Topic 2. AGRARIAN MOVEMENT IN ROME in the II century. BC e.

AND THE REFORMS OF GAY AND TIBERIO GRACCH

2. Agrarian reform of Tiberius Gracchus. The struggle of opponents and supporters of the reform.

3. Reforms Gaius Gracchus.

4. Reasons for the failure of the reforming activities of the Gracchi. Assessment of the significance of the Gracchan movement by ancient authors.

5. Agrarian law 111 BC

Starting to study the topic of the seminar, repeat the questions about the economic and social structure of Rome in the 2nd century. BC e. What was the specificity of agrarian relations in the Roman Republic? What are the characteristics of the position of the Italian peasants? What components consisted of a complex set of social contradictions that had become aggravated by the 1930s? 2nd century BC e.? What are the reasons for the crisis phenomena of the Roman state? A detailed description of the sources should be given: the time of their creation, the attitude of ancient authors to the reforming activities of the Gracchi, differences in techniques and methods historical research Appian and Plutarch. It is necessary to get acquainted with the views of researchers on the agrarian movement in Rome (the works of T. Mommsen, E. D. Grimm, R. Yu. Wipper, etc.). According to the first point of the plan, formulate the points of view of Velleius Paterculus, Plutarch and Appian on the causes of agrarian reforms. Which of the named ancient authors saw them in personal motives, and who in the socio-economic situation? Starting to consider the second question, remember the time of adoption and the content of the law of Licinia-Sextia. Was the agrarian reform of Tiberius Gracchus merely a repetition of this law? Why was the creation of an agrarian commission a fundamentally important condition for the implementation of the reform? What powers were given to this committee? What was the social support of Tiberius Gracchus? Which layers resisted his reforms? What arguments did they put forward against the reform? Tell us about the course of the struggle around the bill of Tiberius Gracchus, name the methods of political struggle - which of them were traditional for the Roman Republic, and which were first used during the struggle between supporters and opponents of reforms?

Turning to the third question, dwell on the change in the social and political situation by the 20th century. 2nd century BC e. What reforms of Gaius Gracchus expanded the social base of the movement? At the expense of what segments of the population did the expansion occur? What measures were taken to weaken the power of the Senate? Why was a bill put forward to grant civil rights to Italians? What was the result of his discussion? Tell us about the resistance of Livius Drusus to the Gracchane reforms, list the methods of political struggle at the new stage of the agrarian movement.

Formulate the reasons for the failure of the reforming activities of the Gracchi. Note what urgent problems they tried to solve and by what methods? Can we say that the Gracchi tried to revive the system of polis relations in Rome? Is it possible to define the character of the Gracchanian reforms as utopian? What changes in the life of Roman society led to the reforms proposed by the Gracchi. Was the activity of the Gracchi a moderate or a radical direction in the reform movement? Is it possible to see the evolution of the Gracchanian program of transformations? Recall the content of the concept of "popularity". Can the Gracchi brothers be classified as popular?

Why did the activities of the Gracchi destabilize the political situation? What was the deepening of the crisis in the Roman state as a result of the activities of the Gracchi? What ancient authors believed that the Gracchi reforms undermined the state order and plunged the state into civil conflicts? Give assessments of the activities of the Gracchi given by Velleius Paterculus and Cicero, compare them with the opinion of Plutarch and Appian. Can the Gracchane movement be considered the beginning of civil strife in Rome?

The victory of which direction in the agrarian-peasant issue was recorded by the law of 111 BC. e.? Did it meet the interests of small landowners? How did its adoption affect the fate of the agrarian reforms carried out during the Gracchane movement?

Sources:

Velley Paterkul. Roman history. II. / Per. A. I. Nemirovsky // Reader. M., 1987. S. 86-90.

Reader on IDM. Rome. - M., 1953.- S. 98-101.

Reader on IDM. - M., 1962. - S. 231-234.

Reader on IDM. Hellenism. Rome. - M., 1998. - S. 227-230.

Appian. Civil wars. I. 7-27 / Per. S. A. Zhebeleva // Reader. M., 1953. S. 76-89.

Reader, 1987. S. 101-112.

Workshop on IDM. pp. 102-110.

Reader. M., 1962. S. 210-211.

Reader. M., 1998. Hellenism. Rome. pp. 174-196.

Plutarch. Gaius Gracchus. Tiberius Gracchus // Reader. - M., 1962. - S. 211-231.

Reader. - M., 1953. - S. 89-98.

Workshop. - S. 111-117.

Reader. - M., 1998. - S. 196-227.

Cicero Mark Tullius. About the state. I. XIX. 31. Translation by V. O. Gorenstein // Cicero Mark Tullius. Dialogues: About the state. About laws. - M., 1994. - S. 18.

Cicero Mark Tullius. About laws. IX. 19. / Translation by V. O. Gorenstein // Cicero Mark Tullius. Dialogues: About the state. About laws. - M., 1994. - S. 139-

Agrarian law 111 BC e. / Per. and note. V. S. Sokolova // Reader. M., 1953. S. 102-105.

Workshop. pp. 117-119.

Orosius Pavel. Stories against the pagans. V. 8-10, 12.// Reader. Hellenism. Rome. M., 1998. S. 230-233.

Literature:

Grimm E. D. Gracchi, their life and social activity. SPb., 1894. – 96 p.

Elnitsky L. A. Ideas that brought up Tiberius Gracchus // Questions of history. 1966. No. 8. S. 198-199.

Zaborovsky Ya. Yu. Some aspects of the political struggle in the Roman Senate (40-20 years of the II century BC) // VDI. 1977. No. 3. pp. 182-191.

Zaborovsky Ya. Yu. Essays on the history of agrarian relations in the Roman Republic. Lvov, 1985. S. 65-127.

Kuzishchin V. I. Genesis of slave-owning latifundia in Italy (II century BC - I century AD) M., 1976. S. 46-61.

Sergeenko M.E. Land reform and Appian's story // VDI. 1958. No. 2. pp.150-156

Sergeenko M.E. Three versions of the plutarchic biography of Tiberius Gracchus // VDI. 1956. No. 1.

Trukhina N.I. Politics and politics of the "golden age" of the Roman Republic. - M., 1986.

Utchenko S. L. Crisis and fall of the Roman Republic. M., 1965. S. 3-17,122-132. http://history-ktti.narod.ru/librome2.html

Shtaerman E. M. The history of the peasantry in Ancient Rome. M., 1996.

Topic 3. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE AND THE DICTATORY OF CAESAR

1. Formation of the 1st triumvirate.

2. Caesar's reforms during the period of the consulate

2. Caesar's economic measures during the dictatorship

3. Reforms of central and local government. provincial politics.

4. Social politics Caesar. Solving agricultural and debt issues.

5. The essence of Caesar's power.

Start preparing questions on this topic by repeating the material about Caesar's consulate in 59 BC. e. What powers did Caesar have from now on? Until what moment did Caesar's state-legal position correspond to the norms of the Roman constitution? When and for how long was Caesar given dictatorial powers? Contrast the power of Caesar with the dictatorships of the early Republic. Note the concentration of consular, censorship, and tribune powers in Caesar's hands. What power did the titles of emperor, "father of the fatherland", great pontiff give him? Is it possible to define the nature of Caesar's power as monarchical?

What trend in the political life of Rome reflected its dictatorship? Was it a turning point in the evolution of the Roman political system? What was the reorganization of the Senate undertaken by Caesar, how was its composition expanded? What changes appeared in the activities of the committees? How was the magistracy system transformed? What new officials appear in the sphere of the Roman executive power? Note the ordering of local government in the municipalities and colonies. Describe the system of provincial government under Caesar, reflect the policy of granting the rights of Roman citizenship to the provincials, the process of Romanization of the provinces.

What goals did Caesar pursue in his reform activities? Tell us about Caesar's measures aimed at reducing the severity of the debt problem. How did he solve the land question? What is the significance of Caesar's reforms? What can be seen as their compromise nature?

Sources:

Letters of Mark Tullius Cicero / Per. V. O. Gorenshtein. In 3 vols. M., 1994. T. 2. S. 140-141; 172-175; 240; 291-295; T. 3. P.9-10; 38-39.

Appian Civil Wars II. 8-148. / Per. ed. S. A. Zhebelev and O. O. Kruger. // Appian. Roman Wars. SPb., 1994. C. 98-182.

Suetonius Tranquill Guy. Divine Julius / Per. M. L. Gasparova // Suetonius Tranquill Guy. Life of the Twelve Caesars. M., 1991. S. 13-50.

Plutarch. Caesar / Per. Per. K. Lampsakov and G. Stratanovsky // Comparative biographies. In 2 volumes / Ed. prepared S. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, S. P. Markish. M., 1994. T. 2. S. 164-202. and other publications.

Titus Livius Periohi books 103-116./ Per. L. M. Gasparova // Livy Titus. History of Rome from the founding of the city. T. 3. M., 1994. S. 583-586.

Velley Paterkul. Roman history. II. 30. 5 / Per. A. I. Nemirovsiogo, M.V. Dashkova // Small Roman historians. M., 1996. S. 46-53.

Reader on IDM. - M., 1962. - S. 278-306.

Literature:

Parfenov V.N. Rome from Caesar to Augustus. Saratov, 1987. - 147 p.

Utchenko S. L. Julius Caesar M., 1977; 2nd ed. M., 1984. - 342 p. http://history-ktti.narod.ru/librome2.html

Chekanova N. V. Sacred foundations of Gaius Julius Caesar's power // Ancient and medieval studies. Issue. 2. Yaroslavl, 2000. S. 40-45.

Chekanova N.V. Roman dictatorship of the last century of the Republic. - St. Petersburg, 2005

The formation of the triumvirate

In 62 B.C. Pompey returned victorious to Italy. His return was expected and feared. But the fears turned out to be in vain: Pompey did not lead troops to Rome, but dismissed them according to the law. The Senate took this gesture as a sign of weakness and tried to lower the authority of the commander. Having defeated 22 eastern rulers, having strengthened the position of Rome in the East, Pompey could not even fulfill this promise to the veterans. The Senate rejected his bill to give soldiers plots of land. All his orders on the conquered lands were also annulled.

Pompey began to act with lightning speed and confidence. He made an alliance to fight against the Senate oligarchy. In 60 BC, a coalition of three prominent political figures formed:

1. Pompey is a famous commander who was supported by veterans;
2. Crassus is a politician and commander, relying on horsemen;
3. Julius Caesar - statesman, spokesman for the interests of the urban plebs.

Each of the parties to the agreement, called the triumvirate, was interested in defeating the Senate.

Definition 1

The triumvirate is a political association of three influential politicians and commanders, with the goal of seizing power. In the 1st century BC. formed to fight the Senate.

The goals of the members of the triumvirate

Each member of the triumvirate tried to realize their plans. Pompey wanted to enforce the orders he had already given. Veterans were to receive land. All transformations in the East had to be given the force of law and brought to fulfillment.

Crassus sought to get the position of governor, gain power in the province and enrich himself. The requirements of the main support force - the horsemen - also had to be satisfied.

Definition 2

Horsemen (equites) are a privileged estate, occupying the second place in the hierarchy after senators. Initially, this was the name of the patricians fighting on horseback, later - the financial oligarchy. Possessing less political influence than the senators, they concentrated huge capitals in their hands.

The young Julius Caesar dreamed of becoming a consul. This would increase his political influence.

Activities of the First Triumvirate

In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar received the coveted consulate. As promised, he passed some laws in the interests of Crassus and Pompey. For Pompey, he achieved the granting of land to the veterans and the ratification of all his orders in the East. For Crassus, he reduced by a third the tax from the province of Asia. Although these laws led to an armed struggle between the supporters of the senate and the supporters of the triumvirs, the consul achieved their implementation. Caesar's consulate can be called a one-man rule. A year later, he became governor for five years in Illyricum, Cisalpine and Narbonne Gaul, received the right to form two legions. In 56 B.C. a joint meeting of the triumvirs decided to increase the term of office of consul Caesar by five years.

Laws of 59 B.C. expressed the interests of the urban plebs. The consul implemented his projects through the people's assembly, bypassing the senate. After leaving for the province, Caesar left in Rome the defender of his interests, the people's tribune, Publius Clodius Pulchra.

Clodius was a supporter of democratic reforms and carried out 4 fundamental laws:

1. Restored colleges, in which the townspeople were united by quarters. Later collegiums developed into political clubs.
2. Limit the power of the censors.
3. Adjusted work popular assemblies. The high magistrates lost the right to dissolve the people's assembly due to unfavorable celestial signs.
4. Restored the free distribution of bread.

In 53 B.C. Crassus went to fight with the intensified Parthian kingdom and died. His death brought the triumvirate to an end.

Political union in ancient rome. During the years of the fall of the Roman Republic, power twice actually passed from the Senate and magistrates to a trio of people (where each time the third participant was weaker than the two main rivals). Both times the triumvirates ended in civil wars.

In 60 BC. e. Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey the Great, and Marcus Licinius Crassus pooled their resources to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. It lasted until the death of Crassus in 53 BC. e.

The formation of the triumvirate

The organizer of the triumvirate was Caesar, who had just returned from Farther Spain as propraetor. At the walls of Rome, he had to choose between the triumph he hoped for and the consulate. A man who entered Rome could no longer claim triumph, and remaining outside the walls of Rome, Caesar could not put forward his candidacy for consuls. Although Caesar asked the Senate to make an exception for him and allow his friends to put forward his candidacy, this was strongly opposed by Cato. But many senators were still ready to support Caesar, and so Cato made a filibuster by delivering a speech that occupied the entire session. After that, Caesar gave up trying to get both a triumph and a consulship at once, and entered Rome to put forward his candidacy for the consulship. Shortly thereafter, dissatisfied with the senate, Caesar entered into an alliance with Pompey, who was also dissatisfied with the policy of the senators, who canceled many of his decrees made during the war in Asia and thereby belittled his achievements. In addition, Caesar needed the support of a well-known person in Rome in the election of consul. However, Caesar understood that by entering into an alliance with Pompey, he would automatically make the no less powerful Crassus his enemy, and soon he managed to reconcile Crassus and Pompey, convincing them that the differences between them only strengthened the senators, that is, giving the union a pronounced anti-senate orientation. Despite the well-known circumstances of the conclusion of the triumvirate, the question of the exact time of its creation is unclear due to the initially secret nature of the agreement - whether it was the summer of 60, autumn, or even 59.

The activities of the triumvirs

Thanks to the support of the then-famous commander Pompey and the richest of the Romans, Crassus, Caesar was elected consul for the year 59. At the same time, the protege of the Senate Mark Calpurnius Bibulus became his colleague, with whom Caesar entered into a conflict that continued until the end of their joint consulate. Caesar managed to pass a law on the division of land between the poor and on the withdrawal of colonies, and the second consul Bibulus was not even allowed to the forum - supporters of Caesar and Pompey first turned a basket of manure on his head, and his lictors broke the fascia, after which Bibulus and his supporters were thrown stones. Also, in addition to this law, a decree was adopted according to which all senators had to take an oath in the obligation to comply with the law. Then a law was passed on the division of land in Campania. Cato, who strongly protested against the adoption of this law, Caesar ordered to be sent to prison, but soon he himself released him. Caesar also approved the orders made by Pompey in Asia, which the Senate had previously refused to approve. Despite the traditional principle of collegiality, Caesar actually usurped power and stopped convening the Senate, so that some even began to call the year 59 "the year of Julius and Caesar" instead of the traditional norm. However, Caesar's political weight was still insignificant at that time, and it was believed that he was carrying out his radical laws in the interests of Pompey. For example, it is known that Cicero in May 59 spoke of Pompey's intention to establish tyranny as a widely held opinion.

Caesar ensured that he, in the rank of proconsul, was entrusted with the administration of Cisalpine Gaul, Narbonne Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years. In 56, at a joint meeting of the triumvirs in Lucca, it was decided to extend the proconsulship of Caesar for another 5 years.

In 53, Mark Licinius Crassus, having gone to war with Parthia, died, and the triumvirate ceased to exist.

Bibliography:

1. Plutarch. Caesar, 13

2. Plutarch. Cato the younger, 14

3. Appian. Roman history. Civil Wars, II, 9

4. Plutarch. Pompey, 46

5. Plutarch. Krass, 14

6. Plutarch. Pompey, 47

7. Utchenko, S. L. - Julius Caesar. - Moscow, "Thought 1976". - S. 92

8. Plutarch. Cato the younger, 32

9. Appian. Civil Wars, II, 10

10. Plutarch. Caesar, 14

11. Plutarch. Cato the younger, 33

12. Suetonius. Caesar, 20

13. Cicero. Ad Att., II, 17

Union of three husbands. By the end of the 60s, opposition to the Senate arose in Rome in the person of three outstanding politicians who united their efforts to achieve their own ambitious goals. These were Gnaeus Pompey, who did not receive land from the Senate for his veterans, Mark Crassus, who expected to take command in the next eastern campaign, and Propraetor Gaius Julius Caesar, whose goal was to achieve consular power. The Union of Politicians was named "t riumvirate" ("the union of three husbands"). In essence, it was an intermediate stage of the struggle strong personalities for power. As a result of the support of Pompey and Crassus, Caesar was elected consul for 59. In gratitude for his help, he passed a law on allocating lands to Pompey's veterans, and for himself, Pompey and Crassus, he was appointed to the position of proconsuls in the richest provinces for five years. The triumvirs actually divided the Roman state among themselves: Crassus got the rich eastern provinces, Pompey - Spain, and Caesar - Gaul and Illyria with the right to recruit 2 legions. In the same year the triumvirs dispersed to their respective provinces. In his province, Caesar began a successful war with the free Gauls and acquired a huge fortune by robbing conquered countries. By the end of the Gallic War, under his command there were no longer two, but as many as 13 legions, hardened in battles with warlike barbarians. Thanks to the talent of the commander and attention to the needs of the soldiers with whom he shared all the hardships of the campaigns, Caesar created a disciplined army devoted to him.

The collapse of the triumvirate. Caesar and Pompey. The governor of the eastern provinces, Mark Crassus, also following the example of Caesar, decided to acquire military glory. He started a war against the strong Parthian kingdom. However, Crassus was killed at the Battle of Carrhae (53). After the death of Crassus, the triumvirate actually fell apart. Now there were only two real contenders for power - Caesar and Pompey. In Rome, in the 1950s, the confrontation between the Republicans and the supporters of the Senate intensified. When a fire broke out in Rome, the Senate appointed a "consul without a collegium" with almost dictatorial powers Pompey, who by the end of the 50s openly took a pro-senatorial position. Possessing great power, Pompey passed a law forbidding Caesar to seek a consulship until the dissolution of his soldiers, which Caesar could not agree to, this led to a final break between them. Pompey, at the insistence of the optimates, began to collect troops. By the beginning of January 49, the possibilities for a peaceful settlement had been exhausted. The Senate outlawed Caesar. An attempt by Caesar's supporters - the people's tribunes Mark Antony and Cassius Longinus - to impose a "veto" on the decision of the senators ended unsuccessfully, they were forced to flee Rome. This insult to the tribunes of the people was used by Caesar as an official pretext for an armed uprising against the senate. On January 9, 49, Caesar with one legion approached the Rubicon River, which separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy, and, having crossed it, occupied the city of Arimik. A civil war began, as a result of which Caesar freely took possession of Rome, seized the state treasury and reorganized the administration of the republic. But there was no time to stay in Rome. He hastily began to collect legions for the war with the Pompeians. The first military clash of opponents near the city of Dyrrhachium in the summer of 48 BC. e. ended in favor of Pompey. On August 9, 48, near the city of Pharsalus in Thessaly, a decisive battle took place between the Caesarians and the Pompeians, which largely predetermined the fate of the republic. Pompey was defeated, tried to flee to Egypt, but was killed there. As a result of the victory, Caesar was the only ruler of a huge Roman power. He returned to Rome and solemnly celebrated four triumphs at once over his victories.

2. Caesar's dictatorship (45-44 BC)

Formation of Caesar's power. At the end of 45, Caesar was proclaimed dictator for a ten-year term, and at the beginning of 44, "eternal dictator." His personal power was much higher than that of the consuls. He could independently resolve issues of war and peace, manage the treasury, nominate candidates for magistrates and observe morals. From now on, he was accompanied by 72 lictors, as well as senators and horsemen. The external attributes of his unusual power included a purple toga and a laurel wreath, which the dictator wore daily. In addition to the dictatorship, Caesar actually concentrated in his hands all the most important republican magistracies: from 63 BC. he was a great pontiff, from 48 BC. e. - praetor, in 46 BC. e. - censor, almost every year he was elected consul.

Caesar's reforms. To obtain a social support for his power, Caesar sought to attract the sympathy of the majority of the Roman people and organized grandiose spectacles and generous distributions. At the same time, being a censor, he carried out a census of the civilian population and reduced the list of citizens in need of state support by half. He endowed his numerous veterans with lands, dissolved the religious colleges - voluntary associations of the urban plebs, which remained the last centers of Roman democracy. The dictator streamlined the collection of taxes from the provincials and carried out the transformation of the farming system with a view to its subsequent elimination. He took an important step in expanding Roman citizenship at the expense of the provincials. Under him, the inhabitants of Transpadanian Gaul and some of the Spanish cities loyal to him received civil rights. Caesar carried out an important monetary reform, starting the issuance of a gold coin. For the first time, the profile of a ruler with a wreath on his head began to be minted on a coin, which turned into a stable tradition in the imperial era. On his initiative, a solar calendar was introduced, which included 365 days.

But, despite all the victories and successes, the position of Caesar turned out to be very precarious. The dictator spoke out too sharply against the old republican traditions, which were still strong not only among the optimistic senators, but also among the social lower classes of Roman society. This provoked protests from a part of the population. A conspiracy arose in the Senate against the dictator, headed by Brutus and Cassius, and on the morning of March 15, 44, Caesar was killed by conspirators in the Senate building.

The struggle for power after the death of Caesar. The death of the dictator did not lead to the victory of the Republicans, but only caused a new round of civil strife. The people did not support the assassins of Caesar. Brutus, Cassius and their supporters were forced to flee Rome. The heir to the property and political successor of Caesar was his adopted son, 19-year-old Octavian. He completed his education in Illyria, where he learned about the assassination of Caesar. When the young Octavian, who now became known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian, arrived in Italy, soldiers and veterans began to flock to him from everywhere. The Roman plebs hoped that Octavian would fulfill the will of Caesar, who bequeathed to each plebeian 300 sesterces, and Caesar's friend Anthony, who was the head of the cavalry under the dictator and took possession of Caesar's treasury, was slow to distribute money. Antony was twice the age of Octavian, he was an experienced and capable military leader, but a bad politician. Octavian, on the other hand, had neither experience nor personal courage in military affairs, but he was prudent, knew how to select talented assistants, and extract all the benefits from his position as the son of Caesar. A battle took place between Octavian and Antony, but what is interesting is not its outcome (Octavian won), but subsequent events. Realizing the fragility of both his victory and his position in general, Octavian began secret negotiations with the Caesarians defeated by him.

In the second half of the 60s. in Rome and Italy, an acute internal political struggle and a crisis of Roman democracy unfolded. Under these conditions, the agrarian question again became aggravated. Smallholders were losing their plots, which in turn led to an increase in the number without land. Based on the dissatisfaction of the rural plebs, the tribune of the people, Servillius Rullus, developed a radical bill that provided for the allocation of land to small-scale citizens, which is very disadvantageous for large landowners, horsemen who did not want to lose control over provincial incomes, and townspeople, since the urban plebs had already severed ties with rural life, accustomed to free grain distributions, metropolitan life, and did not want to return to hard land work.

The situation in Rome became even more complicated. In 65, Catiline attempted to stage a coup. Many representatives of the Roman "golden youth" took part in the conspiracy, for whom the enterprise promised an easy opportunity to get rid of debts, which, undoubtedly, was the most correct slogan for the elections, since in the 60s. in Rome and Italy big number small landowners, veterans, once planted on the land by Sulla, were among the debtors. There were also many debtors among the townspeople. But the support of Catiline by a motley mass of debtors was fragile, they did not trust him, because they saw in Catiline not a defender of the interests of the masses, but a person who pursued his own personal goals. More solid support was given to him by the ruined veterans of Sulla, who dreamed of arranging a second proscription following the example of Sulla. Later, persistent rumors circulated in society that Crassus and Caesar were behind the backs of the conspirators. It was supposed to be on a conditional day (probably January 1, 65) to kill the consuls, choose their supporters in their place and destroy prominent senators. After this, Crassus was to be appointed dictator, and Caesar - the head of the cavalry, and, having arranged state affairs at their discretion, they would return the consulate to Autronius and Sulla. However, two attempts to carry out the conspiracy failed, according to S.I. Kovalev, "due to technical circumstances", and the conspiracy plan was postponed.

Catiline again put forward his candidacy for consulship for 63, he was supported by the democrats. Money for the election campaign was given by Crassus and Caesar. A tense struggle ensued. Optimates and equites united against Catiline and he lost.

Catiline, according to Appian, has since retired from public affairs, since, in his opinion, they do not lead quickly and surely to autocracy, but are full of contention and intrigue. Failures did not break him, and in 62 Catiline for the third time put forward his candidacy for consuls. The main point of his electoral program was the cassation of debts, which provided him with a large number of supporters. Simultaneously with open agitation, there was a secret preparation for an uprising. Agents of Catiline recruited supporters and procured weapons. It is difficult to determine the role of Cicero and Crassus in this "second conspiracy of Catiline." It is possible that they moved away from the movement, afraid of the mass nature of this movement. Consular elections took place in the late summer of 63 and took place in a military situation. Catiline failed this time as well. Then the conspirators decided to resort to an open coup. The uprising was scheduled for the end of October, which was reported to Cicero by Fulvia, the mistress of the conspirator Quintus Curia. Therefore, this coup attempt was unsuccessful. The struggle around the bill of Servilius Rullus and the conspiracy of Catiline reflected the rapid decline of Roman democracy in the middle of the 1st century: the corrupt senate had long lost its former unquestioned authority; the importance of the republican magistracies was also undermined by the already existing example of a lifelong dictatorship; the comitia, after the actual replacement of the people's militia by the corporate army, found themselves in a state of deep crisis. There were healthy social forces in it: small landowners, urban artisans, slaves. But these segments of the population showed themselves to be completely unorganized. A disastrous influence on the movement was exerted by its top, where declassed elements predominated. For them, the movement had only the meaning that it could save them from debt and enrich them. By the 60s. there was a demarcation of the interests of the rural and urban plebs, as evidenced by the easy victory of the senate over the bill of Servilius Rullus. The rural plebs sought land, the townspeople did not share their demands, while the villagers did not understand the demands of the urban population. However, the popular assembly in Rome, which adopted laws, including agrarian ones, consisted mainly of citizens, and therefore, reflected the interests of the rural population more and more weakly. In this regard, the rural plebeians increasingly shy away from participating in the popular assembly and are looking for defenders of their interests among the victorious military leaders. The villagers went to the army in order to receive land plots from their commander after the prescribed period of service, which could not but lead to the decline of popular assemblies, which in turn led to an increase in the political role of the army and its commanders. All this led to the fact that the Roman army became a major social force.

The suppression of the movement greatly strengthened the position of the optimates. Caesar and Crassus, regardless of their actual involvement in the conspiracy, were heavily compromised and withdrew from active political life for some time. Caesar in 61 received the governorship in Further Spain. In the summer of 60 he returned. In Spain, he led successful military operations, subjugated the Lusitani and Callaic tribes, which were still recalcitrant to Rome, and carried out a number of internal management measures: he settled relations with creditors and debtors, achieved through the Senate the abolition of taxes previously imposed on the local population.

He again acted as the patron of both individuals and certain communities. Its brilliant military activity in the provinces gave him every reason to triumph. But, on the other hand, he wanted to run for consulship in 59. To do this, he needed to personally put forward his candidacy, but before the triumph, Caesar did not have the right to cross the city limits. He had few chances, and the situation suggested the need to unite all democratic forces. Caesar agreed with Pompey and reconciled him with Crassus. The union was beneficial to all three. Yes, in the summer of 1960. the first triumvirate was formed. To consolidate the alliance at the beginning of 59

Caesar married his daughter Julia to Pompey. The triumvirate was, above all, a personal agreement between Caesar and Pompey; Crassus, in essence, they needed only as a buffer. They both strove for sole power: Caesar firmly and consistently, Pompey indecisively. From this point of view, they were enemies, but for the time being they needed each other. On the other hand, a well-known consolidation of forces hostile to the optimates took the form of a triumvirate: democracy stood for Caesar and Pompey, Crassus was supported by equestrianism. The professional army was in the background. The common platform of the agreement was the formula: nothing should happen in the republic that would not be pleasing to each of the three. The immediate goal was the election of Caesar as consul, as such, he had to carry out the measures needed by Pompey and Crassus. Caesar won the election.

He managed to achieve a lot during his consulship, but when he resigned, Caesar was in danger of losing influence. Viceroyalty in Gaul fully corresponded to his secret plans, since it was there that he could create a springboard for himself for the upcoming decisive struggle for power. This province was the main object of aspirations of Roman merchants, publicans and military adventurers. Free from the Romans, Gaul broke up into many independent tribes that were at enmity with each other. But by decision of the Senate, which took place as early as 60, Siluae Collesque were declared as consular provinces for 58. The Siluae included the extreme part of Bruttia, Colles - the area near Brundisium. The poor Italian regions could neither give wealth nor create military glory. But Caesar, in the question of the province, as in other important political questions, took advantage of the tradition of the popular party. The issue of Caesar's province was raised at the national assembly, where the law of Publius Vatinius was proposed and approved, according to which Caesar received Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum in control for a period of five years. He was given three legions, he received the right to appoint at his own discretion a double number of legates, to withdraw colonies of citizens. Soon the Senate annexed Transalpine Gaul to the provinces of Caesar. The basis for extraordinary powers was the rather complicated relationship that developed in Gaul and threatened the power of the Romans, perhaps this was a pretext. The predetermined length of time, the extraordinarily broad powers, the considerable military force afforded to a single magistrate, all this was unusual. According to N.A. Mashkin, the law of Vatinius laid the foundations of a military monarchy in Rome. When Caesar arrived in Narbonne Gaul in 58, the situation in Gaul itself was very alarming - in the territory adjacent to Caesar's province, the Aedui, Sequans and Arverns had long been fighting for power. The Aedui considered the Romans their allies. Sequans and Arverns - Germans. At the request of the Sequans, the leader Germanic tribe the Suevians Ariovistus with a large detachment crossed the Rhine and after a long struggle defeated the Aedui (about 60), for this help the Sequans had to cede part of their lands to Ariovistus.

In connection with the invasion of the Germans, the Helvetians began to move. In search of free land, they decided to settle at the mouth of the Garumna, for which they needed to pass through Narbonne Gaul, which Caesar categorically opposed. To thwart the Helvetii, he took up a position on the northern frontier.

The Helvetii tried to break through the fortified line, but this proved fruitless, and they moved through the region of the Sequani and Aedui. Although the movement in this direction did not affect either the real or prestigious interests of the Romans and did not give them the right to interfere in the internal affairs of the Gauls, Caesar, motivating his actions by saying that the Helvetii were too warlike and too hostile, and therefore could pose a serious threat to the Province, considered it necessary speak openly against them. He crossed the borders of Narbonne Gaul and in June 58 inflicted a heavy defeat on the Helvetii, after which the surviving part of the tribe was forced to "repopulate the land that they left."

The next task was to destroy the influence of the Germans. Caesar wanted to present the fight against Ariovistus as a common cause for all of Gaul. To this end, in the summer of 58, a congress of representatives of the Gallic tribes was convened in Bibract under Roman influence, which turned to Caesar with a request to protect them from the Germans. Since Ariovistus refused to comply with the Roman demands, Caesar declared war on him. In September 58, in upper Alsace, not far from the Rhine, Ariovistus suffered a crushing defeat, but "Ariovistus managed to cross the Rhine with a few people."

Thus, in one summer campaign in 58, Caesar successfully ended two wars - against the Helvetii and against Ariovistus, and the Romans for the first time reached the Rhine, which since then has long remained eastern border their possessions in Gaul. In order to better hold the line of the Rhine, Caesar left a number of small Germanic tribes on its left bank, which in return had to defend Gaul from their own compatriots on the right bank. Caesar was the first to initiate the policy of using the barbarians against the barbarians, which was later adopted by the Roman emperors.

A successful military campaign gave him control of southern and central Gaul. But many tribes of Gaul were not inclined to submit to Rome without a fight. The first tribe that Caesar had to face were the Rhemians - the closest neighbors of the Belgae. They expressed their complete obedience to Rome without going to war with it. In 57, Caesar with 8 legions marched against the Belgae. He moved his troops across Axona and set up camp; then the Belgae devastated the surrounding fields and encamped less than two miles from it. The frontal battle did not take place for a long time. When the equestrian battle ensued, the Belgae made an attempt to ford Axon and thus go to the rear of the Romans and cut them off from the region of the Rhemians and from the supply of food. But this attempt was successfully repelled.

After that, the united militia of the Belgians actually disintegrated. They decided to retreat, which Caesar successfully used by attacking the rearguard of the enemy. As Caesar, advancing with the army, entered the territory of one or another Belga tribe, they actually submitted without any resistance. So it was with the communities of the Suessions, Bellovaks, and Ambians. Then, heading northeast, Caesar entered the region of the Nervii. These tribes, united with some neighboring communities, took up positions across the Sabis River, where they expected the appearance of Caesar.

It was here in the summer of 57 that the most tragic battle took place. Caesar was forced to personally take the most active part in the battle; he appeared in all the most threatened places, encouraging soldiers and commanders. The nerves were broken. A large detachment of Aduatuks, hastening to the aid of the Nervii, having learned about the outcome of the battle, turned back halfway home. Caesar soon conquered them too.

At about the same time, Publius Crassus, sent with a legion against the coastal communities, informed Caesar that all these tribes and communities recognized the rule of the Roman people. Thus, it seemed

Caesar was sure of this - that all of Gaul as a result of the campaigns of 58 and 57. subdued.

But already in the winter of 56 - 57 years. an uprising broke out in Brittany and Normandy, which quickly spread to the entire coast from the river. Liger to the Rhine.

The rebels expected help from the Celts of Britain and from the Germans beyond the Rhine. Caesar sent legate Titus Labienus with cavalry to the Rhine. Three legions were sent to Normandy. Caesar himself invaded the region of the Veneti with the main forces. But the land forces were not enough, since the coastal tribes had a strong fleet. The Romans built several courts, adding to them the courts of the allied communities. This combined fleet, under the command of Decimus Brutus, was victorious. The destruction of the German fleet led to the rapid suppression of the movement, as the rebels lost the supply of reinforcements and food from the sea. Now all of Gaul was subjugated and declared a Roman province.

During the campaign of 55-54 years. Caesar defeated the Germans who crossed the Rhine, then crossed the Rhine and made two campaigns in Britain.

These two enterprises, despite the fact that they were largely in the nature of a demonstration, a military raid and did not lead to any territorial acquisitions, nevertheless had great political and military significance.

Summing up, it should be noted that despite the fact that Caesar’s participation in the early stages of the Catiline conspiracy forced the first to move away from political affairs for some time, it nevertheless played a positive role in the formation of his political power, since it brought him closer to Pompey and Crassus to a certain extent. Caesar's rise was very swift. The consulate nominated Caesar as a politician of the first rank, and he decided to consolidate this position by obtaining the Gallic provinces. So, from 58 to 56, Caesar conquered Gaul. During these wars, the entire territory between the Alps, the Rhine and the Pyrenees was annexed to Rome. In addition, these victories gave Caesar the main thing - the love of the Roman people. As Plutarch writes, “when the news of the victory reached Rome, the love of the people for Caesar surrounded his victories with a particularly bright brilliance.”