Russian literatureXIXcentury

The 19th century is the heyday of Russian literature, which develops at a feverish pace; directions, trends, schools and fashions change with dizzying speed; Every decade has its own poetics, its own ideology, its own artistic style. The sentimentalism of the tenths gives way to the romanticism of the twenties and thirties; the forties see the birth of Russian idealistic “philosophy” and Slavophile teaching; the fifties - the appearance of the first novels by Turgenev, Goncharov, Tolstoy; the nihilism of the sixties gives way to the populism of the seventies, the eighties are filled with the glory of Tolstoy, artist and preacher; in the nineties, a new flowering of poetry began: the era of Russian symbolism.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Russian literature, having experienced the beneficial effects of classicism and sentimentalism, was enriched with new themes, genres, artistic images and creative techniques. She entered her new century on the wave of the pre-romantic movement, aimed at creating a national literature that was unique in its forms and content and that met the needs of the artistic development of our people and society. This was the time when, along with literary ideas, a wide penetration into Russia of all kinds of philosophical, political, historical concepts that had formed in Europe at the turn of the 19th century began.

In Russia romanticism as an ideological and artistic direction in the literature of the early 19th century, it was generated by the deep dissatisfaction of the advanced part of Russians with Russian reality. The formation of romanticism

Connected with the poetry of V.A. Zhukovsky. His ballads are imbued with ideas of friendship and love for the Fatherland.

Realism It was established in the 30s and 40s along with romanticism, but by the mid-19th century it became the dominant trend in culture. According to his ideological orientation, he becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of the great realists is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice.

For some time now it has become a habit to talk about nationalities, demand nationality, complain about the lack of nationality in works of literature - but no one thought to define what he meant by this word. “Nationalism in writers is a virtue that may well be appreciated by some compatriots - for others it does not exist or may even seem like a vice” - this is how A.S. thought about nationality. Pushkin

Living literature must be the fruit of the people, nourished but not suppressed by sociability. Literature is and is literary life, but its development is constrained by the one-sidedness of the imitative trend, which kills the people, without which there cannot be a full literary life.

In the mid-1930s, critical realism established itself in Russian classical literature, opening up enormous opportunities for writers to express Russian life and Russian national character.

The special effective force of Russian critical realism lies in the fact that, pushing aside progressive romanticism as the predominant trend, it mastered, preserved and continued its best traditions:

Dissatisfaction with the present, dreams of the future. Russian critical realism is distinguished by its strong national identity and in the form of its expression. The truth of life, which served as the basis for the works of Russian progressive writers, often did not fit into traditional genre-specific forms. Therefore, Russian literature is characterized by frequent violations of genre-specific forms.

V. G. Belinsky most decisively condemned the errors of conservative and reactionary criticism, who saw in Pushkin’s poetry a transition to realism, considered “Boris Godunov” and “Eugene Onegin” to be the peaks, and abandoned the primitive identification of nationality with common people. Belinsky underestimated Pushkin’s prose and his fairy tales; on the whole, he correctly outlined the scale of the writer’s work as the focus of literary achievements and innovative endeavors that determined the further development of Russian literature in the 19th century.

In Pushkin’s poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” there is a palpable desire for nationality, which manifests itself early in Pushkin’s poetry, and in the poems “The Bakhchisarai Fountain” and “Prisoner of the Caucasus” Pushkin moves to the position of romanticism.

Pushkin's work completes the development of Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century. At the same time, Pushkin stands at the origins of Russian literature, he is the founder of Russian realism, the creator of the Russian literary language.

Tolstoy's brilliant work had a huge influence on world literature.

In the novels “Crime and Punishment” and “The Idiot,” Dostoevsky realistically depicted the clash of bright, original Russian characters.

The work of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin is directed against the autocratic-serf system.

One of the writers of the 30s is N.V. Gogol. In the work “Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka” he was disgusted by the bureaucratic world and he, like A.S. Pushkin, plunged into the fairy-tale world of romance. Maturing as an artist, Gogol abandoned the romantic genre and moved on to realism.

The activities of M.Yu. Lermontov also date back to this time. The pathos of his poetry lies in moral questions about the fate and rights of the human person. The origins of Lermontov's creativity are connected with the culture of European and Russian romanticism. In his early years he wrote three dramas marked by romanticism.

The novel “Heroes of Our Time” is one of the main works of psychological realism literature of the 19th century.

Stage 1 of V.G. Belinsky’s critical activity dates back to the same time. He had a huge influence on the development of literature, social thought, and reading tastes in Russia. He was a fighter for realism and demanded simplicity and truth from literature. The highest authorities for him were Pushkin and Gogol, to whose works he devoted a number of articles.

Having studied V.G. Belinsky’s letter to N.V. Gogol, we see that it is directed not only against Gogol’s anti-social, political and moral sermons, but in many ways against his literary judgments and assessments.

In the conditions of post-reform life, Russian social thought, which found its primary expression in literature and criticism, increasingly turned more and more persistently from the present to the past and future in order to identify the laws and trends of historical development.

Russian realism of the 1860-1870s acquired noticeable differences from Western European realism. In the works of many realist writers of that time, motifs appeared that foreshadowed and prepared the shift to revolutionary romance and socialist realism that would occur at the beginning of the 20th century. The flowering of Russian realism manifested itself with the greatest brightness and scope in the novel and story in the second half of the 19th century. It was the novels and stories of the largest Russian artists of that time that acquired the greatest public resonance in Russia and abroad. The novels and many stories of Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky almost immediately after their publication received a response in Germany, France, and the USA. Foreign writers and critics felt in the Russian novel of those years the connection between specific phenomena of Russian reality and the processes of development of all mankind.

The flourishing of the Russian novel, the desire to penetrate into the depths of the human soul and at the same time comprehend the social nature of society and the laws in accordance with which its development occurs, became the main distinctive quality of Russian realism of the 1860-1870s.

The heroes of Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Chekhov, Nekrasov thought about the meaning of life, about conscience, about justice. In the structure of the new realistic novel and story, their hypotheses were confirmed or rejected, their concepts and ideas about the world when faced with reality too often dissipated like smoke. Their novels should be regarded as a real feat of the artist. I. S. Turgenev did a lot for the development of Russian realism with his novels. The most famous novel was “Fathers and Sons.” It depicts a picture of Russian life at a new stage of the liberation movement. Turgenev's last novel, Nov, was received by Russian critics. In those years, populism was the most significant phenomenon in public life.

The flourishing of critical realism also manifested itself in Russian poetry of the 1860s and 1870s. One of the peaks of Russian critical realism of the 60-80s is the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin. The brilliant satirist, using allegories and personifications, skillfully posed and pursued the most pressing issues of modern life. Accusatory pathos is inherent in the work of this writer. The stranglers of democracy had a sworn enemy in him.

A significant role in the literature of the 80s was played by such works as “Little things in life”, “Poshekhonskaya satire”. With great skill, he reproduced in them the terrible consequences of serf life and no less terrible pictures of the moral decline of post-reform Russia. “The Tale of How a Man Fed 2 Generals” or “The Wild Landowner” are dedicated to the most important problems of Russian life; they were published with great censorship difficulties.

The greatest realist writers not only reflected life in their works, but also looked for ways to transform it.

The literature of post-reform Russia, which worthily continued the traditions of critical realism, was the most philosophical and social in Europe.

Bibliography.

History of Russian literature of the 11th-20th centuries

Textbook on Russian literature

(Yu.M. Lotman)

3. Great Russian writers of the 19th century

(K.V. Mochulsky)

4. Russian literature of the 19th century

(M.G.Zeldovich)

5. History of Russian literature first

half of the 19th century

(A.I. Revyakin)

6. History of Russian literature of the 19th century

(S.M. Petrova)

7. From the history of the Russian novel of the 19th century

(E.G. Babaev)

Test

N.V.Gogol (1809-1852)

a) the story “The Overcoat”

b) the story “Viy”

c) the poem “Hanz Kuchulgarten”

2. F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881)

a) the novel “Demons”

b) the novel “Notes from the Dead House”

c) the novel “The Player”

d) novel “Teenager”

3. V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852)

a) ballad “Lyudmila”

b) ballad “Svetlana”

4. A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837)

a) poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila”

b) drama “Boris Godunov”

c) poem “House in Kolomna”

d) the poem “Gavriliad”

e) the story “Kirdzhali”

e) fairy tale “The Groom”

5. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889)

a) fairy tale “The Ram of the Unremembered”

b) fairy tale “Horse”

c) fairy tale “Emelya the Worker and the Empty Drum”

d) fairy tale “The Selfless Hare”

e) novel “Gentlemen Golovlevs”

6. M.Yu.Lermantov (1814-1841)

a) the poem “Mtsyri”

b) drama “Masquerade”

7. L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910)

a) the novel “Anna Karenina”

b) the story “Polikushka”

c) novel “Resurrection”

Plan

1. Establishment of humanism, citizenship and nationality in the literature of the first half of the 19th century

2. Development of realistic traditions in literature

post-reform Russia.

Test

by cultural studies

Subject: Russian literatureXIXcentury

Student: Golubova Elena Alexandrovna

Teacher: Slesarev Yuri Vasilievich

Faculty: accounting and statistical

Speciality: accounting, analysis and audit

VSEVOLOD SAKHAROV

Russian literature of the 19th (XIX) centuries

In the 19th century, Russian literature reached unprecedented heights, which is why this period is often called the “golden age”

One of the very first events was the reissue of the ATS. Following it, 4 volumes of the “Dictionary of Church Slavonic and Russian Language” were published. Over the course of a century, the world has learned about the most talented prose writers and poets. Their works have taken their rightful place in world culture and influenced the work of foreign writers.

Russian literature of the 18th century was characterized by very calm development. Throughout the century, poets praised the sense of human dignity and tried to instill in the reader high moral ideals. Only in the late 90s did more daring works begin to appear, the authors of which emphasized personality psychology, experiences and emotions.

Why did Russian literature of the 19th century achieve such development? This was due to the events that took place in the political and cultural life of the country. This is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleon’s army, and the public execution of oppositionists, and the eradication of serfdom... All this gave impetus to the emergence of completely different stylistic techniques.

A prominent representative of Russian literature of the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. A comprehensively developed and highly educated person was able to reach the peak of enlightenment. By the age of 37 he was known throughout the world. He became famous thanks to the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila”. And “Eugene Onegin” is still associated with a guide to Russian life. Pushkin became the founder of traditions in writing literary works. His heroes, completely new and original for that time, won the hearts of millions of contemporaries. Take Tatyana Larina for example! Intelligence, beauty and characteristics inherent only in the Russian soul - all this was perfectly combined in her image.

Another author who forever entered the history of Russian literature of the 19th century is M. Lermontov. He continued the best traditions of Pushkin. Like his teacher, he tried to understand his purpose. They really wanted to convey their principles to the authorities. Some compared the poets of that time to prophets. These writers also influenced the development of Russian literature of the 20th century. They gave her journalistic features.

It was in the 19th century that realistic literature began to emerge. Slavophiles and Westerners constantly argued about the peculiarities of the historical formation of Russia. From this time on, the realistic genre began to develop. Writers began to endow their works with features of psychology and philosophy. The development of poetry in Russian literature of the 19th century begins to decline.

At the end of the century, writers such as A.P. made themselves known. Chekhov, A.N. Ostrovsky, N. S. Leskov, M. Gorky. Pre-revolutionary sentiments begin to be traced in most of the works. The realistic tradition begins to fade into the background. It was supplanted by decadent literature. Her mysticism and religiosity appealed to both critics and readers.

Style trends of Russian literature of the 19th century:

Romanticism. Romanticism has been known in Russian literature since the Middle Ages. But the 19th century gave it completely different shades. It originated not in Russia, but in Germany, but gradually penetrated into the works of our writers. Russian literature of the 19th century is characterized by romantic moods. They are reflected in the poems of Pushkin and can be traced in the very first works of Gogol.
Sentimentalism. Sentimentalism began to develop at the very beginning of the 19th century. He emphasizes sensuality. The first features of this trend were already visible in Russian literature of the 18th century. Karamzin managed to reveal it in all its manifestations. He inspired many authors and they followed his principles.
Satirical prose . In the 19th century, satirical and journalistic works began to appear in Russian literature, especially in the works of Gogol. At the very beginning of his journey, he tried to describe his homeland. The main features of his works are the unacceptability of lack of intelligence and parasitism. It affected all layers of society - landowners, peasants, and officials. He tried to draw the attention of readers to the poverty of the spiritual world of wealthy people.
1. Realistic novel . In the second half of the 19th century, Russian literature recognized romantic ideals as completely untenable. The authors sought to show the real features of society. The best example is Dostoevsky's prose. The author reacted sharply to people's mood. By depicting prototypes of friends, Dostoevsky tried to touch upon the most pressing problems of society. It is at this time that the image of the “extra person” appears. There is a revaluation of values. The fate of the people no longer means anything. Representatives of society come first.
Folk poem. In Russian literature of the 19th century, folk poetry occupied a secondary place. But, despite this, Nekrasov does not miss the opportunity to create works that combine several genres: revolutionary, peasant and heroic. His voice does not let you forget the meaning of the rhyme. The poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is the best example of real life at that time.

Late 19th century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov was at the peak of popularity. At the very beginning of his career, critics repeatedly noted that he was indifferent to sensitive social issues. But his masterpieces were extremely popular. He followed Pushkin's principles. Each representative of Russian literature of the 19th century created a small artistic world. Their heroes wanted to achieve more, fought, worried... Some wanted to be needed and happy. Others set out to eradicate social failure. Still others experienced their own tragedy. But each work is remarkable in that it reflects the realities of the century.

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with the rapid flowering of culture. Spiritual uplift and importance are reflected in the immortal works of writers and poets. This article is dedicated to representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main trends of this period.

Historical events

Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave birth to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. A number of historical events marked this period. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by the Patriotic War of 1812, the death of the great Napoleon, and the passing of Byron. The English poet, like the French commander, for a long time dominated the minds of revolutionary-minded people in Russia. and the Russian-Turkish War, as well as the echoes of the French Revolution, which were heard in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought.

While revolutionary movements were taking place in Western countries and the spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power and suppressed uprisings. This could not go unnoticed by artists, writers and poets. Literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society.

Classicism

This aesthetic movement is understood as an artistic style that originated in European culture in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and adherence to strict canons. Classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by its appeal to ancient forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, in this artistic style began to lose ground already at the beginning of the century. Classicism was gradually replaced by such movements as sentimentalism and romanticism.

Masters of artistic expression began to create their works in new genres. Works in the style of historical novels, romantic stories, ballads, odes, poems, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics gained popularity.

Realism

Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that the founder of this literary movement in Russia is Pushkin.

Journalism and satire

Some features of European culture of the 18th century were inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. We can briefly outline the main features of poetry and prose of this period - satirical nature and journalisticism. The tendency to depict human vices and shortcomings of society is observed in the works of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, it was later determined that the authors of satirical and journalistic prose were united. “Natural school” was the name of this artistic style, which, however, is also called “Gogol’s school.” Other representatives of this literary movement are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev.

Criticism

The ideology of the “natural school” was substantiated by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement became the denunciation and eradication of vices. Social issues became a characteristic feature of their work. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel and social story.

Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence. This man had an extraordinary ability to sense the poetic gift. It was he who was the first to recognize the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky.

Pushkin and Gogol

The literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would have been completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They had a huge influence on the development of prose. And many of the elements that they introduced into literature have become classical norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed such a direction as realism, but also created completely new artistic types. One of them is the image of the “little man,” which later received its development not only in the works of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Lermontov

This poet also had a significant influence on the development of Russian literature. After all, it was he who created the concept of “hero of time.” With his light hand, it entered not only literary criticism, but also public life. Lermontov also took part in the development of the psychological novel genre.

The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century adopted some of the merits of their Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, it eventually became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European one that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became the model on which German, English and American authors later relied.

Russian literature fiction classic

We find a remarkable assessment of the high achievements of Russian classical literature in Maxim Gorky:

“Our literature is our pride, the best that we have created as a nation...

In the history of the development of European literature, our young literature is an amazing phenomenon; I will not exaggerate the truth by saying that none of the literature of the West has emerged in life with such force and speed, in such a powerful, dazzling brilliance of talent...

The importance of Russian literature is recognized by the world, amazed by its beauty and strength...” “The giant Pushkin is our greatest pride and the most complete expression of the spiritual forces of Russia... Gogol, merciless to himself and people, the yearning Lermontov, the sad Turgenev, the angry Nekrasov, the great rebel Tolstoy... Dostoevsky... the sorcerer of the language Ostrovsky, unlike each other, as only we can have in Russia... All this grandiose was created by Russia in less than a hundred years. Joyfully, to the point of insane pride, I am excited not only by the abundance of talents born in Russia in the 19th century, but also by their amazing diversity.”

The words of M. Gorky emphasize two features of Russian literature: its unusually rapid flourishing, which already at the end of the 19th century placed it in first place among the literatures of the world, and the abundance of talents born in Russia.

Rapid flourishing and an abundance of talent are striking external indicators of the brilliant path of Russian literature. What features turned it into the most advanced literature in the world? It is her deep ideology, nationality, humanism, social optimism and patriotism.

The deep ideological nature and progressiveness of Russian literature were determined by its constant connection with the liberation struggle of the people. Advanced Russian literature has always been distinguished by democracy, which grew out of the struggle against the autocratic serfdom regime.

The ardent participation of Russian writers in the public life of the country explains quick literature response for all the most important changes and events in the life of Russia. “Sick questions”, “damned questions”, “great questions” - this is how for decades those social, philosophical, moral problems that were raised by the best writers of the past were characterized.

Starting with Radishchev and ending with Chekhov, Russian writers of the 19th century spoke about the moral degeneration of the ruling classes, about the arbitrariness and impunity of some and the lack of rights of others, about social inequality and the spiritual enslavement of man. Let us recall such works as “Dead Souls”, “Crime and Punishment”, Shchedrin’s fairy tales, “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, “Resurrection”. Their authors approached the solution of the most pressing problems of our time from the position of true humanism, from the position of the interests of the people.

No matter what aspects of life they touched, from the pages of their creations one could always hear: “who is to blame,” “what to do.” These questions were heard in “Eugene Onegin” and in “Hero of Our Time”, in “Oblomov” and in “The Thunderstorm”, in “Crime and Punishment” and in Chekhov’s stories and drama.

The idea of the welfare of the people was constantly heard in the works of Russian classics. From this angle they looked at everything around them, at the past and the future. Nationality of our literature constitutes one of its highest ideological and aesthetic achievements.

The nationality of Russian classical literature is inextricably linked with another of its features - patriotism. Anxiety for the fate of their native country, pain caused by the troubles it endured, the desire to look into the future and faith in it - all this was inherent in the great writers of the Russian land.

Russian literature of the 19th century developed along the path of realism, a truthful depiction of reality. Belinsky saw the true truth of life in the works of Pushkin and Gogol; along this path he directed the work of Russian writers. “The hero... of my story, whom I love with all the strength of my soul, whom I tried to reproduce in all his beauty and who has always been, is and will be beautiful, is true,” wrote in “Sevastopol Stories” L.N. Tolstoy. The “sober realism” of Tolstoy, Chekhov, Saltykov-Shchedrin and other Russian writers of the 19th century illuminated all aspects of Russian life with extraordinary breadth and truthfulness.

The realism of Russian literature of the 19th century is mainly critical realism. Critical portrayal of life -“tearing off all and every mask” is one of the strongest aspects of Russian literature of the 19th century. But, while critically depicting reality, Russian writers at the same time sought to embody their ideals in positive images. Coming from a wide variety of social strata (Chatsky, Grisha Dobrosklonov, Pierre Bezukhov), these heroes follow different paths in life, but they are united by one thing: an intense search for the truth of life, the struggle for a better future.

The Russian people are rightfully proud of their literature. The formulation of the most important social and moral issues, deep content that reflected the world-historical importance of the tasks of the Russian liberation movement, the universal significance of images, nationality, realism, and the high artistic perfection of Russian classical literature determined its influence on the literature of the whole world.

Introduction

The first literature lesson in 10th grade is introductory. On it, the teacher will have to solve two problems:

to identify the level of literary development of 10th grade students, their reading range, reading interests, literary horizons;
in the introductory lecture, characterize the historical development of Russia in the first and second half of the 19th century, give a general description of the literature of the century, identify the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature, the evolution of literary trends and genres, artistic methods, Russian literary criticism.

To solve the first problem, the teacher can conduct a frontal conversation, identifying the general level of development of the class. To determine the level of literary development of each student, you can ask them to answer the teacher’s questions in writing at home, and then process the results of the survey:

answer the teacher’s questions, and then process the survey results:
What works of Russian literature of the 19th century did you read this summer? Rate them using a five-point system.
What questions posed in Russian classical literature are still relevant today?
Which heroes of 19th century literature do you like or dislike? Give reasons for your point of view.

When preparing for a review lecture, the teacher should take into account that in order to master its content, it is necessary to develop in schoolchildren the ability to draw up an outline (outline) of the teacher’s story, record its main points, prepare various types of comparative tables, select quotes, etc.

During the lecture, the teacher dwells on the most significant features of each stage of the development of literature and can draw up a reference table with the students.

Periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century	General characteristics of the period	Development of the main literary genres
I. I quarter (18011825)	Development of ideas of noble revolution. Decembrism. The struggle of literary movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, early realism, naturalism. Mid-20s birth of the method of critical realism. Leading artistic method romanticism	Ballad, lyric epic poem, psychological story, elegy
II. Literature of the 30s (18261842)	The deepening of the general crisis of serfdom, public reaction. Fidelity to the ideas of Decembrism in the works of A. Pushkin. The heyday of M. Lermontov's revolutionary romanticism. The transition from romanticism to realism and social satire in the works of N. Gogol. Realism takes on leading importance, although most writers work within the framework of romanticism. Strengthening democratic tendencies. The government actively promotes the theory of “official nationality.”	Development of prose genres. Romantic stories by A. Marlinsky, V. Odoevsky. Realistic aesthetics in critical articles by V. Belinsky. The romantic character of the historical novels of M. Zagoskia, the dramaturgy of N. Kukolnik, the lyrics of V. Benediktov. The struggle of progressive and democratic forces in journalism
III. Literature of the 40s50s (18421855)	Intensifying crisis of the feudal system, growth of democratic tendencies. Development of the ideas of revolution and utopian socialism. Growing influence of advanced journalism on public life. The ideological struggle between Slavophiles and Westerners. The rise of the “natural school.” Priority of social issues. Development of the “little man” theme. The confrontation between the literature of the Gogol school and the romantic lyric poets. Reactionary protective measures of the government in connection with revolutions in Europe	The main genres of the “natural school”: physiological essay, social story, socio-psychological novel, poem. Landscape, love-aesthetic and philosophical lyrics of romantic poets
IV. Literature of the 60s (18551868)	The rise of the democratic movement. Confrontation between liberals and democrats. The crisis of autocracy and the propaganda of the ideas of the peasant revolution. The rise of democratic journalism and its opposition to conservative journalism. Materialistic aesthetics of N. Chernyshevsky. New themes and problems in literature: commoner heroes, passivity of the peasantry, showing the hard life of workers. "Soilism". Realism and truthfulness in the depiction of life in the works of L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky, N. Leskov. High artistic skill of romantic poets (A. Fet, F. Tyutchev. A. K. Tolstoy, A. Maikov, Ya. Polonsky, etc.)	Democratic story, novel. Activation of the genres of literary criticism and journalism. Lyrical genres in the works of romantic poets
V. Literature of the 70s (18691881)	Development of capitalism in Russia. Democratic ideas of populism, their utopian socialism. Activation of secret revolutionary organizations. Idealization of peasant life in the literature of populist writers, showing the decomposition of the communal way of life. The leading role of the journal Otechestvennye zapiski. Realistic trends in the works of M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F. Dostoevsky, G. Uspensky, N. Leskov	Essay, story, story, novel, fairy tale
VI. Literature of the 80s (18821895)	Strengthening the reactionary policies of tsarism. The growth of the proletariat. Propaganda of the ideas of Marxism. Ban on advanced magazines. The growing role of entertainment journalism. Critical realism in the works of M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Tolstoy, V. Korolenko and others. Renewal of themes in literature: the image of the “average person”, an intellectual professing the theory of “small deeds”. Motives of disappointment and pessimism in the works of S. Nadson and V. Garshin. Criticism of the prevailing order and exposure of social inequality in the works of L. Tolstoy	Story, story, novel. Romantic genres in the poetry of S. Nadson, social motives in the poetry of the Narodnaya Volya revolutionaries
VII. Literature of the 90s (18951904)	Development of capitalism in Russia. The growth of Marxist ideas. Confrontation between realistic and decadent literature. Ideas of heterogeneous democracy in the works of V. Korolenko. The origin of proletarian literature (M. Gorky), the development of critical realism in the works of I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov	Story, story, novel. Journalistic genres. Genres in the traditions of revolutionary poetry. Dramatic genres