed her merits, in 1724 he arranged a magnificent ceremony for the coronation of the empress.

During the construction of the Ladoga Canal, the tsar caught a cold. In January 1725, the disease worsened. Before his death, he demanded paper, but did not have time to write the name of the successor. The tsar died on January 28, 1725 at the age of 53.

I. I. Nikitin. Peter I on his deathbed

Formation of absolutism. Reforms of Peter the Great

Main dates and events
1708-1710	regional reform. Provinces are introduced. At the head of the province $-$ governor, he has four assistants
1711	Establishment of the Senate
1711	The position of fiscal officer is introduced (officials exercising covert supervision over the activities of state institutions)
1714	Decree on unity. The status of an estate is equivalent to the status of a fiefdom. Only one person can inherit the land, it is impossible to divide the plots
1717–1721	Instead of orders, 11 colleges are introduced
1718	Tsarevich Alexei dies under torture
1718–1724	All-Russian population census (revision). Transition to capitation taxation. State peasants appear. They pay an additional quitrent to the state in addition to the tax.
1719	Russia is divided into about 50 provinces headed by voivods
1720	The Chief Magistrate $-$ body controlling the activities of the merchants is being introduced. It included elected from merchants
1721	Peter I takes the title of Emperor
1721	Establishment of the Holy Synod, headed by the Chief Procurator. The abolition of the patriarchate
1721	Businesses can buy peasants
1722	The position of Prosecutor General and prosecutors is being introduced. They exercise public control over bureaucratic institutions and can interfere in their affairs (unlike fiscals)
1722	The table of ranks is introduced. Those who have risen to the 8th rank receive hereditary nobility
1722	Decree of succession. The monarch himself appoints the heir
1722	Fugitive peasants can stay at manufactories
1722	Workshops are set up in the cities
1724	Protectionist customs tariff
1725	Opening Russian Academy Sciences

Main trends:

Finalization of absolutism.

The subordination of the church to the state (the abolition of the patriarchate).

Transfer of nobles to cash salaries.

Technical and economic backwardness has been largely overcome.

internal colonization.

Development of manufactories.

The emergence of landless nobles.

The growth of education of the population of the country.

The table "Reforms of Peter 1" briefly outlines the features of the transformational activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, one can concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life in Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this The best way in order for middle-level students to learn this difficult and rather voluminous material, which is very important for analysis and correct understanding features historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, a table on this topic demonstrates all the data necessary for schoolchildren.

In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all sectors of society and determined the further history of the country. This is the uniqueness of the era of his reign. However, he was a very practical man and innovated based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, the organs made significant changes to the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic "Peter 1's Reforms". Briefly, a table on this problem helps students to familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. Almost all of his reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic under study is the "Military reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The Importance of Military Innovation

It can be seen from it that the steps of the emperor were dictated by the specific needs of his contemporary time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that earlier there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the reviews along with several servants who were also supposed to serve with him.

However, to early XVIII centuries, this principle has become obsolete. By this time, it had already been finalized. serfdom, and the state began to recruit soldiers from the peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and commanders.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is "Peter 1's political reforms." Briefly, the table on this issue clearly demonstrates how deep the transformational activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead, which had previously performed advisory functions under the king, he created the Senate on the model of Western European countries. Instead of orders, colleges were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucracy.

New administrative division

No less complex is the topic and “State reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the cardinal changes that have taken place in the organization of local government. Provinces were created, which were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. Such a structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and counties - the governor.

Changes in industry and commerce

Of particular difficulty is often the study of the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost feudal methods, which could not contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as the transformation in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in the development of trade according to the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems to be simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that have occurred in Russian society studied time. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and state spheres, depending not on tribal affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous "Table of Ranks" introduced new principle services. From now on, a person, in order to get a promotion or rank, had to achieve any success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the tribal aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this estate, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summarizing the results. What was the significance of the reforms of Peter the Great in the history of Russia? Table, summary on this topic can serve as an effective means of summing up. Relatively social transformation It should be noted that the ruler's measures corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of parochialism became obsolete, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to fulfill the new tasks facing the country in connection with the Northern War and Russia's entry into the international arena.

The role of the transformational activity of the emperor

The topic “Basic reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary of which is an important component in the study of the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in future fate Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country to the European arena and brought it into the ranks of the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, having received access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.