About this monument, which has long become a symbol of India, the great Indian writer and poet Rabindranath Tagore said: “Let this single tear - the Taj Mahal - forever slide, sparkling on the cheek of paradise. Creator! You were able to enchant time with the magic of beauty and weave a garland that clothed formless death in an immortal form ... "

The Taj Mahal is a monument that has become a symbol of great love. Built in India near the city of Agra, whose name evokes semi-fairy tales full of mysterious adventures, today the temple is part of the city limits. The pulsing, chaotic life of the city is in stark contrast to the beckoning mirage of the Taj Mahal.

GREAT MUGHALS

The history of this amazing monument began many centuries ago. In 1526, Shah Babur defeated the Sultan of Delhi and founded the Mughal Empire. This empire did not last long, only 180 years. The glory of the luxury and wealth of the Mughal court, their power has come down to our days in fairy tales, legends and even detective stories.

The Mughal dynasty gave India six great rulers whose names are revered to this day: Shah Babur, Shah Humayun, Shah Akbar, Shah Jahangir, Shah Jahan. The founder of the dynasty - Shah Babur - was one of the most interesting people of his era. He was descended on the paternal side from Timur, and on the maternal side - from Genghis Khan. When he became the ruler of Samarkand, he was only eleven years old. More than once he lost the throne and again returned it, having spent his youthful years on the battlefield. Having matured, he went to war against Kabul and, having conquered it, invaded India. Its small but well-trained and armed last word technology, the army easily defeated entire hordes and brought victory to Babur. He ruled India for four years. This government was restless. Nevertheless, the Shah found time for art and literature. He wrote a book of memoirs. It shows India as he saw it:

“The Hindustan Empire is vast, densely populated and rich. In the east, in the south and even in the west it is washed by the Great Ocean. Delhi is the capital of all Hindustan. This is a remarkably beautiful country. It represents a completely different world compared to our countries. Its mountains and rivers, its forests and plains, its animals and plants, its inhabitants and their language, its winds and rains - everything here is different in character ... Even the reptiles here are different ... The main advantage of Hindustan is that the country is large and has gold and silver in abundance... Another convenience in Hindustan is that there are innumerable and infinite multitudes of workers of all professions and trades. For any work and any occupation, a multitude of people are always ready, to whom this occupation and craft passed from father to son from century to century.

Babur died in 1530, and this is what they say about his death: when Shah was 49 years old, his son, Humayun, fell ill. The doctors said that someone had to sacrifice their life for the sick person to recover. And then the father offered his life in return. Humayun recovered, but Babur died a few days later.

A huge power went to Humayun. The Mughal kingdom stretched from the Bay of Bengal in the east to Kandigar in the west and from the Deccan in the south to Tibet in the north. It was the greatest kingdom that ever existed in India. But Babur's son was a weak warrior, failed to defend the throne and was overthrown. Wandering in remote places, he experienced hardships. In the desert of Rajasthan was born the son of Humayun, Akbar, the greatest of the rulers of India, whose fame eclipsed that of his great grandfather. He inherited the throne of his father and grandfather at the age of thirteen and ruled India for about half a century.

Akbar was a wise ruler. He made a lot of efforts to ensure that there was no enmity between representatives of different faiths, strengthened the state and attracted many great masters to his court.

The son of the famous Akbar, Jahangir, inherited his father's throne.

Each of the Great Mughals strove to strengthen the power of the state by profitable political marriages. The first marriage of Shah Jahangir was made for political reasons, and the second time he married the beautiful and beloved Nur Jahan, the widow of one of his generals.

LOVE STORY

And now we will be transported to Agra, to the palace of the Great Mughals, beautiful as a dream, built by the will of Akbar. This is where the history of the Taj Mahal begins. Here, only once a year, a special market was opened for the inhabitants of the harem of Jahangir Shah. Merchants exhibited on this day, the day of the great holiday, their best goods. The faces of the women were open to the gaze of the men. This day, the day of freedom and happiness, has been prepared for a long time. On this day, love and adventure were born.

On that day, the beloved son and heir of Shah Jahangir, Prince Khurram, who was sixteen years old, looked into one of the shops and saw the beautiful Arjuman. The beauty of the girl struck the prince. As if in a fog, he asked some insignificant question, received a joking answer and left.

And the next day, the whole court was stirred up by the news that the prince wanted to marry the beautiful Arjuman. In those days, marrying for love was unheard of. However, when the young prince announced his intention, Jahangir Shah allowed him to marry, but after five years.

This was in 1607. And five years later, when the astrologers were convinced of the favorable arrangement of the stars, the prince married Arjuman. By this time, the prince had a large harem of five thousand beauties, but Arjuman became his beloved wife.

The wedding struck the kingdom with its splendor and gave rise to many legends. In the center of the wedding procession were Prince Khurram and Jahangir. They were followed by a procession of courtiers, who carried rich clothes embroidered with gold. Every inch of the prince's clothes, which had been embroidered for six years, was strewn with beautiful gems. The procession was followed by acrobats and musicians. Elephants scattered gold coins for beggars and children. The ruler Jahangir, admiring the beauty of his daughter-in-law, gave her a new name - Mumtaz Mahal, which meant "the only one in the palace." The court poet conveyed the charm of her beauty in the following lines: “The moon, touching her face, is ashamed. For it eclipses even the light of the stars.

Mumtaz Mahal's education consisted of reading the Koran. But, having a natural mind, she worked hard and was able to become her husband's closest adviser. She became famous for her charity, distributing money and food to the poor, drawing the attention of the ruler to the needs of widows and orphans. Her activities contributed to the growth of the popularity of power. In all the works she was assisted by Sati un-Nissa, her closest maid.

Growing up, Prince Khurram became a general in his father's army and won many battles, but all this time he was waiting for the throne. At the Mughal court, it was not the eldest son who became the heir, but the one who could win the throne. Many brothers of Prince Khurram died in this struggle. He himself repeatedly made attempts to overthrow his father. When, after one of these conspiracies, the Mughal army pursued him on his heels, his beloved followed him.

In 1627, Jahangir died of a coughing fit at the age of fifty-nine. Two days later, the struggle for the throne broke the whole country into several camps. Prince Khurram, the future Shah Jahan, won the throne with the help of his father-in-law. His two brothers were executed, and his stepmother, Nur Jahan, was imprisoned in Lahore. On February 4, 1628, Prince Khurram was crowned.

The coronation celebrations were very magnificent and overshadowed all previous ones. Servants carried trays of diamonds among the guests. But the gifts presented to the queen were distinguished by special luxury. Cups carved from precious stones, daggers, whose sheaths were studded with gems, Turkish harnesses, fabrics embroidered with gold and pearls, were loaded onto the elephants. As a gift, Mumtaz Mahal was presented with several small principalities.

Shah's supporters were not forgotten either. They all received elephants, slaves and other rewards.

Shah Jahan continued the conquest of India started by his ancestors. But the Shah's feeling for the queen over the years only grew stronger. Shah Jahan did not stop showering the queen with jewels, and roses were sent to her from the best gardens of the country. When it fell out free time, he accompanied the queen to the gardens of Shalimar.

Within nineteen years, Mumtaz bore her husband fourteen children. And since the Shah was constantly at war, the children were born in tents, in between battles. In 1630, in the third year of her reign, Mumtaz Mahal, as usual, accompanied her husband on a campaign against the Deccan. The queen courageously endured all the hardships despite the fact that she was expecting another child. But the queen's health deteriorated so much that Shah Jahan was forced to stop hostilities. Shortly before her death, the queen expressed her last will - to erect a monument symbolizing their love.

After her death, Shah locked himself away from everyone, even from family members. A few days later he left his voluntary imprisonment, but came out completely gray-haired. Since then, he has never worn formal clothes.

There is a legend that the Shah, sitting on his famous throne in one of the rooms of the Red Fort, saw a vision of a fabulous building in the window. When he tried to describe it to the architects, they were delighted. The place of vision was just in the garden of the Raja of the Taj Sitkh. Raja wanted to donate this land to the Shah, but the dogma of Islam forbade the construction of a mosque on the donated land. Therefore, the Shah bought this land for four royal residences.

A few months later, the body of Mumtaz Mahal was transported to Agra, where a memorial chapel was built in the garden of the Raja of the Taj Sith. This chapel has been preserved in the western part of the park.

Every Friday Shah visited the burial place. The whole family prayed with him. Hundreds of women and men with prayer bowls came to read the Koran. On the first anniversary of the death, a commemoration was arranged, in which fifty thousand rupees were distributed with one alms. Throughout Shah Jahan's lifetime, the death anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal was celebrated with great pomp and splendor.

MONUMENT

The architects began to develop the structure, and after a lot of trial and error, his model finally appeared. She was so dear to Shah that during construction she was kept in the treasury of the Moghuls.

In the garden of the Taj Sith, a platform was fenced off on the banks of the Jumna River. For twenty-two years, twenty thousand workers erected a perfect creation. Giant forces were involved in the construction of the complex. Women worked equally with men. The workers who built the monument received a generous salary of 100 rupees a month, while the craftsmen received 1000. Wealth, reverence and freedom created an atmosphere surprisingly conducive to creativity.

A seventeen-kilometer trail of earth and lime stretched through Agra to the construction site. Strings of elephants and bulls walked along it, pulling marble blocks. They were installed in place with the help of special devices.

Even now it seems unbelievable that the preparation of the foundations and the platform overlooking the river were completed in just four years. The mausoleum itself and the two mosques on its sides were completed first. Then - the minarets and, finally, the main gate and outbuildings.

Finishing work lasted six years. Finishing materials were delivered from various places. A luminous white marble with a characteristic structure was brought from Rajasthan, different from the bluish Italian and yellowish Japanese. It is he who makes the structure glow differently depending on the lighting. Yellow marble was brought from the banks of the Narmada, a river in the center of India. It was bought with a specially introduced tax of 40 rupees from the area of ​​​​each yard. Black marble, almost unknown in India, was bought for double the price. Crystal was brought from China, and lapis lazuli from Sri Lanka. Jasper was brought from Punjab, agate from Yemen, and corals from Arabia. Indian jewelers presented garnets, and merchants presented diamonds. Onyx was delivered from Persia, exquisite chalcedony from Europe. From the dead city of Fatupur Sikri, located near Agra, the former capital of the Mughals, built on a deserted place in a few years and abandoned by the inhabitants, 114,000 blocks of sandstone were brought.

Small bricks, specially prepared for the Taj, gave stability to the monument.

In 1643, the entire complex with gardens, gates, a trading area, and a caravanserai was completed.

Even today, the design of the Taj is astounding in engineering. The walls carry a load of seven-ton square blocks. The dome monolith weighs 12,000 tons. The entire mausoleum rests on arched structures reinforced with stone belts. The tall pillars are attached with copper bolts to the stone base.

Special plates protected the monument from flooding. The architect's idea assumed that the river would serve as a frame for the Taj. The structure of several vaults, placed just upstream, made the river, known for its frequent floods, not flow in a wide stream. In the 20th century, the river overflowed heavily several times, but the monument was not damaged.

During the reign of the Mughals, India became the center of the artistic creativity of the East. The best artists and craftsmen gathered here. Artists from all parts of Asia were involved in the construction, turning Agra into a center of architectural creativity. A famous architect arrived from Turkey, who oversaw the construction of domes.

For a very long time, the name of the architect who built the complex remained a mystery. It was only in 1930 that a manuscript was found, which called the name of the legendary Ahmad Ustad, nicknamed Nadir el-Asr, which meant "Miracle of the Century." Engineer, astronomer, geometer, mathematician and astrologer at the court of Shah Jahan, he was the greatest architect. Little is known about him. Before moving to Lahore, his family lived in Herat. After the move, his father Ustad Ahmad went to work for Abd-al-Karim, Shah Jahangir's chief architect. All three sons built the Taj Mahal under the guidance of their father.

Shah Jahan decided to create a symmetrical mausoleum of exactly the same shape and size, but from black marble, on the other side of the Jamna River. It was supposed to be connected to the white temple by a silver bridge. However, already during the construction of the Taj Mahal, the treasury of the state was devastated, and the Shah's idea did not materialize. And soon power over the state was usurped by Aurangdeb, the son of Shah Jahan. This was the last of the legendary rulers. However, his religious intolerance, which greatly distinguished him from the great progenitors - Babur and Akbar - led to the weakening of the empire. After some time, the state broke up into principalities, and then the British established their dominance here.

During this period, many great monuments were destroyed, and the museums of the United Kingdom were decorated with many reliefs of Indian temples. The Taj Mahal, fortunately, survived, although it was looted in 1764.

PARADISE

...A palace of pearls among
gardens and water channels, where
pious and blessed
can live forever.

The ensemble, according to the plan of the architect, consisted of a mausoleum, a mosque and a pavilion for meetings. All of them were located on a massive, elongated platform, built of red sandstone slabs, and a vast park adjoining it from the south - "Cherbak", with three parties walled, with a gate in the middle of each side.

The architect prepared the viewer for the perception of the whole complex. The ensemble opens gradually. From a distance, the temple seems like a mirage. After a few steps, an array of onion domes of the central temple opens up. The mausoleum is located in the center of a white marble terrace at the end of a long garden on the banks of the river. On the other side are wheat fields.

The entrance to the mausoleum complex is closed by massive red sandstone gates. They reach thirty meters in height. Through their red lace, a view of the white marble structure opens up. At the corners of the gate there are round towers with domed pavilions "chagri" at the top. Inheriting the traditions of Persian masters, the creators of the gates decorated them with the finest calligraphic patterns. This illusory ornamentation is formed by the miraculous inscriptions that cover the gate. It echoes the letters running over the arches of the mausoleum. One of the inscriptions says that Shah Jahan based the memorial on the Muslim idea of ​​a paradise: "... A palace of pearls among gardens and water channels, where the pious and blessed can always live."

The image of the paradise was widespread in Mughal art. The beautiful gate was the entrance to the paradise and was perceived as a "stone overture to frozen music."

The gates are covered with copper ornaments, but there was a time when they shone silver in the moonlight, framing the snow-white mausoleum.

Through the high arch of the portal opened the entrance to the central alley. Green lawns, symmetrical water paths with fountains rushing their jets up - everything here is like in a Muslim paradise. Slender towers of minarets were reflected in the surface of the canals. The water comes from a very deep well. Today it is not enough and it is very salty.

The central alley crosses the entire park and goes straight to the mausoleum building. Its total height reaches seventy-five meters.

The mausoleum itself changes its appearance during the day depending on the color of the sky, which changes color from gray-blue in the morning and dazzling white in the afternoon to lilac-gray at sunset.

To the right and left of the Taj are the temple of Sati un-Nissa, the beloved maid, and the mosque - the Mesjid. Both buildings are red. They are exactly the same, topped with three domes, and thin white patterns look spectacular on the red surface. The mosque building is on the western side. It is directed towards Mecca. Another building cannot be used for prayers, as it is not oriented towards Mecca. Therefore, it serves as a hotel for pilgrims. Every Friday the mosque comes to life. Prayer is performed here. On 500 decorated places for prayers, special rugs are laid, standing on which the faithful bow towards Mecca.

In addition to the central one, four more gates (and four is a holy number for Muslims) lead to the mausoleum. Next to the gate, which is called katra, there used to be shops of artisans. To the northeast of the gates of Katra Gilal lived craftsmen who made various incense from flowers. Katra Reshma Gate was named after the house of a silk merchant. Katra Omar Khana in the northwest and Katra Yoguda in the southeast are probably named after the people who served there.

Three-story minarets with ornamented balconies (marble inlaid with black slate) are closed to the public today.

There are no burials under the two upper tombstones; the real grave is deep in the crypt. Despite the large size of the burial, it fits well into the complex. The upper burial chambers are surrounded by eight empty chambers - four octagonal and four rectangular. These empty rooms take the weight off the dome. The simplicity of their decoration is in harmony with the cenotaph. The walls of the chambers are covered with polished plaster five centimeters thick. It consists of white lime, marble dust, sugar, small Turkish black peas, egg white and a special viscous substance - Indian fruit juice. Unfortunately, one of the components of this plaster remains unknown to this day. This composition had a special effect: it cooled the marble, which overheated in extreme heat.

Under the main dome lies the Shah's octagonal burial chamber.

Jahana and Mumtaz Mahal. The transition from the earthly space of the complex to the spiritual world is part of the magic of the Taj. Previously, the burial chamber was illuminated only by sunlight and moonlight, penetrating through the marble ornamentation above. Small pieces of mica fill holes in the palace of mirrors, giving the effect of milky white lighting and keeping it cool. This light Eine Mahal echoes the marble interior.

From the very beginning, the cenotaph was closed with a golden fence inlaid with precious stones. In 1642 this barrier was replaced by a special screen. The mosaics depicting flowers and arabesques, the stone carvings, the bas-reliefs and the beautiful black marble inlays that adorn the screen make you remember that the Taj, conceived as a palace, was built as an ornament. The execution of this stone screen took ten years. On the grave itself, 99 sayings of the Prophet Mohammed, lined with gems, shimmer.

The upper graves, with thirty-five variations of rare stones, are much more magnificent than the lower ones. The mosaic adorning the cenotaph contains words blessing the shah with the shahina and cursing all the infidels.

Thousands of different colors are laid out in mosaic. It is said that the remaining rooms were intended for close relatives of the Shah. Previously, the burial rooms were covered with carpets, on which the mullahs sat and prayed.

The cost of the temple in the XVII century was estimated at five million rupees. A little later, another figure arose - thirty million.

However, even then it was recognized, and today we understand that the Taj Mahal's cost estimate is as crazy as the desire to determine the cost of a billion stars.

The founder of the Great Mogul dynasty, expelled from Fergana and Samarkand, but managed to become the owner of the treasures of India

Zahireddin Muhammad Babur. Miniature from Babur-name. End of the 16th century. GMV, Moscow

Zahireddin Mohammed, the founder of the Indian dynasty of the Great Moghuls, was a descendant of the great conqueror Timur (Tamerlane). His father was the ruler of Ferghana, Sheikh Omar Ebussid. Babur is a lion, a nickname he received in his youth for his courage and militancy.

At the age of 12, Babur inherited his father's Sultan's throne. But soon he was expelled from the Ferghana Valley by the rebellious local population - nomadic Uzbeks, led by Sheibani Khan. He fought against the Chagatai Tatars (Mongol) of Turkestan and in 1497 expelled the Sultan again from Samarkand.

However, the Timurid was not "lost" in history. He managed to turn the remaining loyal troops into a formidable, well-organized force. He found refuge in the territory of modern Afghanistan and managed to win back the throne of the Kabul ruler for himself. But before that Babur conquered Kandahar in 1504. Then he annexed the region and the city of Ghazni (Ghazna) to his possessions. And only after that he made a victorious campaign against Kabul.

In 1512, the sultan tried to recapture Samarkand from the Uzbeks. He went to war with them, hoping that they had not yet recovered from the defeat inflicted on them by the Persians in Khorasan. However, the Uzbek army in the battle of Ghazdivan defeated the Kabulites.

After this failure, Babur spent many years perfecting his small army. Troops were recruited from conquered regions and nomadic tribes. Babur had a new type of guns - like in Europe. Having noticeably strengthened, the Kabul Sultan decided to conquer Northern India.

From 1515 to 1523, the Kabul cavalry made several raids on the Punjab. But this was only reconnaissance in force. The most successful was the campaign of 1519 with the crossing of the Indus River, but it had to be stopped and hastily returned to Kabul, as major unrest began in the Sultan's possessions.

Having established proper order in the country, Zahireddin Mohammed, nicknamed the Lion, is again going on a campaign to the lands of fabulously rich India. However, his first attempt at conquest failed.

Babur, with the help of numerous spies, closely monitored the situation in the neighboring country. When in 1524 arose in the Punjab popular uprising against the local princes, the Sultan hastened to march. He captured the Punjabi capital of Lahore, but could not stay in it. Soon, the Punjabi governor of the ruler of the Muslim Delhi Sultanate, Ibrahim Lodi, ousted the Kabulis from the Punjab.

However, now it was no longer possible to stop Babur. The following year, 1525, he again invaded the Punjab and subjugated it, defeating the troops of all the border princes. After that, without letting the Indian Muslims come to their senses, he went to their capital, Delhi.

The army of the ruler of Kabul consisted of only 10 thousand selected people, with rich combat experience of equestrian warriors, who skillfully wielded both edged weapons and bows. It is believed that Babur's army had musketeers and artillery, which was serviced by Turkish mercenaries, and spearmen on foot (it is believed that there were two thousand of them). On the way to Delhi, Babur was joined by five thousand local warriors - Hindus and Muslims The Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi came out to meet the enemy army. He led with him (according to various estimates) 10-40 thousand soldiers. The strike force of the Delhi Muslims was 100 war elephants.

The battle took place on April 21, 1526 on the Panipat Plain, 30 miles from the city of Delhi. Babur decided to accept a defensive battle. The transport wagons formed a battle line. Cannons were placed in the gaps between them, which, according to Turkish custom, were chained to each other. Behind the wagons were spearmen and foot soldiers. Enough wide passages were left for the exit of the cavalry.

The ruler of Delhi with his army stood for several days in front of the enemy field fortress, not daring to start a battle. Babur was also in no hurry, waiting for the actions of Ibrahim Lodi. Finally, the Indians launched a massive attack on the position of the Kabulians, but were stopped in front of the wagon line by artillery fire and infantry. In that attack, the Delhi Muslims could not be helped by the troops of war elephants.

Babur prudently waited until almost the entire enemy army got involved in the battle. After that, he inflicted two flank attacks with cavalry, which the Sultan of Delhi had nothing to fend off. The Delhi Muslims fought desperately, but when the danger of encirclement became real, they ran towards the capital. The Kabul cavalry pursued the Indian warriors.

The battle of Panipat ended with a brilliant victory for Babur. The Delhi army lost only 15 thousand people killed, among whom was the ruler Ibrahim Lodi. The Indians also missed a lot of war elephants.

On April 27, 1526, the army of Zahireddin Muhammad Babur entered the city of Delhi, which opened its fortress gates to the conqueror. The Kabul Sultan became the founder of the Afghan dynasty of Delhi rulers and the "State of the Great Moghuls" - as the Europeans called the Mughal state. It was called Mughal on behalf of the direct ancestors of Babur - the Mongols.

Babur, with his inherent energy, did not sit out in the Sultan's palace. Already in the next year, 1527, he continued his conquests in Northern India. And immediately he had to face the warlike Rajputs, who united against him in a confederation of princes.

In the same year, 65 kilometers west of the city of Agra, at Sikra (Fatehpur-Sikar), a battle took place, which noticeably exceeded the Panipat battle in the number of soldiers participating in it. The leader of the Rajaput princes, Rana Sanga, brought to the battlefield an army of almost 100,000, which had many war elephants.

Zahireddin Babur's army did not exceed 20 thousand people. But its backbone was made up of battle-hardened equestrian fighters from the Turks, Afghans, Tajiks, who participated in military campaigns for many years.

Babur again, as under Panipat, set up a battle line of carts fastened together. Musketeers and foot soldiers took cover behind them, and the cannons were again placed in places convenient for firing. Under such a fairly reliable cover, the Mughal cavalry received freedom of maneuver from flank to flank.

The Rajputs boldly attacked the enemy army along the entire line of wagons. Events in the battle developed according to the Paliputian scenario. Only this time there were twice as many attackers, but they still could not break through the enemy position. Indian warriors under bullets and arrows tried to pull apart wagons.

Thanks to the strong and swift counterattack of the cavalry on the flanks of the Rajaput troops, Babur won that day the most brilliant victory in his military biography.

Most likely, the Rajput warriors would have stood firmer, but they lost their leader. Sanga was seriously wounded and therefore could no longer lead the battle. None of the many Rajput princes who surrounded him dared to take command.

The united army of the confederation of Rajput princes was completely defeated and fled from Sikra. The losses of the defeated Rajputs were enormous. None of their princes thought of further resistance.

In the next two years, Babur noticeably expanded his conquests. He annexed Bihar and Bengal in the lower reaches of the Ganges to his power. In 1529, near the city of Spots on the banks of the Ghagra River, the last big battle for Zahireddin Muhammad took place, which lasted three days. So the ruler of Kabul and Delhi completed the conquest of Northern India.

The founder of the state of the Great Moghuls left a huge empire to his heirs. Its borders stretched from the north from the banks of the Amu Darya and in the south to the Brahmaputra River, in the west from Multan and to the mouth of the Ganges in the east. On the Indian territory proper, Babur owned almost the entire interfluve of the Indus and the Ganges. The first Great Mogul was unable to complete subsequent conquest plans, he died in 1530.

Great Mughals- a dynasty of rulers in India, the descendants of the Samarkand ruler Timur (1336-1405). They ruled / ruled India from 1526 to 1858. The most famous Mughals, whose names history repeats again and again, are Babur, Akbar And Shah Jahan.

Family tree of the Great Moghuls - the descendants of Timur

Rulers of the Mughal dynasty in India:

• Babur (ruled 1526-1530),
• Humayun (1530-1539, 1555-1556),
• Akbar (1542-1605),
• Jahangir (1605-1627),
• Shah Jahan (1627-1658),
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707),
• Bahadur Shah (1707-1712),
• Jahandar Shah (1712-1713),
• Farrouk Siyar (1713-1719),
• Muhammad Shah (1719-1748),
• Ahmed Shah (1748-1754),
• Alamgir II (1754-1759),
• Shah Alam II (1759-1806),
• Akbar II (1806-1837),
• Bahadur Shah II (1837-1858).

II. Babur - gardener

The founder of the Mughal dynasty - Babur - a commander, poet and writer, is rightfully considered the most brilliant heir of Timur. And the most brilliant heir of Babur was his grandson Akbar the Great, to whom the next chapter is devoted. Babur was the great-grandson of Sultan-Mohammed (grandson of Timur), whose father, Miranshah, was the third son of Timur.

The founder of the dynasty Babur (1483-1530) was born in Andijan, in the Ferghana Valley (modern Uzbekistan). On the paternal side, he was a descendant of Timur, and on the maternal side - Genghis Khan. At the first shaving of his head, Babur's grandfather, the stern ruler of Tashkent Yunus Khan, who arrived from Tashkent in the Ferghana Valley, awarded him this nickname, after several unsuccessful attempts to pronounce the name given to the child - Zahireddin (translated from Arabic - "Keeper of the Faith") Muhammad. The old Mongol exclaimed that the boy reminded him of a tiger cub. The nickname Babur-Tiger remained with the future conqueror for life (Babur means "Tiger").

After the death of his father, 12-year-old Babur was declared the sovereign of Fergana. In subsequent years, he stubbornly sought to create a major centralized state on the territory between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, but his plans were unsuccessful. After being expelled in 1504 by Uzbek nomads from Central Asia, Babur settled in Kabul.

In 1526, he defeats the Delhi Sultanate and establishes a new ruling dynasty in Northern India, which is called the "Moguls", which in Persian means "Mongols" in memory of the fact that they come from Central Asia (Mogolistan), which was part of the Mongolian state of Chagatai Ulus - the possession of Chagatai (1186-1242), the second son of Genghis Khan, who owned the very heart Central Asia. Chagatai was appointed by his father as the great guardian of the Yasa, a collection of generally accepted Mongolian legal regulations and generalized wisdom formulated by Genghis Khan. This dynasty was called the Great Mughals by European travelers of the 17th century.

Babur left his mark not only in world history, but also in world literature, as a connoisseur of art, literature and science, a poet and author of "Babur-name" ("Babur's Notes") - a rare and talented biographical work in which tells about all the significant events of the era of his reign, and also describes in detail the political situation that prevailed in Central Asia and Northern India at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. "Babur-name" is compiled on the basis of Babur's subtle observations of the surrounding world.

Babur's merits as a historian, geographer, ethnographer, prose writer and poet are confirmed by new translations into French"Babur-name", published under the auspices of UNESCO in Paris in 1980 and 1985. Babur's heritage is being studied in almost all major oriental centers of the world.

Babur was one of the few rulers who had the courage to speak frankly about his failures and defeats, he knew how to treat his own behavior with humor. Very interesting are Babur's impressions of India, her natural features and the peoples who inhabited this country. With the advent of Babur, India learned, which distinguished the descendants of Timur, the love of gardens, music and poetry. He introduced India to Persian gardens, which from ancient times personified the idea of ​​Paradise, which passed into the Bible and the Koran. Babur managed to build a new Samarkand in India, although this happened after his death. The largest Persian garden in India is the Taj Mahal Garden in Agra, built by Shah Jahan in the 17th century.

Babur's daughter, Gulbadan Begim, was the only female historian in medieval India. A descendant of Babur was the Indian poetess Zebuniso (daughter of Aurangzeb, the last strong Mughal emperor). Zebuniso wrote in Persian (Farsi), also spoke Arabic and Urdu, studied philosophy, literature, astronomy, was famous not only for calligraphy, but also for her beauty.

A talented commander, a wise ruler, a passionate gardener, he was a loving father and voluntarily passed away for the sake of his son's recovery (when his son was dying, he begged Allah for his son's life in exchange for his own). Some time after Babur's death, his remains were transferred by his wife Bibi Mubarika Yusufzai from Agra to Kabul (his first capital), as he bequeathed, to the country garden, which is now known as Babur's Garden (Bag-i Babur). Babur very carefully chose the place of his burial. Remaining in his heart an incorrigible romantic and naturalist, he asked that his grave not be covered with anything so that rain and the rays of the Sun could fall on it.

Next to his grave in 1646, the builder of the Taj Mahal, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan built a marble mosque. The grave itself consisted of a simple marble slab on a small dais and the following words were inscribed on it: Only this mosque of beauty, only this church of nobility, built for prayers to the saints and the appearance of cherubs, is worthy of standing in such a respected refuge as this road of the archangels, these heavenly expanses, this bright garden of the God-chosen angel king, who rests in this divine garden, Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur the Conqueror»

Babur possessed eight important qualities: sober judgment, noble ambitions, the art of victory, the art of government, the art of achieving the well-being of his people, the talent for gentle government, the ability to win the hearts of his warriors, and the love of justice. They were inherited and multiplied by his grandson - Akbar twice the Great.

III. Akbar twice the Great

The Indian emperor Akbar the Great (1542-1605) was the grandson of Babur and the builder of the Mughal Empire (the Timurid Empire in India) - the largest power in India. Akbar the Great is often called twice great, but not only because in Arabic, Akbar means Great. He is rightfully considered one of the greatest rulers not only of India, but of the whole world. Akbar the Great was a contemporary of the first Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible and the Turkish Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.

Akbar the Great, like his ancestors Timur and Genghis Khan, owned the Chintamani Stone sent to him by Shambhala - the gift of Orion, responsible for spiritual evolution on Earth. His military genius was comparable to the mission of enlightenment.

His humanistic views and love for peaceful life harmoniously combined with military talent. Like his glorious ancestor Timur, Akbar did not lose a single battle. He collected lands and fought not at all out of personal insatiability, but creating a new page great history. Akbar managed to unite Muslims and Hindus, giving the country the long-awaited political stability, carried out a policy aimed primarily at asserting human dignity, spiritual and physical health nation. The expression of Thomas Carlyle fully applies to Akbar: “The history of the world is, in essence, the history of inspirational heroes, educators and leaders of peoples.”

Carlyle in his work "Heroes, the veneration of heroes and the heroic in history" gave the following classification of various types of heroes: a deity, a poet, a prophet, a spiritual shepherd, a reformer, where a special place is given to the hero-ruler, since he organically combines best qualities all other types. If we briefly summarize the main, according to Carlyle, qualities that distinguish such a hero from ordinary people, you get the following list:

- deep sincerity and insight;

- the ability to penetrate into the true essence of things through external appearance;

- devotion to the activity that transforms the world;

- spiritual mentoring of their people;

- loneliness among the crowd.

These qualities were fully possessed by Akbar, whose reign years (1562-1605) are unanimously called by historians of the world the “age of Akbar”. Even today, Akbar the Great remains for the Indians a symbol of mercy, justice and nobility. Thanks to the wise policy of Akbar, peace has been maintained in multinational India for a long time.

Akbar put forward 3 principles of public policy:

1. Preservation of the nation state.

2. Tolerance, i.e. reconciliation of Muslims with Hindus.

3. Unification of India.

Akbar is often compared to the Biblical Solomon, finding their similarities:

- both became famous for their wisdom and justice;

- both thought about the single beginning of existence;

- both cared about strengthening their states;

- both created a fair trial;

- both felt power as a heavy burden;

- each death caught in the midst of creation.

Akbar's nature was incredibly active, he was in a hurry to live and worked for the benefit of his people. Akbar, as an enlightened ruler, deeply, broadly and sharply thought about the state, about the world and the place of man in it. Akbar was not only a philosopher, but also a practitioner: it is difficult to name a craft or an art that he did not know.

At the age of 13, after the death of his father, Akbar's childhood ended and the difficult years of rapid maturation and the building of a great empire began. At the age of 13, Akbar, whose childhood passed among military campaigns, was a very strong and strong young man. He was well versed in military affairs, had a sharp mind, excellent intuition, resourcefulness, observation and a strong sense of justice.

Conditionally, the following periods of Akbar's activity can be distinguished:

• 1562 - 1574 - expansion of the borders of the state;
• 1574 - 1580 - economic reforms;
• 1580 - 1602 - the conquest of new territories;
• 1582 - 1605 - implementation of a unique religious reform.

Aggressive campaigns for Akbar were not an end in themselves, but rather a hard necessity, a means of creating a monolithic and powerful state. In campaigns, Akbar showed a minimum of violence and a maximum of mercy. Jawarharlal Nehru, assessing Akbar's policy, stressed that he " gave preference to victories won by love over victories won by the sword, knowing full well that the former are more durable».

Akbar united many different ethnic groups with established traditions, customs, and religions into one people with a national idea. He carried out a unique cultural synthesis of Hinduism and Islam, which allowed the empire founded by Akbar to exist for more than a century and a half.

One of the main principles of Akbar's policy was principle of religious tolerance. Akbar wrote to the Iranian Shah Abbas: “From the very beginning, we were determined not to take into account differences in religious doctrines, but regard all nations as servants of God. It should be noted that the grace of the Lord marked all religions and every effort must be made to reach the ever-blooming gardens of the world for all."

At the court of Akbar there were many outstanding personalities who possessed extraordinary talents. His special attention and construction and architecture enjoyed patronage. Akbar was also well aware of the importance of literature; 24,000 manuscripts were collected in his library. Several thousand poets were in the service of the ruler.

Akbar's policy was peace for all, he preferred peaceful pursuits and disliked wars. Akbar attracted the hearts of many people. A particularly important role in his entourage was played by the "9 Treasures" - the most talented and spiritually close people to Akbar.

Far-sighted and wise ruler great attention dedicated to the education of his subjects. Schools were established in villages and towns to ordinary people where they taught to read, write and count. The number of higher educational institutions for Muslims and Hindus, in the program of which Akbar introduced new subjects: medicine, history, arithmetic, geometry, as well as the science of morality and behavior in society.

Akbar actively pursued a policy of mitigating religious differences. In 1582 he proclaims Din-i illahi- "Divine Faith", which creatively synthesized the best achievements of various religions. One of the meanings of the word "din" in Arabic- “power - submission”, which is very close to the ancient concept of “power - sacrifice”, when the rational and caring management of the state, the selfless work of the ruler for the benefit of his subjects were combined with the submission of his entire nature to the Higher Will. Din-i illahi's main postulate was that reason must be the basis of all actions. In all religions, Akbar valued only the feeling of the divine and did not attach importance to the dogma itself and its rituals.

While the fires of the Inquisition were blazing in Europe, Akbar created in his capital Fatehpur Sikri the world's first parliament of religions where, in the spirit of freedom and respect, religious and scientific disputes were held between representatives of the main religions of the Indian subcontinent (Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Judaism, etc.).

The reforms carried out by Akbar show that he pursued a policy aimed primarily at asserting human dignity, the spiritual and physical health of the nation, which was in the highest degree far-sighted. During the years of his reign, he cancels many taxes, prohibits the sale of prisoners of war into slavery, declares self-immolation illegal, prohibits child marriage, that is, the marriage of girls under 14 years old and boys under 16 years old, because they “give weak offspring, and spouses, having reached maturity, they will hate one another.

Akbar boldly rejects blind adherence to the dead letter of the law, the mechanical copying of ancient traditions, offering instead the spirit of research and free thinking. “The superiority of man depends on the treasures of the mind… Many people think that following the outward signs and the letter of Islam makes sense without inner conviction… Now it is clear that one cannot take a single step without a torch of evidence, and only that faith is true, which the mind approves,” argued ruler of a great empire.

The 16th century itself, in which Akbar lived and worked, is a special time for all mankind. This is the time of the Renaissance in Europe, the era of the Mahdi movement in Islam, the time of the renaissance in China ruled by the Ming dynasty, the time of Sufism and bhakti in India. New life pulsated in every civilized country, new energetic dynasties entered the arena: in England - the Tudors, in France - the Bourbons, in Spain and Austria - the Habsburgs, in Prussia - the Hohenzollerns, in Egypt - the Mamluks, in Persia - the Safavids, in Central Asia - the Shaibanids , in China - the Ming, in India - the Timurids, in Russia - the Ruriks strengthened the centralized power of Moscow. All this happened at the same time and we can talk about the determinism (non-randomness) of these events. It can be said that the greatness of each ruler expressed the general innovative spirit of the era: Henry VIII and Elizabeth in England, Henry IV in France, Frederick in Prussia, Sigismund in Austria, Philip II in Spain, Suleiman the Magnificent in Turkey, Shah Ismail in Persia, Khan Shaibani in Central Asia, Babur and Akbar in India, Ivan III and his grandson Ivan the Terrible in Russia.

The book The Lords and Their Mansions by Mark and Elizabeth Prophet states that Akbar was the incarnation of Mahatma El Morya, who was first reported to the world in the 1880s. Helena Blavatsky. Another incarnation of El Morya was no less famous than Akbar, Sumer - the common forefather of the three monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam).

Jalandhar

The biological mother of Shah Jahan (and wife of Jahangir) was the Rajput princess Jodha, born in the city of Jodhpur, located at northern latitude. It is the second largest city in the state of Rajasthan. It is located in the middle of the desert. Until the middle of the 20th century, it served as the capital of the Rajas of Mar. His maternal grandmother was also named Jodha and was a Rajput princess whom Akbar married for political reasons. She gave birth to his eldest son and heir, Jahangir. The epic film "Jodha and Akbar" was made about this story, where the role of Jodha was played by Miss World.

From the Punjab, the power of the Great Moghuls began to spread throughout India.

IV. Mughal architecture

The next famous ruler from the Mughal dynasty is Akbar's grandson Emperor Shah Jahan(1592-1666) during whose reign majestic buildings were built - Taj Mahal in Agra, the Red Fort and the Cathedral Mosque in Delhi, belonging to the best monuments of Mughal architecture. Under Sha-Jahan, the Mughal Empire reached the peak of its power. Shah Jahan had the same throne name (title) as his ancestor (Conqueror of the World).

Various sources indicate that Akbar was the incarnation, and his grandson Shah Jahan is the incarnation of Kuthumi.

Once Shah Jahan ordered to carve on the famous "Ruby of Tamerlane" the name that he chose for himself - "Second Lord of the favorable planets." Prior to this, only Timur (Tamerlane) was called the Lord of auspicious planets in the Muslim world. He got the ruby ​​during the capture of Delhi in 1398. Timur liked the stone so much that he took it with him to.

How this stone influenced the fate of Shah Jahan can only be guessed at. In 1658, the builder of the Taj Mahal, the owner of countless treasures, was imprisoned in the tower of the Red Fort in Agra by his own son Aurangzeb, whom he called the "Ornament of the Throne." From this tower (see photo), until his death, Shah Jahan saw the Taj Mahal, amazing in beauty and perfect in its architectural merits - the memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.

At that time there were cruel customs. For example, Shah Jahan began his own reign (1627) by killing siblings and relatives in order to get rid of unnecessary legitimate contenders for the throne. Nevertheless, the name of Shah Jahan has become forever associated with the history and pride of India - one of the wonders of the world - the Taj Mahal mausoleum.

Samarkand mausoleum Gur-Emir in which the legendary commander and conqueror is buried Timur (Tamerlane), became the forerunner and model for the mausoleums of his descendants - the ruling dynasty of North India mughal, in particular Mausoleum of Humayun in Delhi and famous Taj Mahal in Agra.

The architect of Humayun's mausoleum, the first Timurid-style mausoleum in Mughal India, was invited from , where he designed various structures. Therefore, the influence of the Timurid funerary architecture on this and subsequent mausoleums is not surprising.

The emperors from the Great Mogul dynasty were very proud of their belonging to the family of Timur, who had the title Ruler of the World and, when ascending the throne, took the corresponding throne names (titles):

• Akbar (1542 - 1605) - King of Kings (as Biblical Solomon);
• Jahangir (1569 - 1627) - Conqueror of the World;
• Shah Jahan (1592 - 1666) - Ruler of the World;
• Aurangzeb (1618 - 1707) - Ruler of the Universe.

So, Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, took the name that Timur bore - the Lord of the World. The Taj Mahal built under him became the most striking and famous expression of Persian architecture, widely represented in Central Asia, including in Samarkand, where Timur brought the best architects, builders and artists from Persia he conquered (now Iran). Thus, the architectural styles of Iran (Persia), Central Asia and India itself are harmoniously woven in the Taj Mahal.

The mausoleum of Itmad-Ud-Daullah is considered the forerunner of the Taj Mahal in India. It is often referred to as the little Taj Mahal or the original model from which the Taj Mahal grew. In addition to the external, they also have a deep historical connection. The mausoleum of Itmad-ud-Daullah was built by Empress Nur Jahan, who was the aunt of Mumtaz Mahal, in whose honor Shah Jahan would later build the majestic monument of love Taj Mahal. Nur Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal had a very strong influence on their husbands, often replacing them in public affairs.

The Mausoleum of Itmad-Ud-Daullah is located in the center of the Persian park Chakhar-Bagha (square-plan park). The choice of the Persian Garden emphasized that the father of Nur-Jahan, for whom she built this mausoleum, was from Persia. He had the title of "Support of the State" or Itmad-Ud-Daullah, having made a successful career at the court of Emperor Akbar (father-in-law Nur Jahan) and continued to faithfully serve his son, Emperor Jahangir, Nur Jahan's husband.

The mausoleum, small in size, perfectly reflects the taste and mind of the gifted Empress Nur Jahan. Openwork marble panels and a rich mosaic of gems are delicate and delightful in a feminine way.

At the time of the construction of Itmad-ud-Daullah, Mumtaz Mahal was still Arjumand Banu Begam, the daughter of Chief Minister Jahangir, whose son and successor - Shah Jahan, later, in 1612, will take her as his wife. Despite the fact that Shah Jahan already had a first wife - a Persian princess, Arjumand received a higher status and the love of her father-in-law, and soon after the wedding she received a new name - Mumtaz Mahal(“Exalted Chosen One of the Palace” or “Crown of the Palace”).

Taking into account the high position of Mumtaz Mahal's father and grandfather at the Mughal court, as well as her status as a beloved wife and first assistant to her husband Shah Jahan, some researchers do not exclude that she was a member of a secret Sufi order, being a conductor of his ideas. While the beautiful and wise Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu) was alive, the emperor was famous for his success in the arts, sciences, politics and military affairs. With her death, his affairs went from bad to worse and, as a result, he was put under house arrest by his youngest son Aurangzeb, who killed his brothers, who were or could become possible contenders for the throne, in order to seize power. Being exhausted and depressed, Shah Jahan, who had seized the throne in the same way (by killing his own brothers), could not stop either fratricide among his own sons, or prevent his removal and further arrest, under which he spent 9 years, until his very death.

Aurangzeb did not allow his father to build a second Taj Mahal (if this is not a legend), but after his death he buried his ashes in the Taj Mahal itself, next to his beloved Mumtaz Mahal, in whose memory Shah Jahan built this masterpiece of world architecture. By order of Aurangzeb, the ashes of Emperor Shah Jahan were transferred to the Taj Mahal at night and buried without honors. Since then, the cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal, like her sarcophagus in the crypt, is exactly in the center under the dome of the Taj Mahal (according to the plan and traditions), and the cenotaph of Shah Jahan is located nearby and, as it were, in the shade, which creates some asymmetry, but may reflect their roles in life (see above).

Regarding the strong influence of Mumtaz Mahal's aunt, Empress Nur Jahan, on her husband Emperor Jahangir, there are several opinions. According to one of them, his addiction to opium and alcohol made it easier for her to influence state affairs. For many years, she actually ruled the empire. She tried to strengthen her position through her brother Abdul Hassan Asaf Khana who was the imperial vizier or chief minister. She arranged the marriage of his daughter (her niece) Arjumand Banu Begam on the son of Jahangir - Prince Khurram who later became emperor Shah Jahan.

As mentioned above, in the struggle for power, Shah Jahan rebelled against the throne and began a fratricidal war. Due to Shah Jahan's toughness, Nur Jahan stopped supporting him and bet on his younger brother Prince Shahrar, organizing his wedding to her daughter from his first marriage, Ladli Begum.

Emperor Jahangir was captured by the rebels in 1626 during his journey to Kashmir. Nur Jahan intervened to free her husband. He was released in 1627 but died soon after. After Jahangir's death, Asaf Khan took his brother-in-law's side against his sister. Nur Jahan was imprisoned small house until the end of her life. She died in 1645 and was buried at Shadar in Lahore, where her husband Jahangir is also.

The fate of the Itmad-Ud-Daullah and Taj Mahal mausoleums, as well as the connection between Persia and India through them, is shown in the diagram below, which shows the genealogy of the "culprits" of the construction of both mausoleums - Nur Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal.

V. Taj Mahal - the image of Paradise on Earth

The Taj Mahal on the river is a gem and calling card India. This is the most extravagant monument of human love, created Shah Jahan in honor of his dear wife Mumtaz Mahal who died giving birth to his 14th child. It is noteworthy that the number itself often reflects a special symbolism in the story.

The mausoleum was built of marble delivered from Rajasthan over 300 kilometers. The surface of the Taj Mahal was inlaid with thousands of precious and semi-precious stones. The width of the building is equal to its total height m, and the distance from the floor level to the parapet above the arched portals is half the entire height.

Every detail of the building is unique and one-of-a-kind: these are classic gardens that invite reflection, intricate bas-reliefs of semi-precious stones adorning white marble. The Taj Mahal is so precious to India and its people that more than 200 factories in the area have been closed due to air pollution causing the white marble to darken.

From all sides, the Taj Mahal is covered with a variety of decorations, such as an elegant gilded pattern, calligraphy and intricate relief carving. The four sides of the monument are adorned with a mesh pattern consisting of floral and geometric patterns, which are a real wonder. The Mughals were admirers of nature and believed that flowers are a symbol of the divine environment. The Taj Mahal itself was conceived as a material embodiment on Earth.

Taj Mahal garden built in the style of Charbakh (quaternary garden), originating in the Koran, which speaks of 4 rivers. Its entire area is divided water channels and fountains on 4 squares with a pool in the center. Each square has flower beds, so there are 64 flower beds in the garden, like the number of cells on a chessboard.

An invariable attribute of Mughal architecture are Persian gardens. India is the easternmost point of their distribution. The most western is in Spain. Descendants of the ancient Mesopotamian civilization, the Persians paid great attention to the cultivation of gardens, known in this region as far back as 4000 BC. In the Koran, the words Paradise and Garden are synonymous, and the Avestan (ancient Persian) word means a fenced land (garden).

In addition, the Bible is also associated with Armenia and Mount Ararat. Noah, whose ark, after the Great Flood, landed on the mountain, from which he descended into the Ararat valley in the region Nakhichevan, which in translation from Armenian means " the place where Noah descended". Later, he planted the first vine there and began to cultivate grapes.

Interestingly, the legend of Noah has parallels in older Indian texts, which say that the guardian god Vishnu, who turned into goldfish Matsya, saved from the Flood only a hermit, who, after this flood, left his ark in valley Kullu(Northern India, in the Himalayas). Here Manu founded the city Manali(now the center of tourism), becoming the forefather of mankind, setting out the first legislation for people (Laws of Manu). The Kullu valley is considered one of the most beautiful places in India, it is called the valley of the gods. The heroes of the Mahabharata, the Pandava brothers, visited the valley three times, and the Roerich family lived here for 20 years. In ancient times, the Kullu Valley was called the end of the inhabited world.

Persian gardens are distinguished by strict geometric lines. As a rule, this is a large garden, divided into 4 squares by water channels, symbolizing 4 rivers that originated in the Garden of Eden (Eden). In the center is a fountain that feeds the canals with water, emphasizing the connection with the Garden of Eden. This form of garden is also called Chahar-Bah or 4 gardens (according to the number of squares separated by water channels or paths). Typical features of a Chahar-Bah garden are: an enclosing wall, rectangular pools, a system of connected water channels, garden pavilions, and abundant vegetation. The shady fruit trees in it not only fill it with aromas, but also symbolize eternal life, the Tree of Life that grew in Eden.

Persian gardens became the basis of Mughal gardens in India and Pakistan, the most famous of which was the Taj Mahal garden in Agra, the largest Persian garden in the world. From the very beginning, the Mughals attached great importance to gardens. The founder of the dynasty - Babur-Tiger, being a great lover of gardens and a refined connoisseur of beauty, began to lay the first geometric Persian gardens in India, similar to the Garden of Eden. Moreover, the Mughals in India traditionally maintained kinship, military and cultural ties with Persia. The Persian garden, which houses the first Mughal mausoleum belonging to Emperor Humayun (son of Babur), is divided into 36 squares by water channels and paths, which is in line with the Iranian tradition of mausoleums in Sultania and Samarkand.

In modern Iran, such gardens can be found in the cities of Yazd - the famous center of Zoroastrianism (the pre-Islamic religion of the Persians) and in Isfahan, famous throughout the world for its complex, with a Persian garden (or what is left of it) in the center.

Returning to the Taj Mahal, one can recall the legend according to which Shah Jahan dreamed of building a mausoleum for himself, an exact copy of the Taj Mahal, but only from black marble, on the other side of the Jamna River (), opposite the white marble Taj Mahal (see photo) . These two mausoleums would be connected by a black and white openwork Bridge of Sighs - a symbol of eternal, imperishable, timeless love. However, such expenses were not included in the plans of Aurangzeb's son, who succeeded him on the throne. It took about 20,000 workers and a year to build just one Taj Mahal, plus hundreds of kilograms of gold, precious and semi-precious stones. The Taj Mahal has absorbed the best achievements of Islamic (Persian) and Hindu architecture.

Domes play a special role in the architecture of Islam. For example, the dome of the Taj Mahal symbolizes the mountain or throne of Allah (the One God). Being near the Taj Mahal, a person understands that in front of him is Allah himself, merciful and ruthless at the same time, who created the world and dissolved in it, Allah is visible and invisible. Allah is incomprehensible.

The Taj Mahal is designed in such a way that a loudly spoken word will first be reflected by a powerful echo from the walls of the mausoleum; then, when the echo is almost gone, the cry will be repeated in turn by each arch of the lower gallery, after which the upper ceilings will answer in chorus, and, finally, the unbearable roar of the last echo reflected from the vault will crown everything. It is believed that this word can only be "Allah", because the wonderful echo was a pre-calculated part of the artists' plan, who gave the Taj Mahal a voice and told it to forever repeat this name of the One God for all.

The main principle of Islam is the uniqueness of the Almighty God, one of whose names is "Allah" and the need to worship only Him alone, and not any image (for example, an icon) or other entity (for example, any pagan idol or statue).

However, the human mind is imperfect and has a tendency to better perceive something visible, material. Given such features of the human imagination, science arose - sacred geometry. This is the science of the art of creating a certain limited space, where everything would remind a person of the greatness of the Most High God.

Sacred geometry forms the basis of Islamic architecture. Entire spiritual concepts are represented in the amazing geometric patterns of Muslim buildings. Images include and geometric pattern elements human body, and forms of plants, and geological structures, therefore there is an expression "in geometry the Almighty is manifested."

The era of the ancestor of the Great Moghuls - Timur and his descendants (Timurids) became one of the most important periods in the development of Islamic art. A special feature of almost all structures built under the Timurids is the symmetry of the building plan.

In Islamic architecture, the designs are so intricate and the designs so geometric that they seem to stretch into infinity, inviting your mind to follow. The task of Muslim architects is the embodiment of some non-material concept in a real physical object that affects the human mind. And the task sacred geometry- the creation of a certain surrounding space of perfect physical harmony, reflecting the concept of divine harmony, as a manifestation of the Grace of the Most High to his creatures. A person who is in such an environment cannot help but feel its impact; at the same time, he himself shows the desire to be a more harmonious personality.

A more modest copy of the Taj Mahal was the mausoleum built by Emperor Aurangzeb, 850 km away. southwest of Agra.

VI. Lalla Rook

Irish writer and 19th poet century, Moore wrote the popular poem "", which tells about the love suffering of the fictional daughter of Aurangzeb from the Mughal dynasty. Moore was one of the main representatives of Irish. In Russia, he is known primarily for the poem "Evening Bells", translated by Ivan Kozlov and became a well-known Russian song. Moore also wrote other works with a Skye flavor.

Aurangzeb (Pers. "Conqueror of the Universe") became the last real ruler of the Mughal dynasty. Under him, and on the labors of his ancestors, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent and power, uniting practically the message of Hindustan. Several times he sent ambassadors to the Khanate and allocated funds from his own treasury for restoration Gur-Emir- the mausoleum of his ancestor Timur.

He was the third son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. Aurangzeb received an excellent education. Despite his status, he observed modesty in clothes and in everyday life, befitting a Muslim. Before ascending the throne, mid-seventeenth century, ruled.

Aurangzeb's path to power was within the framework of that time. He waged an internecine war with his older brother for the succession to the throne. Having exterminated the rival brothers and their offspring, Aurangzeb overthrew his own father Shah Jahan and imprisoned him in the fort.

Having become emperor, he zealously pursued a policy of imposing Islam in India, causing justified anger and revolts of his subjects. Aurangzeb's power was especially fragile in western and southern India, c. This historical plateau is bounded from the north by the river Narmada, from the south by the river ri.

To fight the independent sultanates of the Deccan, Aurangzeb moved his capital to Aurangabad in 1681, from where he ruled until his death in 1707. The tomb of Aurangzeb is located in the suburbs of Aurangabad, where the Valley of the Saints (Sufi cemetery) is also located.

In the past, the Rulers of Hyderabad were the richest people on the planet. The funeral procession of the last of them (Asaf x VII) in 1967 became one of the largest in the history of India. Hyderabad was named after the wife of the ruler Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. He planned Hyderabad after the example of the legendary city. The architectural heritage of Hyderabad is quite comparable with, and.

Hyderabad is well known in the world under the name City. This largest center processing and trading of pearls in India, and one of the largest in the world. Trade in pearls, gold, diamonds became the basis of the wealth and prosperity of Hyderabad.

Charminar, Hyderabad

Today Aurangabad is part of the Indian state of Telan. gan a, whose capital is Hyderabad. Within the boundaries of this city is the ancient Golconda, famous for its diamonds, which were mined and processed in the area. The most famous diamonds were found here, including the ("Mountain of Light"), which now adorns the crown of Queen Elizabeth of England, is stored in.

In the vicinity of Golconda / Hyderabad are the world-famous complexes of the cave temples of Ajanta, Ellora and. Here are the remains of Daulatabad - one of the capitals of the dynasty. He transferred his administrative functions to Aurangabad in the 17th century. 250 km. from Aurangabad is where the famous Bollywood is located. However, it is in Hyderabad that the world's largest complex of film studios (Ramoji) is located. This is the largest film set on the planet, listed in the Guinness Book of Records. On its huge areas there are 500 film sets and 50 closed pavilions.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a Spanish mosque was built in Hyderabad in the Moorish style of architecture, following the example of the cathedral mosque of Cordoba. It is built on the model in Agra, but inferior to it in size and pomp.

Their eldest child was Shahzadi, the poetess Zeb un- ("Decoration of women"). She was distinguished by her beauty. Owned, Arabic and Urdu, Turkic. She studied philosophy, literature, astronomy, and was famous for her calligraphy. He is the author of the commentary to the Koran "3ebi tafasir" ("Beauty of interpretations"). Being imprisoned by her own father, she left this life five years before his death. Buried at the gate in. When was built in India Railway, her grave was moved to Sikandra, to her ancestor.

India is one of the largest countries in the world with a unique culture and interesting story. In particular, to this day, researchers are interested in the question of how the son of Emir Fergana Babur, left without a father at the age of 12, not only did not become a victim of political intrigues and died, but also penetrated into India and created one of the greatest empires Asia.

background

Before the mighty Mughal empire was formed on the territory of modern India and some adjacent states, this country was fragmented into many small principalities. They were constantly raided by nomadic neighbors. In particular, in the 5th century, the tribes of the Huns penetrated the territory of the Gupta state, which occupies the northwestern part of the Hindustan peninsula and the lands adjacent from the north. And although by the year 528 they were expelled, after their departure in India there were no large state formations. A century later, the charismatic and far-sighted ruler Harsha united several small principalities under his leadership, but after his death, the new empire collapsed, and in the 11th century, Muslims under the leadership of Mahmud Ghaznevi penetrated the territory of Hindustan and founded the Delhi Sultanate. During the 13th century it was able to withstand the invasion of the Mongols, but by the end of the 14th century it fell apart as a result of the invasion of the thousands of Timur's hordes. Despite this, the largest principalities of the Delhi Sultanate lasted until 1526. Their conquerors were the Great Mughals, under the leadership of Babur, a Timurid who came to India with a huge international army. His army at that time was the strongest in the region and the rajas could not prevent him from conquering Hindustan.

Biography of Babur

The first Great Mogul of India was born in 1483 on the territory of modern Uzbekistan, in the famous trading city of Andijan. His father was the emir of Fergana, who was the great-great-grandson of Tamerlane, and his mother came from the Genghisides family. When Babnur was only 12 years old, he was left an orphan, but after 2 years he managed to capture Samarkand. In general, as researchers of the biography of the founder of the Mughal empire point out, from early childhood he had an exceptional desire for power, and even then he cherished the dream of becoming the head of a huge state. The triumph after the first victory did not last long, and after 4 months Babur was expelled from Samarkand by Sheibani Khan, who was three times his senior. The experienced politician did not rest on this and ensured that the young Timurid was forced to flee with the army to the territory of Afghanistan. There, fortune smiled on the young man, and he conquered Kabul. But resentment for the fact that his fiefdom - Samarkand is ruled by an alien Uzbek ruler, did not give him rest, and he repeatedly made attempts to return to this city. All of them ended in failure, and, realizing that there was no turning back, Babur decided to conquer India and establish his new state there.

How was the Mughal state founded?

In 1519, Babur made a campaign in North-West India, and after 7 years he decided to capture Delhi. In addition, he defeated the Rajput prince and founded a state centered in Agra. Thus, by 1529, the empire included the territories of Eastern Afghanistan, the Punjab and the Ganges valley up to the borders of Bengal.

Death of Babur

Death overtook the founder of the Mughal Empire in 1530. After Hamayun's accession to the throne, the Mughal Empire in India lasted until 1539, when the Pashtun commander Sher Shah expelled him from the country. However, after 16 years, the Mughals were able to recapture their possessions and return to Delhi. Anticipating his imminent death, the head of state divided the empire between his four sons, appointing Hamayun as chief of them, who was supposed to rule Hindustan. Three other Baburids got Kandahar, Kabul and Punjab, but they were obliged to obey their elder brother.

Akbar the Great

In 1542, a son was born to Hamayun. He was named Akbar, and it was this grandson of Babur who had to make sure that the empire founded by the Great Mughals went down in history as an example of a state where there was no religious and national discrimination. He ascended the throne, almost in the same early age, like his grandfather, and spent almost 20 years of his life suppressing rebellions and strengthening centralized power. As a result, by 1574, the formation of a single state with clear systems of local government and tax collection was completed. Being exclusively smart person, Akbar the Great allocated land and financed the construction of not only mosques, but also Hindu temples, as well as Christian churches, which missionaries were allowed to open in Goa.

Jahangir

The next ruler of the empire was the third son of Akbar the Great - Selim. Having ascended the throne after the death of his father, he ordered to call himself Jahangir, which means "conqueror of the world." This was a short-sighted ruler who first of all abolished the laws concerning religious tolerance, which turned against himself the Hindus and representatives of other nationalities who are not Muslims. Thus, the Great Mughals ceased to enjoy the support of the population of many areas, and were forced from time to time to suppress uprisings against their henchmen-rajas.

Shah Jahan

The last years of the reign of Jahangir, who became a drug addict towards the end of his life, were a dark time for the empire that the Great Mughals founded. The fact is that a struggle for power began in the palace, in which the main wife of the padishah named Nur-Jahan took an active part. During this period, the third son of Jahangir, who was married to his stepmother's niece, decided to take advantage of the situation and made himself proclaimed heir, bypassing his older brothers. After the death of his father, he took the throne and reigned for 31 years. During this time, the capital of the Great Moghuls - Agra turned into one of the most beautiful cities in Asia. At the same time, it was he who decided in 1648 to make Delhi the capital of his state and built the Red Fort there. Thus, this city became the second capital of the empire, and it was there that in 1858 the last Great Mogul, along with his closest relatives, was taken prisoner by the British troops. Thus ended the history of the empire, which left behind a huge cultural heritage.

Capital of the Great Mughals

As already mentioned, in 1528 Babur made Agra the main city of his empire. Today it is one of the most famous tourist centers in Asia, as many architectural monuments of the Mughal period have been preserved there. In particular, everyone knows the famous Taj Mahal mausoleum, built by Shah Jahan for his beloved wife. This unique building is rightfully considered one of the wonders of the world and impresses with its perfection and splendor.

The fate of Delhi was completely different. In 1911, it became the residence of the Viceroy of India, and all the main departments of the colonial British government moved there from Calcutta. For the next 36 years, the city developed at a rapid pace, and areas of European development appeared there. In particular, in 1931, the opening of his new district of New Delhi, completely designed by the British, took place. In 1947, it was proclaimed an independent capital and remains so to this day.

The Mughal Empire existed from the first half of the 16th until 1858 and played essential role in the fate of the peoples inhabiting India.

On February 14, 1483, Zahir ad-din Muhammad Babur (the word Babur means "tiger") was born in the family of the emir of Fergana Omar-Sheikh Mirza. Babur's father was from the Timurid family, a direct descendant of the famous "Iron Lame" Tamerlane. Mother, Kutlug Nigorkhanym, was from the Chingizid family, the daughter of the Moghulistan ruler Yunuskhan. Babur entered as a commander, founder of the largest power in the 16-18 centuries in India and Afghanistan - the Mughal Empire, as well as a scientist, poet and writer. This makes Babur a very interesting person, in history you can find many successful commanders and conquerors, but it is rare for them to be so many-sided gifted people.

His childhood passed in Andijan, where he was happy. Here he was educated, he developed a love for poetry. Before his death, he will yearn for Ferghana. Already at the age of 11, he was forced to take the reins of the Ferghana Principality - his father died on June 9, 1494 at the age of 39. From the very beginning of his reign, Babur had to fight for his inheritance and for Maverannahr - the region between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya (Sogdiana), includes such famous cities as Samarkand, Bukhara, Khiva, etc. His position was precarious. There were constant strife in the region. There were enough feudal lords who wanted to grab something from their neighbors, subdue them, or simply rob them. Even his own brother spoke out against Babur, and he had to divide the Fergana principality into two destinies. His main opponent was the Uzbek Khan Muhammad Sheibani (the founder of the Sheibanid state). The strife among the Timurids led to the fact that Sheibani Khan in 1501 finally took possession of Samarkand and made it the capital of his state. Babur fortified himself in Tashkent, where he tried to put together a coalition of feudal rulers against Sheibani. However, due to the betrayal of several princes, he was defeated. In 1500-1505, Babur was ousted by Khan Sheibani to Afghanistan, where he created a new state with its capital in Kabul. Until 1512, he unsuccessfully tried to recapture Bukhara and Samarkand. The idea to conquer India was born already in 1504, when Babur was only 21 years old. However, due to the short-sightedness of relatives and feudal lords, this idea had to be postponed and an attempt was made to win back their native inheritance.

In Afghanistan, Babur created a strong army, and after the failure with Samarkand, he decided to capture India. Northern India by this time was already subject to Muslim rulers - in the 13th century the Delhi Sultanate was created. However, by the end of the 14th century, the sultanate was already weakened and after the invasion of Timur's army, it fell apart. In the 15th century, the limits of the sultanate were limited to the two rivers of the Ganges and Jamna. The Indian subcontinent was divided into dozens of small and large state entities, often at enmity with each other. In 1518 - 1524, Babur's troops made several raids on the Punjab (the northwestern part of India), capturing a lot of booty. The turning point in the mood of the nobility occurred as a result of the fact that the powerful enemy of Babur, Sheibani Khan, started a campaign against Afghanistan. Other Central Asian rulers joined him. It was not possible to resist such a force, because of the constant strife of the Afghan tribes. “I was left alone in Kabul, the enemy is very strong, and we are very weak,” the Emir of Kabul says to those close to him. - With such a strong and powerful opponent, we must find a place for ourselves; while there is time and opportunity, we need to get away from such a powerful and formidable enemy. They decided to go to India not with a robbery raid, but with a campaign of conquest.

The governor of the Punjab, Daulat Khan, who was at enmity with Sultan Ibrahim Lodi, who reigned in Delhi, decided to support Babur's actions. Daulat Khan also had supporters in Delhi, where they were dissatisfied with the rule of the cruel Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. Among the conspirators was Prince Sangram Singh. Thus, the conspiracy of the Indian political elite became the main prerequisite that predetermined the fall of the Delhi Sultanate. Instead of meeting the enemy at distant frontiers, the highest dignitaries of the Sultan launched him into the interior of the country in order to overthrow the Sultan with the hands of Babur.

Daulat Khan planned to take the throne himself in Delhi, believing that Babur's campaigns, like Timur's invasion, were predatory in nature. Babur's troops, laden with rich booty and fed up with violence, will themselves leave India. However, he grossly miscalculated. Babur occupied Lahore in 1524 and did not leave, and the next year he undertook a new campaign. The Punjabi governor opposed him, but was defeated.

On April 21, 1526, on the Panipat plain, on the way from Lahore to Delhi, a decisive battle of 12,000 took place. Corps Babur with 40 thousand. army of the Sultan of Delhi. The victory of Babur's troops was predetermined by the use of artillery and guns, in which the ruler of Kabul had a complete advantage, and the tactics of covering the enemy's flanks with cavalry detachments. In India, firearms were known, but the useless commander Ibrahim neglected them and planned to crush Babur's detachment with the pressure of a powerful cavalry. Babur tied the carts together, covered them with shields. Between the wagons there were openings for cannons, detachments of musketeers and cavalry. The flanks of the defense line were covered with ditches and notches. Babur's army repulsed all attacks of the enemy cavalry with well-coordinated rifle and cannon volleys and horse counterattacks. When the Delian cavalry was upset, they were overturned by cavalry flanking blows. The Sultan of Delhi laid down his head in this battle. Thousands of Indian warriors laid down their lives in this battle. The road to Delhi was open.

On April 30, 1526, Babur became the first padishah of Delhi, who founded the state of the Great Moghuls. The defeat of the troops of the Sultan of Delhi at Panipati, the news of his death came as a shock to Northern India. Babur did not hesitate to capture the two main cities of the Sultanate - Delhi and Agra. His warriors occupied all government buildings, palaces and the treasury. There was almost no resistance. His troops immediately set about restoring order in the area. Babur immediately issued a decree forbidding to rob and offend the families of defeated enemies, which won over many people to his side and did not cause a response wave of resistance that terror could cause. Babur also immediately rewarded his associates and warriors. From the Indian treasuries, military leaders and ordinary soldiers were given money, as well as various goods, weapons and horses. In addition to these distributions, distribution of land plots, lands and pastures was carried out. Generous gifts were received by Kabul, Ghazna, Kandahar and even Mecca, where they were sent through wanderers. This generosity was the cause of many rumors that reached neighboring countries. According to one of them, the visiting padishah distributed all the treasures of India he had captured and left nothing for himself, acting like a wandering dervish. Vladyka Babur himself reflected this thought in verse: "I do not belong to the brotherhood of dervishes, but, as a king, I am their brother in spirit."

It should be noted that Babur's desire to stay in India and make it a home for all the descendants of Genghis Khan and Timur was not accepted by everyone. The troops were outraged. Deserters appeared. The first among those who fled was the first adviser to the padishah, Khoja Kalan, who left under the pretext of distributing gifts and became the ruler of Kabul. The warriors were burdened in many ways by India, which was strange and unusual in nature and climate. Babur had to convene a council, where he convinced the leaders to stay in India: “How many years we have made efforts and endured hardships, went to distant states and led troops, exposing ourselves and people to the dangers of battles and war! By the grace of God, we have defeated so many enemies and captured such vast lands. What force and what necessity now compels us to abandon without cause the possessions won after so much labor, and return again to Kabul to subject ourselves to the trials of poverty and weakness? Let anyone who wants well for us, no longer speak such words, and he who can no longer show stamina if he wants to leave, let him leave and not refuse it.

True, he still had to break the resistance of the Rajput princes, led by Sangram Singh, who, seeing that Babur was not going to leave, gathered a large army. Babur's associates were frightened and persuaded him to leave India, they had already plundered great wealth and were afraid to lose it. They said that "one should be content with the mercy of Allah, which he sent down." However, for Babur it was a high point, and he was not going to retreat. The main dream of his life came true. As a sign of his faith, he ordered the destruction of wine stocks, although he liked to drink and made a vow not to drink (he fulfilled it). The decisive battle between the Rajputs and Babur's army took place at Khanua (near Sikri) in March 1527. Once again, the superiority of Babur's troops in artillery and handguns played a decisive role. More numerous Rajput troops attacked the defensive orders of Babur. However, their attacks were shattered by skillful defense and counterattacks. The Rajput princes suffered a crushing defeat. Their leader Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) was severely wounded and died the same year. None of his descendants dared to continue the fight. This victory over the Rajput confederation led to the final establishment of Babur's authority over Northern India. Having achieved success, Babur moved the center of the newly formed state to Agra. Until the end of his life - 1530, he expanded his power, adding to it the Ganges valley, to the borders of Bengal. On May 6, 1529, he defeated the rulers of Bihar and Bengal at the Battle of Gogra.

Part of the Afghan army of Babur returned to their homeland, loaded with rich booty. The other part remained in India. The warriors received land allotments from the padishah. New landowners usually hired local residents as managers, who were better versed in local conditions. Babur carried out the formation of a tax-administrative apparatus and a centralized system of government in the new state, but did not have time to complete this work. These tasks were already solved by his successors. Despite the very brief reign- 1526-1530, Babur was able to lay the foundations of the future great power, uniting a significant part of the fragmented India. He streamlined land and water relations, the tax system. On his instructions, a large construction program was launched, mosques, baths, buildings for various purposes were built, wells were dug. In the largest Indian cities - Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Dewalpur, the kings laid gardens and parks with ornamental plants. Apparently, the first such building in India was a large garden called Kabul-bakht, founded in Panipat in honor of the victory over the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. In gardens laid out in India, the padishah for the first time applied the experience of growing melons and grapes from Central Asia. During his many trips around the country, Babur tirelessly planned the construction of roads, which were to be framed by shady irrigated gardens.

Babur paid great attention to the improvement of large Indian cities subordinate to him. The architecture, the layout of public and private buildings, their external details and interiors, took a lot from the style adopted in Central Asia, at the same time they were able to organically combine with the Indian style. In architecture, there was a synthesis of two styles. This process was also developed under Babur's heirs.

The founder of the new state actively sought to strengthen trade and economic ties with Afghanistan, Iran, and Central Asia. Babur issued a decree on the improvement of caravanserais, the construction of special wells on trade routes, and the provision of food and fodder for travelers. All these activities were aimed at increasing trade with neighboring countries and normalizing relations with them. Babur normalized relations with the Sheibanids. Padishah, even shortly before his death, Babur sent an ambassador to the Russian ruler Vasily Ivanovich.

Before his death, Babur appointed an heir - he was the eldest son Humayun. The remaining sons received Punjab, Kabul and Kandahar as inheritances, and were obliged to obey their elder brother.

Babur was noted not only as an outstanding commander and statesman, but also as a highly educated person who knows how to appreciate art. In his capital, Agra, the padishah gathered around him many talented writers, poets, artists, musicians, researchers, to whom he paid great attention. He tried to better study local customs, traditions, and was distinguished by observation. He studied the history and culture of the peoples of Central Asia, Afghanistan and India. Babur's merits as a historian, geographer, and ethnographer are now recognized by world oriental science. He was noted as a prominent poet and writer who wrote the historical work "Babur-name". In this autobiographical work, the padishah left a description of the great cities of Central Asia, Khorasan, Afghanistan, Iran and India. For modern science, his reports on Samarkand, Bukhara, Kabul, Ghazni, Balkh, Fergana, Badakhshan, Delhi, Devalpur, Lahore and other cities and places are priceless. He also described caravan routes leading from Kabul to India and Central Asia. The work is an excellent reflection of the description of nature, flora, fauna, geography of Central Asia, Afghanistan, India. The book also contains information about the political life of India, fragmentary data on the history of this country. Babur-nam contains a lot of data on Indian ethnography: it tells about the caste system, customs, life of the common people and the feudal nobility.

Babur's Peru also owns a treatise on poetics; presentation in poetic form of Muslim law and own development of the alphabet - "Khatti Baburi" ("Babur's Alphabet"). The "alphabet" was created on the basis of the ancient Turkic writings and was distinguished by a more simplified style compared to the complex Arabic script.