Human physiology Editor-in-chief: Grigoriev Anatoly Ivanovich. Human Physiology Force Majeure Circumstances

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Federal State Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Perm State Agricultural Academy

named after academician D.N. Pryanishnikov»

A.P. Osipov

"Fundamentals of human physiology" Short Course lectures Perm 2010

UDC 545

Osipov A.P. Fundamentals of human physiology.: A short course of lectures / M-in S.-x. RF, FGOU VPO "Perm State Agricultural Academy" - Perm: Publishing House of FGOU VPO "Perm State Agricultural Academy", 2010. - 78 p.

In a short course of lectures written by Candidate of Medical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Biology and Physiology of the PSAA A.P. Osipov, modern information on human physiology is summarized.

For teachers of non-medical universities and self-preparation for practical classes and an exam in "human physiology" of students studying in the specialty 280101 "Life safety (in the technosphere)".

Reviewer: E.I. Samodelkin, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor of the Department of Noncommunicable Diseases, Perm State Agricultural Academy.

Approved for publication at a meeting of the Methodological Commission of the Faculty of Engineering of the Perm State Agricultural Academy named after Academician D.N. Pryanishnikov. Minutes No. 2010

Short course of lectures

Alexander Petrovich Osipov

Fundamentals of human physiology

Signed for printing. Format 60x84/16. Boom VHI.

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Circulation 100 copies. Order.

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Perm State Agricultural Academy

named after academician D.N. Pryanishnikova

614090, Perm, st. Communist, 23 tel. 210-35-34

 FGOU VPO "Perm State Agricultural Academy", 2010

Introduction

1. Physiology of excitable tissues

2. Physiology of the central nervous system

3. Endocrine glands

4. Physiology of blood

5. Cardiovascular system

6. Physiology of respiration

7. Digestion

8. Metabolism and energy

9. Physiology of analyzers

10. Higher nervous activity

11. Physiological adaptation

Glossary of terms and abbreviations used

INTRODUCTION.

Physiology is the science of the vital activity of the whole organism, physiological systems, organs, cells and subcellular structures. Physiology studies the mechanisms of regulation and patterns of the life of the organism and its interaction with the environment, aimed at achieving a useful result and having adaptive properties. It uses information obtained from such sciences as anatomy, histology, biology, biochemistry, ecology, biophysics and many others. Hippocrates laid the foundations for understanding the role of individual systems and functions of the body as a whole. Descartes formulated the reflex principle of the organization of movements. William Harvey discovered blood circulation, and M. Malpighi showed that it is carried out through a closed network of blood vessels. F. Magendie proved the existence of sensory and motor nerves. Claude Bernard discovered the nervous regulation of blood vessel tone and carbohydrate metabolism, and also formulated an idea of ​​the internal environment of the body. The basic principles of brain activity were formulated by Ch.S. Sherrington, A. Krogh investigated capillary circulation.

The contribution of domestic scientists to the physiology of the respiratory (N.A. Mislavsky, D.S. Haldane, M.V. Sergievsky) and vasomotor (F.V. Ovsyannikov) centers is great. Student N.I. Pirogov, A.P. Walther established the nervous regulation of "internal" processes in the body. THEM. Sechenov proved the transfer of carbon dioxide by hemoglobin, scientifically substantiated the importance of outdoor activities, discovered central inhibition, and formulated the position that the external manifestations of brain activity are ultimately reduced to muscle movement. IP Pavlov studied higher nervous activity, physiology of blood circulation and digestion. A.M. Ugolev discovered membrane digestion and developed the concept of endocrine activity of the gastrointestinal tract. In the twentieth century, discoveries were made in the field of endocrinology, immunology and cytophysiology, the membrane theory of bioelectric potentials was developed, ideas about homeostasis and the relationship of the body with the environment were formed. Based on all this, adaptology, biorhythmology, as well as human ecology are developing. In new natural and industrial conditions, a person is influenced by harsh environmental factors that are inadequate to his nature. Therefore, the development of physiologically sound means of labor protection and environmental safety has become a priority.

- when you sneeze, all body functions stop even the heart
Our nose and ears never stop growing
- children grow faster in spring
- fair-haired people have more hair than dark-haired people
Babies are born without kneecaps. They appear at 2-6 years of age.
There are about 100 billion nerve cells in the average person's brain
- nerve impulses travel to and from the brain at a speed of 274 km per hour
- Don't sneeze with your eyes open
- 15 million blood cells are destroyed in the human body every second
human thighbones are stronger than concrete
- every two weeks the stomach needs a new layer of mucus or it will digest itself
- in order to speak, you need the interaction of 72 muscles
- relative to size, the strongest muscle in the body is the tongue
- right-handers live 9 years longer than left-handers
Women blink almost twice as much as men
- if you go blind in one eye, you lose only 1/5 of your vision, but all the sensations of depth
- our eyes always remain the same size from birth
- finger length indicates how fast a fingernail grows
- the skull is made up of 29 different bones
- after death, the body begins to dry out, creating the illusion that hair and nails are still growing after death
- average length of the intestine 200 m
- every year about 98% of the atoms in the body are replaced
– during the day, a person breathes about 23,040 times
– blood travels 96,540 km every day
- the human heart creates enough pressure to raise blood to a height of 9 m
- the length of the rectum is 1.9 meters
- The length of hair on the head, grown on average by a person during his life, is 725 kilometers.
- Blondes grow their beards faster than brunettes.
- When a person smiles, 17 muscles “work”.
- The surface of the lungs is about 100 square meters.
“Human DNA contains about 80,000 genes.
- Men are considered dwarfs if they are less than 130 cm, women - if they are less than 120 cm.
- Leukocytes in the human body live 2-4 days, and erythrocytes - 3-4 months.
- Each finger of a person bends about 25 million times in a lifetime.
“The size of a man’s heart is about the size of his fist. The weight of an adult heart is 220-260 g.
- The composition of the human body includes only 4 minerals: apatite, aragonite, calcite and cristobalite.
The human brain generates more electrical impulses in a day than all the phones in the world combined.
- The total weight of bacteria living in the human body is 2 kilograms.
- In the human brain, 100,000 chemical reactions occur in one second.
- Babies are born without kneecaps. They appear only at the age of 2-6 years.
The surface area of ​​a human lung is roughly the size of a tennis court.
- From the moment of birth, 14 billion cells already exist in the human brain, and this number does not increase until death. On the contrary, after 25 years it is reduced by 100 thousand per day. In the minute you spend reading a page, about 70 cells die. After the age of 40, brain degradation accelerates sharply, and after 50, neurons (nerve cells) dry out and the volume of the brain shrinks.
- The human small intestine during life has a length of about 2.5 meters. After his death, when the musculature of the intestinal wall relaxes, its length reaches 6 meters.
There are approximately 2 million sweat glands in humans. The average adult loses 540 calories per liter of sweat. Men sweat about 40% more than women.
The right lung of a person holds more air than the left.
- An adult takes about 23,000 breaths (and exhalations) a day.
- Over the course of a lifetime, the female body produces 7 million eggs.
The human eye can distinguish 10,000,000 colors.
There are about 40,000 bacteria in the human mouth.
- You can't sneeze with your eyes open.
There are 33 or 34 vertebrae in the human spine.
Women blink about twice as often as men.
The smallest cells in a man's body are sperm cells.
The strongest muscle in the human body is the tongue.
There are about 2,000 taste buds in the human body.
- At birth, there are about 300 bones in the body of a child, in adulthood there are only 206 of them.
The human body contains as much fat as it takes to make 7 bars of soap.
- Nerve impulses human body moving at a speed of about 90 meters per second.
- A human hair is about 5,000 times thicker than a soap film.
- 36,800,000 - the number of heartbeats a person has in one year.
- Human gastric juice contains 0.4% hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Nearly half of all human bones are in the wrists and feet.
“People with blue eyes are more sensitive to pain than everyone else.
Fingernails grow about 4 times faster than toenails.
- During a lifetime, human skin is replaced approximately 1000 times.
There are over 100 different viruses that cause the common cold.
- There are about 75 kilometers (!) of nerves in the body of an adult.
- Human bones are 50% water.
- The influenza epidemic of 1918-1919 claimed the lives of more than 20 million people in the United States and Europe.
- A person who smokes a pack of cigarettes a day drinks half a cup of tar a year.
Man is the only representative of the animal kingdom capable of drawing straight lines.
- The names of the fingers of the French hand: pus, index, major, anulare, oryculaire.
- The phenomenon in which a person loses the ability to see from strong light is called "snow blindness."
- In psychiatry, the syndrome, accompanied by depersonalization, a violation of the perception of time and space, one's own body and the environment, is officially (!) Called "Alice in Wonderland."
- Papaphobia is the fear of the Pope (of Rome)!.
- In Mesopotamia, for the death of a patient, the doctor who treated him was executed, and for blinding, they were blinded.
Men are about 10 times more likely than women to be color blind.
- Medieval doctors, when in doubt about the diagnosis, diagnosed syphilis.
-Banging your head against a wall can lose 150 calories an hour.
Bulimia is an indomitable appetite.
Parthenophobia is the fear of virgins.
The scientific name for the navel is umbilicus.

human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical and biochemical functions of the human body with good health of its organs and cells of which these organs are composed. Physiology concentrates mainly on the level of organs and systems. Many aspects of human physiology are close to the corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experiments have provided a large amount of information for the development of science. Anatomy and physiology are two close scientific fields: anatomy is the study of form, while physiology is the study of function; they are interconnected and studied together in a university education course.

The concept of homeostasis in human physiology

The term "homeostasis" means maintaining the overall internal resistance in the body. Homeostasis stabilizes the body by regulating the internal environment. It is necessary for the efficient functioning of the body. The process of homeostasis is vital for the survival of every cell, tissue and body system. Homeostasis in a general sense means stability, balance, or equilibrium. Maintaining a stable internal environment requires constant monitoring, in particular with the help of the brain and nervous system. The brain receives information from the body and responds to every request by releasing various substances such as neurotransmitters, catecholamines and hormones. Moreover, the physiology of each individual organ makes it easier to maintain homeostasis of the whole organism. For example, the regulation of blood pressure: the production of renin by the kidneys allows blood pressure to stabilize (renin-angiotensinogen-aldosterone system), and the brain helps regulate blood pressure with the help of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which is produced by the pituitary gland. Therefore, homeostasis is not only maintained within the whole organism, but also depends on each part of it.

Systems in physiology

Traditionally, academic physiology views the body as a set of interacting systems, each with its own functions and purposes. Each body system contributes to the homeostasis of other systems and the whole organism. None of the systems of the body works alone, and the state of human health depends on the state of all interacting systems.

System

Clinical area

Physiology

Nervous system It consists of the central nervous system (which includes the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, and feeling processing, it serves many aspects of communication and controls other systems and functions. special feelings are sight, hearing, taste and smell. Eyes, ears, tongue and nose collect information about the environment in which the organism is located.

Neurobiology, neurology (diseases), psychiatry (behavior), ophthalmology (vision), otolaryngology (hearing, taste, smell)

Neurophysiology

Musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and muscles attached to it. It provides the body with basic structure and the ability to move. In addition to their structural role, large bones contain bone marrow, the site of blood cell formation. Bones also contain a large supply of calcium and phosphate.

Endocrinology

The traditional division into systems is somewhat arbitrary. Many parts of the body are involved in more than one system, and these systems may be organized according to function, embryological nature, or other characteristics. In particular, "neuroendocrine system" is a complex interaction of the neurological and endocrine systems, which together are responsible for regulating physiology. Moreover, many aspects of physiology are not always included in the traditional categories of organ systems.

Pathophysiology is the study of changes in physiology in diseases.

History of the study of human physiology

The study of human physiology dates back to at least 420 BC, the time of Hippocrates, the father of medicine. Aristotle's critical thinking and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece, and Claudius Galen (126-199 AD), known as Galen, was the first to use experiments to study the functions of the body. Galen became the founder of experimental physiology. The medical community moved away from Galenism only with the advent of Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey.

In the Middle Ages, the medical traditions of ancient Greece and India were continued by Muslim doctors. A significant role was played by the works of Avicenna (980-1073), the author "Canon of Medicine", and Ibn Al-Nafisa (1213-1288).

After the Middle Ages, the Renaissance came and marked the growth of physiological research in the Western world, which provoked modern research in the field of anatomy and physiology. Andreas Vesalius was the author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, "De humani corporis fabrica". Vesalius is often cited as the founder of modern human anatomy. The anatomist William Harvey described the workings of the circulatory system in the 17th century, showing the fruitful combination of close observation and careful analysis in studying the functions of the body, which was a major step in the development of experimental physiology. Hermann Bergave is often referred to as the father of physiology, thanks to his outstanding Leiden lectures and book "Institutions medicae"(1708).

In the 19th century, knowledge of physiology began to accumulate very rapidly, especially in 1838, after the appearance of the Theory of Cells by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. They stated that all organisms are made up of tiny particles called cells. Further discoveries by Claude Bernard (1813-1878) led him to develop the concept "milieu interior"(internal environment), which was then picked up, refined and presented as "homeostasis" by the American physiologist Walter Cannon (1871-1945).

In the 20th century, biologists also became interested in how other organisms other than humans function, which eventually led to the development of comparative physiology and ecophysiology. Significant figures in these directions are Knut Schmidt-Nelsen and George Bartholomew. Later, evolutionary physiology became a separate discipline.

The biological basis of the study of physiology - integration - refers to the intersection of many functions of the systems of the human body and their conjugated forms. This is achieved by communication, which occurs in numerous ways, both electrical and chemical.

In the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play a large role in transmitting and receiving signals that are the basis of functioning. Homeostasis is the main aspect of the interaction of systems within the body, including the human body.

Scientometric indicators

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Influence
  • 0.24 Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) 2018

    Source Normalized Impact per Paper (SNIP) measures a journal's contextual citation impact by weighting the citations in each subject group. The contribution of each individual citation is the higher in each specific subject category, the less likely (for reasons of subject content) that such a citation will occur.

  • Q4 Quartile: Physiology 2018

    A set of journals from the same subject category are ranked according to their SJR and divided into 4 groups called quartiles. Q1 (green) combines the journals with the highest scores, Q2 (yellow) - following them, Q3 (orange orange) - the third group in terms of SJR, Q4 (red) - journals with the lowest scores.

  • 0.16 SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) 2018

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  • 12 Hirsch index 2018

SCOPE

human physiology is an international peer reviewed journal aimed at promoting the integration of theory, methods, and research in human physiology. The journal publishes original studies on brain function and its disturbances, including neural mechanisms subserving perception, learning, memory, emotion, and language. human physiology provides a forum for many areas of physiology, such as respiration, circulation, the blood system, motor functions, and digestion, as well as sport and occupational physiology. All kinds of papers on environmental physiology, including adaptation to extreme (polar zone, desert) and new (space) external conditions, are encouraged. Each year, the journal has thematic issues. The journal is highly interested in the cooperation of scientists from all countries and accepts manuscripts submitted in English or Russian.

Indexing and referencing

AGRICOLA, BIOSIS, Biological Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), EBSCO Academic Search, EBSCO Discovery Service, EBSCO SPORTDiscus, EBSCO STM Source, Gale, Gale Academic OneFile, Gale InfoTrac, Google Scholar, Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China, Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), Meta, Naver, OCLC WorldCat Discovery Service, ProQuest Biological Science Database, ProQuest Central, ProQuest Natural Science Collection, ProQuest SciTech Premium Collection, ProQuest-ExLibris Primo, ProQuest-ExLibris Summon, SCImago, SCOPUS.

human physiology is published in Russian as Fiziologiya Cheloveka, which is also abstracted/indexed in PubMed/Medline.

UDK 612 (0512): 61(091)

BRITISH PHYSIOLOGICAL JOURNALS IN 1878-1925 AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS WITH RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGISTS

Elizabeth Matilda (Tilli) Tansi1, Airat Usmanovich Ziganshin2*

‘School of History, Queen Mary University of London, UK,

Kazan State Medical University

Physiology as a flourishing independent professional science came to the fore in Great Britain in the second half of the 19th century. The Physiological Society in Great Britain was formed in 1876, immediately after the passage of legislation regulating the use of experimental animals, and in 1878 the Journal of Physiology was founded. In 1909, the second British edition devoted to the physiological sciences, the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, began to appear. In 1903 professor at Kazan University

ON THE. Mislavsky became the first Russian physiologist to publish an article in the Journal of Physiology, and in 1914 V.N. Boldyrev, a professor of pharmacology from Kazan, became the first Russian scientist whose article was published in the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology. This paper examines the links between British and Russian physiologists, with particular attention to some of the Russian scientists who have published articles in these two British physiological journals.

Key words: physiology, British journals, Journal of Physiology, Quarterly Journal Experimental Physiology, Russian physiologists.

BRITISH PHYSIOLOGICAL JOURNALS 1878 - 1925, AND LINKS WITH RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGISTS.

E.M. (Tilli) Tansey', A.U. Ziganshin2. ‘School of History, Queen Mary University of London, UK; 2Kazan State Medical University, Russia.

abstract. Physiology as a flourishing, independent professional science came to the fore in Britain during the last part of the nineteenth century. The Physiological Society was established in 1876, in the wake of the legislation governing the use of experimental animals, and in 1878 the Journal of Physiology was established. In 1909, a second British publication devoted to the physiological sciences, the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, was also created. In 1903 Professor N.A. Mislavsky from Kazan became the first Russian physiologist to publish in the Journal of Physiology, and in 1914 V.N. Boldyrev, Professor of Pharmacology at Kazan, became the first Russian scientist to publish in the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology. This paper examines links between British and Russian physiologists, and focuses on some of the Russian authors of papers in these two British physiological journals.

Key words: physiology, British journals, "Journal of Physiology", "Quarterly Journal Experimental Physiology", Russian physiologists.

Physiology in the 70s of the XIX century

The 1870s were especially significant for the development of British physiology. Prior to this period, the most influential physiologists worked in the countries of continental Europe. Physiologists such as Johannes Müller in Bonn and Berlin, Emile Dubois Raymond in Berlin, Claude Bernard in Paris and Carl Ludwig in Leipzig were the focus of young doctors and researchers from different countries world who mastered new methods of histology, bacteriology and experimental physiology. It was these scientists who, having returned to their homeland mainly from France and Germany, disseminated new knowledge in their own countries, founded laboratories, societies and journals for the publication of works on physiology. For Russian physiology, such key figures were I.F. Zion, I.P. Pavlov, I.M. Sechenov, N.E. Vvedensky and S.P. Botkin.

In the UK, Victor Horsley Ed-

Physiology in the 1870s

The 1870s were particularly significant years in the development of British physiology. Until that period the most influential physiologists had been those from Continental Europe. Physiologists such as Johannes Muller in Bonn and Berlin, Emil du Bois Reymond in Berlin, Claude Bernard in Paris, and Carl Ludwig in Leipzig attracted young doctors from around the world who were inspired to learn the new scientific techniques of histology, bacteriology and especially experimental physiology. It was these men, mainly trained in France and Germany, who then carried back to their own countries this new knowledge, and who established laboratories, societies and journals to promote physiology. For Russian physiology, the key figures include I. F. Cyon, I.P Pavlov, I.M. Sechenov, N.E. Wedensky and S.P. Botkin.

In Britain, Victor Horsley, Edward Schufer, and Walter Gaskell were among those who studied in Continental laboratories and then

Ward Schafer and Walter Gaskell were among those who studied in the laboratories of continental Europe, and then, returning home, taught their colleagues and students a new experimental science that actively used experiments on living animals. Public outcry, in particular noisy anti-vivisectionist demonstrations, led to the creation in 1875 in Great Britain of the Royal Commission on the Use of Living Animals for Experimental Research for Scientific Purposes. This commission made a recommendation that although live animals may be used in experiments, strict laws should be enacted to control such work. As a result, in 1876 the UK approved the Cruelty to Animals Act, which for the first time in the world introduced a system of registration and licensing of experimental scientists. Feeling a certain isolation and threat from this unique piece of legislation, a group of English medical scientists created the Physiological Society as an organization "for mutual support and assistance." Initially, in this society, pressing scientific problems were discussed during feasts, but soon its members began to take advantage of the opportunity to demonstrate their latest experiments to each other, to discuss research in the form of a formal presentation, and thus the practice of holding scientific sessions in the laboratories of society members before dinner began.

Physiology journals - "Journal of Physiology" and "Quarterly Journal Experimental Physiology"

Meetings of the Physiological Society were not the only way to exchange information about new work. Shortly after the establishment of the Physiological Society, one of its founding members, Professor Michael Foster of Cambridge, founded the Journal of Physiology for publication in English language exclusively physiological work. The specialized magazine model also came from continental Europe. In Germany, back in 1795, Johann Reil created the Archiv fur die Physiologie, and in 1868 Eduard Pfluger published the first issue of Pluger's Archiv fur die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere (currently the European Journal of Physiology "").

returned to inspire and train colleagues and students in the new experimental science, which included in particular, experiments on living animals. Public concern in Britain about the use of animals in medical experiments, and particularly vociferous anti-vivisectionist demonstrations, led to the creation in 1875 of a national enquiry, the ‘Royal Commission on the Practice of subjecting live animals to experiments for scientific purposes’ . The Royal Commission recommended that although experiments could be performed on living animals, there should be strict laws controlling such work. Thus in 1876, the Cruelty to Animals Act was passed, which imposed a system of registration and licensing upon experimental scientists, the first such legislation in the world.

Feeling somewhat isolated and threatened by this unique piece of legislation, a number of medical men established the Physiological Society as an organization ‘for mutual support and succour’ . Initially this was only a dining society, at which the scientific problems of the day were discussed over a good meal. However, members very quickly began to take the opportunity to demonstrate their latest experiments to each other, and to discuss their work in more formal presentations, and thus the practice began of holding scientific sessions in members’ laboratories prior to dinner.

Journals of physiology, the Journal of Physiology

and the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology

Meetings such as those of the Physiological Society were not the only way in which physiologists communicated their new work to each other. Shortly after the creation of the Physiological Society, one of its founder members, Professor Michael Foster of Cambridge, inaugurated the Journal of Physiology to provide a publishing outlet for English language papers solely in the physiological sciences. Again, the model for a specialized journal came from Europe. In Germany Johann Reil had established the Archiv fur die Physiologie as early as 1795, and many others followed his lead including Eduard Pfluger who established Pluger’s Archiv fur die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere (now the European Journal of Physiology) in 1868 .

In Britain, general scientific journals such as the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (established 1665) and the

In the UK, general scientific journals such as Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (founded 1665) and Proceedings of the Royal Society (founded 1800 as Abstracts of the Papers Printed in the Philosophical Transactions and renamed in 1854) ensured the publication of the work of a small physiological community. The work of physiologists was also accepted by such general medical journals as the Lancet (founded in 1823) and the British Medical Journal (founded in 1840).

In 1866, the anatomists George Humphrey and George Turner created the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, which was predominantly anatomical. In 1875, the physiologists Michael Foster and William Rutherford of Edinburgh were elected to the editorial board of the journal, but Foster's dissatisfaction with the ineffective promotion of physiology in the journal led to his resignation two years later. In the mid-1870s, Foster collected all the papers published by his laboratory, and in the wake of the success and demand for Publications from the Cambridge Physiological Laboratory, he founded the Journal of Physiology in 1878. Its first issues contained original scientific articles on "physiology", although this science then included histology, plant physiology, and "chemical" physiology, which later became known as biochemistry. In 1884, a section appeared in the journal called "Proceedings" (protocols, proceedings), which gave brief information about the experiments shown or discussed at meetings of the Physiological Society. In addition, this section contained an extensive bibliography of the physiological literature of the period, compiled mainly from publications in European journals.

The Journal of Physiology was the property of Professor Michael Foster, but in 1894, when he fell into a difficult situation due to debt, the journal was bought by a colleague and later his successor as professor of physiology at Cambridge, John Newport Langley The journal remained in private ownership of Langley until his death in 1925, when the Physiological Society bought the name it still owns. Langley was known to be an authoritarian editor, frequently rewriting many of his works, which outraged some of his colleagues. As a result, in 1908, the publication of an alternative journal, the Quarterly Journal of Experimental

Proceedings of the Royal Society (established 1800 as Abstracts of the Papers Printed in the Philosophical Transactions and renamed in 1854) served the small physiological community, as did general medical journals such as the Lancet (established 1823) and the British Medical Journal (established 1840) ).

In 1866, the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology had been started by the anatomists George Humphrey and George Turner although it was predominantly anatomical in its orientation. In 1875 Michael Foster and a fellow physiologist William Rutherford from Edinburgh were appointed to its editorial board, but Foster's irritation with the journal's ineffectual promotion of physiology leading to his resignation two years later. From the mid-1870s Foster had collected together the papers published from his laboratory, and the success of, and demand for, the bound copies of 'Publications from the Cambridge Physiological Laboratory' encouraged him to establish in 1878, the Journal of Physiology (henceforward the J. Physiol.). The early volumes of the J. Physiol. contained original research papers in ‘physiology’ as it was then defined, which included histology, plant physiology, and chemical physiology, which later became known as biochemistry. In 1884 it started publishing a section called ‘proceedings’ which were short accounts of the experiments either demonstrated or reported at meetings of the Physiological Society and it also included an extensive bibliographic section summarizing all the physiological literature of the period, mainly from European journals.

Professor Michael Foster owned by the J. Physiol. personally, and when it ran into debt in 1894 it was bought by his colleague and later his successor as Professor of physiology at Cambridge, J N Langley. The J. Physiol. remained in private ownership until 1925 when Langley died, and the Physiological Society then bought the title, which it continues to own to the present day .

Langley was renowned as a particularly authoritarian editor, frequently re-writing many of the papers himself, an approach that was increasingly resented by some of his colleagues. Thus in 1908 a rival journal was started, the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology (now called Experimental Physiology, henceforward QJEP), and it was owned and managed by a consortium of physiologists

Table 1

List of articles published by Russian physiologists in the Journal of Physiology - J. Physiol. (1903 - 1924) or "Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology" - QJEP (1908 - 1924)

Papers published by Russian physiologists in either the Journal of Physiology (J.Physiol) (1903 - 1924) or the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology (QJEP) (1908-1924)

Abtop(h)/ Authors Title and reference Title and reference Where from

N. Mislawsky Cortex cerebri and iris // J. Physiol., 1903, 29:15-17. Kazan

Joseph Barcroft, L. Orbeli The influence of lactic acid upon the dissociation curve of blood // J. Physiol., 1910, 41:355-367. Cambridge / Cambridge

J.N. Langley, L.A. Orbeli Observations on the sympathetic and sacral autonomic system of the frog // J.Physiol., 1910, 41:450-482. Cambridge / Cambridge

J.N. Langley, L.A. Orbeli Some observations on the degeneration in the sympathetic and sacral autonomic nervous system of amphibia following nerve section // J.Physiol., 1911, 42:113-124. Cambridge / Cambridge

G.V. Anrep On the part played by the suprarenals in the normal vascular reactions of the body // J. Physiol., 1912, 45: 307-317. St. Petersburg and London / St. Petersburg Petersburg and UCL

G.V. Anrep On local vascular reactions and their interpretation // J. Physiol., 1912, 45:318-327. St. Petersburg and London / St Petersburg and UCL

P.M. Nikiforowsky On depressor nerve fibers in the vagus of the frog // J. Physiol., 1913, 45:459-461. Cambridge / Cambridge

G.V. Anrep The influence of the vagus on pancreatic secretion // J. Physiol., 1914, 49:1-9. Petrograd and London / Petrograd and UCL

W. Boldyreff The self-regulation of the acidity of the gastric contents and the real acidity of the gastric juice // QJEP, 1914, 8: 1-12. Kazan

J.S. Beritoff On the reciprocal innervation in tonic reflexes from the labyrinths and the neck // J. Physiol., 1915, 49:147-156. Petrograd / Petrograd

J.S. Beritoff On the mode of origination of labyrinthine and cervical tonic reflexes and on their part in the reflex reactions of the decerebrate preparation // QJEP, 1915, 9: 199-229. Petrograd / Petrograd

A.F. Samoilov A small string-galvanometer arranged as a signal apparatus // QJEP, 1915, 9: 1-7. Kazan

G.V. Anrep The influence of the vagus on pancreatic secretion: Second communication // J.Physiol., 1916, 50:421-433. Petrograd and London / Petrograd and UCL

W. Boldyreff Fonction pfiriodique de l'organisme chez l'homme et les animeaux d'ordre supfirieur. (Pancrfias comme principal agent du processus de l'assimilation dans tout le corps) // QJEP, 1916, 10: 175-201. Kazan

I. Kianizin The effect on higher animals of the sterilization of the inhabited medium, the air and the food // J.Physiol., 1916, 50: 391-396. Odessa / Odessa

I. Kianizin Influence of saprophyte bacteria on oxidation in higher animals: 5th series of experiments // J.Physiol., 1919, 52: 416-419. Odessa / Odessa

G.V. Anrep Pitch discrimination in the dog // J. Physiol., 1920, 53: 367-385. Petrograd and London / Petrograd and UCL

G.V. Anrep The metabolism of the salivary glands: I. The relation of the chorda tympani to the nitrogen metabolism of the submaxillary gland // J. Physiol., 1921, 54: 319-331. London / UCL

G.V. Anrep, J.C. Drummond Note on the supposed identity of the water-soluble vitamin B and secretin // J. Physiol., 1921, 54: 349-352. London / UCL

G.V. Anrep Observations on augmented salivary secretion // J. Physiol., 1922, 56: 263-268. London / UCL

G.V. Anrep, R.K. Cannan The metabolism of the salivary glands: II. The blood sugar metabolism of the submaxillary gland // J. Physiol., 1922, 56: 248-258. London / UCL

G.V. Anrep, R.K. Cannan The metabolism of the salivary glands: Sh. The blood sugar metabolism of the submaxillary gland // J. Physiol., 1922, 57: 1-6. London / UCL

G.V. Anrep The metabolism of the salivary glands: IV. The metabolism of the reducing substance of the submaxillary gland // J. Physiol., 1922, 57: 7-13. London / UCL

A.A. Krontovski, V.V. Radzimovska On the influence of changes of concentration of the H/OH ions on the life of the tissue cells of vertebrates: I. The influence of temporary changes of reaction of the medium // J.Physiol., 1922, 56: 275-282 . Kyiv / Kiev

G.V. Anrep, R.K. Cannan The concentration of lactic acid in the blood in experimental alkal^mia and acidemia // J. Physiol., 1923, 58: 244-258. London / UCL

B.P. Babkin, E.I. Sinelnikov Isolation of different parts of the digestive tract as a method of studying its movements // J.Physiol., 1923, 58: 15-17. Odessa / Odessa

L.K. Korovitsky The part played by the ducts in the pancreatic secretion // J.Physiol., 1923, 57: 215-223. Odessa / Odessa

W.E. Maevsky The sympathetic innervation and the process of normal salivary secretion // J. Physiol., 1923, 57: 30 7-312. Odessa / Odessa

Catharine A. Verbitzky The effect of temperature on the isolated iris of the cat // J. Physiol., 1923, 57: 330-336. Odessa / Odessa

G.V. Anrep, H.N. Khan The metabolism of the salivary glands: V. The Process of Reconstruction of the Submaxillary Gland // J. Physiol., 1924, 58: 302-309. London / UCL

B.P. Babkin The influence of the blood supply on pancreatic secretion // J. Physiol., 1924, 59: 153-163. London / UCL

B.P. Babkin The influence of natural chemical stimuli on the movements of the frog's stomach // QJEP, 1924, 14: 259-277. Odessa / Odessa

E.E. Goldenberg The mutual influence of secretory stimuli in the submaxillary gland of the cat // J. Physiol., 1924, 58: 267-273. Odessa / Odessa

P.M. Jurist, B.A. Rabinovich Some peculiarities of the sympathetic innervation of the submaxillary gland of the cat // J. Physiol., 1924, 58: 274-275. Odessa / Odessa

Physiology (now Experimental Physiology), owned and operated by a consortium of physiologists until 1979, when the journal was also acquired by the Physiological Society.

Publications of Russian physiologists in the journals "Journal of Physiology" and "Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology"

An analysis of the first sixty volumes of the Journal of Physiology (1878 - 1925) and the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology from 1908 to 1925 shows that a total of eighteen Russian scientists or teams from their laboratories took part in the publication of 34 articles. In table. Table 1 shows in chronological order the output data of publications (with indication of laboratories) of Russian scientists in these two journals.

Scientific relations of Kazan

The first Russian scientist to publish his article in the "Journal of Physiology" was the founder of the Kazan school of physiologists, Nikolai Alexandrovich Mislavsky (1854 - 1929), who in 1903 published a work on the cortical control of the function of the iris. teaching physiology in

until 1979 when it too was acquired by the Physiological Society .

Russian physiologists publishing in the Journal of Physiology and the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology

An analysis of the first sixty volumes of the J.Physiol. (1878-1925) and of the QJEP from 1908 to 1925 reveals that a total of eighteen individual Russian scientists, or those publishing from Russian laboratories, contributed 34 papers to these journals. Table 1 shows all the details of these papers in the chronological order as well as the cities of origin of the publications.

Kazan connections

The first Russian physiologist to publish in the J. Physiol. was the Professor of Physiology from Kazan, N.A. Mislavsky (1854-1929) who contributed a paper in 1903 on the cortical control of the iris . The teaching of physiology in Kazan had started in 1806, and by the end of the nineteenth century was flourishing, and a brief description of its organization and influence has been summarized in number of publications including one in English . Mislavsky, who had studied in 1886-87 with Carl Ludwig in Leipzig, was head of the Physiological

Kazan began in 1806, and by the end of the 19th century it was already carried out at a high level, and a brief description of its organization and influence on the development of medical schools in Kazan were summarized in a number of publications, including in English. ON THE. Mislavsky, who conducted research in 1886 - 1987. in the laboratory of Karl Ludwig in Leipzig, headed the physiological laboratory in Kazan in 1891 - 1928. His main scientific interest was focused on the role of the central and peripheral nervous systems in the body. He was a student of Nikolai Osipovich Kovalevsky and in 1885 he defended his doctoral dissertation "On the respiratory center", in which he used histological methods to determine the localization of the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata.

It is possible that some British-Russian professional contacts originated at international physiological congresses, the first of which took place in 1889 in Basel (Switzerland). ON THE. Mislavsky, for example, was one of seven physiologists from Russia who participated in the IV International Physiological Congress, which took place in Cambridge (England) in August 1898 (Table 2). They

NOT. Vvedensky were well known to the International physiological community, and therefore, at the 1898 congress, N.E. Vvedensky was invited as a member of the international committee for organizing and holding the V Physiological Congress, held in Turin (Italy) in 1901, and N.A. Mislavsky was asked to be a member of the International Commission for the Standardization of Physiological Recording Devices and Apparatus.

In addition to the work of N.A. Mislavsky, in British physiological journals in 1878 - 1925. articles of two more researchers from Kazan were placed. It is interesting to note that the first Russian scientist who published an article in the "Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology" in 1914 was also from Kazan - this is Vasily Nikolaevich Boldyrev (1872 - 1946), professor, head of the department of pharmacology at Kazan University, who worked in the laboratory of I .P. Pavlov in St. Petersburg before moving to Kazan in 1913. His first work was devoted to the study of the acidity of gastric juice and is largely consistent with the large research program led by I.P.

Physiologists who worked in Russian laboratories and took part in the IV International Congress of Physiology in Cambridge (England, 1898)

Physiologists from Russia who attended the Fourth International Congress of Physiology in Cambridge, England in 1898

Surname I.O. / Name Place of work / Place of work

Kulyabko A.A. / A. Kouliabko St. Petersburg, Kazan

Kurchinsky V.P. / B. Kurtschinsky Yuriev (Dorpat) / Yourieff (Dorpat)

Medvedev A.K. / A. K. Medvedev Odessa / Odessa

Mislavsky N.A. / N. Mislavsky Kazan / Kazan

Vvedensky N.E. / N. Wedensky Saint-Petersburg / St Petersburg

Saint-Hilaire C. St Petersburg

Walther A. St Petersburg

department in Kazan from 1891-1928 and was particularly interested in the structure of the nervous system. He had been a student of N.O. Kovalevsky and his1885 thesis On the Problem of the Respiratory Center had used histological methods to define a respiratory center in the medulla oblongata .

It is possible that some British-Russian professional contacts were made at the international physiological congresses, the first of which was held in 1889 in Basel, Switzerland. Mislavsky, for example, had been one of seven physiologists from Russia who attended the fourth international physiological congress which was held in Cambridge, England in August 1898 (see Table 2). Both he and Wedensky were particularly well known on the international physiological stage and at the 1898 Congress, Wedensky was invited to be a member of the International Committee for the fifth congress, to be held in Turin, Italy in 1901, and Mislavsky was asked to be an international commissioner on the standardization of physiological recording equipment.

Two other authors from Kazan also published in British physiological journals. Interestingly the first Russian to publish in the QJEP, in 1914, was also from Kazan. This was the pharmacologist Professor V.N. Boldyrev, who had been one of Pavlov's assistants in St

Pavlov in St. Petersburg. The second article by V.N. Boldyrev, published in the "Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology" in 1916 on a comparative assessment of the function of the human and animal pancreas, was also part of this research program in the field of physiology of visceral organs. This program, however, was interrupted due to the chaos that followed the October Revolution in 1917, and V.N. Boldyrev, after leaving the country, first worked at universities in Japan, and then moved to the United States, where he became the first director of the Pavlovsk Physiological Institute of the Battle Creek Sanatorium in Michigan. Being in exile, he writes warm memories of the years of work in Russia in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov, the results of which were published on the pages of the Kazan Medical Journal in 1925.

The third Kazan author of scientific articles in British journals was Alexander Filippovich Samoilov (1867 - 1930), head of the Department of Physiology at Kazan University. From the minutes of the meetings of the International Commission on Physiological Recording Equipment, founded by the International Congress of Physiology in 1898, it becomes clear that the development, improvement and standardization of recording equipment was one of the main tasks of physiology in the first decades of the 20th century. Article by A.F. Samoilova in the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology reflects this interest and concern, she concerned the modification of the string galvanometer in order to use it as an accurate time recording mechanism in combination with a large string galvanometer. A.F. Samoilov was a personal friend of the inventor of the string galvanometer, Willem Einthoven, and before coming to Kazan, he worked in the laboratories of I.P. Pavlov in St. Petersburg and I.M. Sechenov in Moscow, later becoming the most prominent electrophysiologist in Russia and the USSR of that time.

Russian physiologists who worked in British laboratories

After the publication of the article by N.A. Mislavsky in the "Journal of Physiology" in 1903, another seven years passed before the next publication of the Russian physiologist in British journals (Table 1), which became the first of a series of joint works carried out with the participation of Russian and British laboratories.

Petersburg before moving to Kazan in 1913. His first paper was on the acidity of gastric acid which was very much in line with the large program of research advocated by I.P Pavlov in St Petersburg . Boldyrev’s second paper in the QJEP in 1916 on comparative pancreatic function, was also part of that larger program of research into visceral physiology. That program however came to an end in the chaos of the Bolshevik revolution, and Boldyrev fled abroad, via Japan to the United States, where he eventually became the first director of the Pavlov Physiological Institute of the Battle Creek Sanitarium, Michigan, established by the health reformer Dr John Harvey Kellogg, more famous for inventing cornflakes as a breakfast food .

It was whilst in the United States that Boldyrev wrote an affectionate account of his years spent working in Pavlov’s lab, and this was published in the Kazan Medical Journal in 1925 .

The third author from Kazan was Alexander Filipovich Samoilov (1867-1930), head of Department of Physiology at Kazan University . As illustrated by the international commission on equipment established by the International Physiological Congress in 1898, referred to above, the development, improvement and standardization of recording equipment was a major concern of physiologists during the early decades of the twentieth century. Samoilov’s paper in the QJEP reflects those interests and concerns, being an account of a modification to a string galvanometer to allow it to be used as a precise timing mechanism in conjunction with a large string galvanometer. Samoilov was a personal friend of the inventor of the string galvanometer, Willem Einthoven, and after training with Pavlov, and before moving to Kazan, he worked with the I. M. Se-chenov in Moscow, becoming the most prominent electrophysiologist in Russia/USSR of his time.

Russian physiologists working in British labs

After Mislavsky's paper in the J. Physiol. in 1903, it was to be a further seven years before another paper appeared from a Russian physiologist (see Table 1), which heralded several papers appearing jointly from Russian and British labs.

The second Russian physiologist to publish in the J. Physiol. was L.A. Orbeli (1882-1958),

The second Russian physiologist to be published in the Journal of Physiology was Leon Abgarovich Orbeli (1882 - 1958), one of the most prominent scientists in Russia and the USSR. After graduating from the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, he collaborated with I.P. Pavlov at the Institute of Experimental Physiology. In 1909 - 1911 he was abroad, working in Leipzig, Marburg and Vienna, after that he came to the UK, where in the physiological laboratory in Cambridge he studied blood dissociation with Joseph Barcroft and subsequently studied autonomic neurophysiology with J. Langley. It was during this period that three papers were written, published by him in the Journal of Physiology. In 1946 Academician L.A. Orbeli was elected an honorary member of the Physiological Society of Great Britain.

Another Russian physiologist Pyotr Mikhailovich Nikiforovsky (1879 - 1952) worked in the Cambridge Physiological Laboratory, who studied the neurophysiology of the autonomic nervous system, in particular vagal innervation. Unfortunately, there is little information about him, especially in English-language literature. It is known that he came from St. Petersburg and worked in the Netherlands in the physiological laboratory of the University of Utrecht before coming to England. After returning home, Prof. P.N. Nikiforovsky headed the Department of Physiology at Samara University (1920 - 1927), Voronezh University (1927 - 1938), Stavropol Medical Institute (1940 - 1947) and Lviv University (1947 - 1952).

Of the remaining Russian scientists, two more - G.V. Anrep and B.P. Babkin, who was patronized by I.P. Pavlov, published their articles in the two journals mentioned, while working in British physiological laboratories (Table 1).

G.V. Anrep, B.P. Babkin and the influence of I.P. Pavlova

The most productive during this period of time, publishing a total of 13 papers, was Gleb Vasilyevich von Anrep (1889 - 1952), who immortalized his name as the author of the "Anrep effect" in cardiovascular physiology. He was the son of Professor Vasily Konstantinovich von Anrep (1852 - 1927) - one of the organizers of the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg.

who became one of Russia and the USSR's most prominent scientists. Orbeli had graduated at the Medical Military Academy in St Petersburg under I.P. Pavlov’s direction, and spent many years working with Pavlov in the Institute of Experimental Physiology. From1909 he spent two years abroad, working in Leipzig, Marburg and Vienna, before traveling to Britain to the Physiological laboratory in Cambridge, where he studied blood dissociation with Joseph Barcroft and then autonomic neurophysiology with J.N. Langley. It was this work that gave rise to his three papers in the J. Physiol. . In 1946, as Academician Orbeli, he was elected to Honorary Membership of the Physiological Society.

Orbeli was followed in the Cambridge Physiological laboratory by anoher Russian physiologist P.M. Nikiforovsky (1879-1952), who studied autonomic neurophysiology, particularly the effects of vagal innervation. Little else is known of him in the English literature. He came from St Petersburg and before arriving in England he had been working in the Netherlands in the Physiological laboratory at the University of Utrecht . He returned to Russia, becoming head of Department of Physiology at the University of Samara (19201927), Voronezh (1927-38) , Stavropol (194047), and was a founder member of the faculty of Biology at the University of Lviv in the Ukrainian SSR.

Of the remaining Russian authors in the Table 1, two more published whilst working in British physiological labs: Anrep and Babkin, both of whom were protegees of Pavlov.

G.V. Anrep, B.P. Babkin and the influence of Pavlov

The third Russian author to appear in the J. Physiol. and also the most prolific during this period (thirteen papers in total) was Gleb Vassilievitch von Anrep (1889-1952), who is commemorated in the eponymous ‘Anrep effect’ in cardiovascular physiology . He was the son of Professor Vassili von Anrep the first director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St Petersburg . Anrep also worked in Britain before the first world war, not in Cambridge as had Orbeli and Nikiforowsky, but in Ernest Starling’s laboratory at UCL (University College London) at the request of his Professor, I P Pavlov.

I.P. Pavlov, although he never published in either of the British physiological journals, had

Rice. 1. After playing croquet near the London home of William Bayliss, 1910, Ernest Starling sits on the ground third from the right in the front row, behind him and slightly to the right - I.P. Pavlov, William Beilis is sitting on the far left on the ground.

Photo from the archives of the Physiological Society (reprinted with permission from the Wellcome Photographic Library).

Figure 1. A croquet party at William Bayliss' London house, c. 1910. Ernest Starling is seated on the ground in the front row, third from the right. Seated behind him, slightly to the right is I P Pavlov. William Bayliss is also seated on the ground, at the far left. Image from the archives of the Physiological Society, reproduced courtesy of the Wellcome Photographic Library.

G.V. Anrep also worked in Britain before the First World War, but not in Cambridge, like L.A. Orbeli and P.M. Nikiforovsky, but in the laboratory of Ernest Starling at University College London, where he ended up at the request of his supervisor, Professor I.P. Pavlova. Although I.P. Pavlov did not publish a single article in British physiological journals; he had a great influence on those who published in them, especially G.V. Anrep and B.P. Babkin.

I.P. Pavlov first visited London in 1906 as a guest of the Physiological Society to give the prestigious Huxley Lecture at Charing Cross Hospital in London in memory of Thomas Henry Huxley, the founder of the Physiological Society. In 1907 he was elected a Foreign Fellow of the Royal Society and was made an honorary member of the Physiological Society in 1909. In 1915 he was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal, and in 1928 I.P. Pavlov visited England as an official

much influence over some of those who did, especially G.V. Anrep and B.P. Babkin.

Pavlov first visited London in 1906 as a guest of the Physiological Society and to deliver the prestigious Huxley Lecture, in commemoration of Thomas Henry Huxley, a Founder member of the Physiological Society, at Charing Cross Hospital in London. The following year, 1907, he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society, and became an Honorary Member of the Physiological Society in 1909. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1915 and visited England as an official representative of the Soviet Academy of Sciences in 1928 to celebrate the tercentenary of William Harvey. It was on this occasion that a photograph was taken of him, with Samiolov, outside Buckingham Palace . On that visit Pavlov also told a meeting of the Royal Society Club how it was the work of an Englishman and another founder of the

representative of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for the celebration of the tercentenary of William Harvey. It was on this occasion that a photograph was taken showing him with Samoilov outside Buckingham Palace. During that visit, I.P. Pavlov spoke at a meeting of the club of the Royal Society, where he said that at one time he, then a seminary student in Ryazan, was inspired to study physiology precisely by the work of an Englishman, another founder of the Physiological Society, George Henry Lewis. The same story was recalled later in Canada by one of I.P. Pavlova - B.P. Babkin. Pavlov was familiar with many British physiologists and their work, including the studies of William Bayliss and E. Starling on the hormonal control of gastric secretion (Fig. 1). Therefore, it is not surprising that he sent G.V. Anrep to the laboratory of E. Starling to study the methods of search integrative physiology and secretin production technology.

G.V. Anrep was elected a member of the Physiological Society in 1913, but his third visit to University College London ((UCL) in 1914 was interrupted by the war. He hurried back to St. Petersburg, where he served as a military doctor in the army, was wounded twice and was awarded the George Cross. During this period, he was also able to publish two articles in the Journal of Physiology. After the October Revolution, G. V. Anrep joined the White Army of A. I. Denikin, and at the end of 1918 left Russia for England There he worked with E. Starling at UCL for seven productive years, during which he received several prestigious awards in physiology.

In 1925 G.V. Anrep moved to Cambridge University and in 1928 became a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1931, he went to Egypt as a professor of physiology at the University of Cairo, where he worked until 1952, when the nationalists staged an uprising and made non-Egyptians out of work. G.V. Anrep died three years later.

Appeared somewhat later in the list of Russian authors of British physiological journals (in 1923 - 1924) and much less prolific (three articles) than G.V. Anrep was Boris Petrovich Babkin (1877 - 1950), whose name is also closely associated with I.P. Pavlov (Fig. 2). After studying at the Military Medical Academy in St.

Physiological Society, George Henry Lewes, that had originally inspired him to study physiology, whilst still a seminary student in Ryazan , a story he also told in Canada to another former pupil, B.P. Babkin. Pavlov was familiar with many British physiologists and their work, and in particular the research of Bayliss and Starling on the hormonal control of gastric secretion (see Figure 1). It is therefore hardly surprising that it was to Starling’s laboratory that he sent Anrep to learn the methodology of investigative integrative physiology and how to prepare secretin .

Anrep was elected a member of the Physiological Society in 1913, but his third visit to UCL in 1914 was cut short by the outbreak of war. He hurried back to St Petersburg (Petrograd after 1914) to qualify in medicine and join the Army, where he was twice wounded and awarded the George Cross. During this period he also managed to publish two papers in the J. Physiol. (see Table 1). After the Bolshevik Revolution Anrep joined the White Russians under Denikin, until he finally left Russia for England in late 1918. There, he joined Starling at UCL for seven productive years during which he also won a number of awards in physiology. In a lecture in the 1930s he recorded his debt to both Pavlov and Starling,

‘Pavlov’s personality and that of my later teacher, Starling, had equally dominating influences upon my development as a physiologist... The Pavlov of digestion was a physiologist of the old school; the Pavlov of conditioned reflexes one could almost say was a physiologist of the future; and Starling was a physiologist of the transition stage between the old physiology of observation and the present physiology of scientific analysis’ .

In 1925 Anrep moved to the University of Cambridge, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1928. In 1931 he moved to Egypt as Professor of Physiology at the University of Cairo where he remained until 1952 when a nationalistic uprising removed all non-Egyptians from their positions. Anrep died three years later.

Appearing rather later in the list of Russian authors, in 1923 and 1924, and far less prolific (three papers) than Anrep, with whom he is often linked, is Boris Petrovich Babkin (1877-1950), whose name is also closely associated with that of Pavlov (see Figure 2). After education at the Medical Military Academy in St Petersburg,

Rice. 2. I.P. Pavlov, G.V. Anrep and B.P. Babkin in London in 1928 (reprinted with permission from the Wellcome Photographic Library).

Figure 2. Portrait of Pavlov, Anrep and Babkin taken in London in 1928. Reproduced courtesy of the Wellcome Photographic Library.

Petersburg B.P. Babkin joined I.P. Pavlov in 1902, initially studying the pancreatic secret.

In 1912 he became professor of animal physiology at the Agricultural Institute of Novo-Alexandria (now Pulawy in Poland), and in 1915 he was appointed professor of physiology in Odessa. By 1922, his liberal political views brought him into conflict with the new Soviet government, and he was imprisoned for ten days and then expelled from the country. Upon reaching London, B.P. Babkin immediately contacted E. Starling, who, with the assistance of the Medical Research Council, provided him with a job at UCL for two years. Although two articles by B.P. Babkin were published after their arrival in the UK, based

Babkin joined Pavlov in 1902, initially directed to a project on pancreatic secretion. In 1912 he became Professor of Animal Physiology in the Agricultural Institute of Novo-Alexandria (now Pullawy in Poland), and in 1915 was appointed Professor of Physiology in Odessa in Southern Russia (now Ukraine). By 1922 his liberal political views brought him into conflict with the new Soviet authorities, and he was imprisoned for ten days before being sent into exile. Making his way to London he too immediately contacted Starling, who with assistance from the Medical Research Council, employed him for two years at UCL.

Although published after his arrival in the UK, two of Babkin's papers reported work done in Russia. The first, on surgical procedures to

they are based on the results of studies conducted back in Russia. The first article is devoted to the surgical technique of creating fistulas of various parts of the small intestine and, obviously, develops the early studies of the Pavlovian school on the physiology of the gastrointestinal tract; the imprint of the article states that it came from Odessa. The second article by B.P. also came from there. Babkin on the peristaltic movements of the frog stomach, published in the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology in early 1924, although the imprint indicates that the work was started in 1918 in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in Petrograd and completed at Odessa University. At the same time, by the end of 1924, in the publications of B.P. Babkin in the "Journal of Physiology" clearly stated that they come from London. In the same 1924, he moved to Canada, where he headed the Department of Physiology at the University of Dalhouse, refusing the offer to return to the USSR, which came, among other things, from I.P. Pavlova. From 1928 to 1947 B.P. Babkin served as a research professor at McGill University in Montreal, where he conducted numerous studies of saliva and gastric secretions based on his early original studies of the pancreas, and also published a well-received biography of I.P. Pavlova.

Contribution of B.P. Babkin in British physiology during this period was, however, much more than just the three articles of his mentioned here. All authors of articles received from Odessa in 1923-1924, as follows from Table. 1, developed problems closely related to the scientific interest of B.P. Babkin - the secretion of the digestive glands, and many of them frankly recognized his inspiring role and help.

Since the mid-1920s, there have been fewer and fewer Russian surnames in the author's indexes "Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology" and "Journal of Physiology", and those who are in these indexes have mainly made their careers in the West - this is G.V . An-rep, B.P. Babkin and V.G. Korenchevsky. Founded in 1917 by I.P. Pavlov “Russian Physiological Journal named after I.M. Sechenov" (1917 - 1931), later "Physiological Journal of the USSR named after I.M. Sechenov" (1932 - 1940, 1945 - 1967), and now "Russian Physiological Journal named after I.M. Sechenov”, undoubtedly, both

create fistulae of different parts of the small intestine was a clear development of the early Pavlovian School of gastro-intestinal physiology and was acknowledged as coming from Odessa . So too was the paper on peristaltic movements in the frog stomach that Babkin published in QJEP at the beginning of 1924, although the acknowledgments reveal that the work was started in 1918 in Pavlov's own lab in the Institute of Experimental Medicine in Petrograd, before completion at the University of Odessa. However, by the end of 1924, his publication in the J. Physiol. was clearly delineated as coming from UCL. That same year he accepted a position at Dalhousie University in Canada, having refused offers to return to the USSR, including one from Pavlov himself . Babkin became Research Professor at McGill University in Montreal in 1928 until 1947, where he extended his original work on pancreas into numerous examinations of salivary and gastric secretion and wrote a well-received biography of Pavlov .

Babkin's contributions to British physiology at this period were however rather more than his own three papers indicate. All the authors of papers from Odessa in 1923 and 1924, as shown in the Table 1 (Korovitsky, Maevsky, Sinenikov, Verbitzky, Goldenberg, Jurist and Rabinovich) were pursuing topics closely related to Babkin's own interests in secretion, and many frankly acknowledged his inspiration and assistance. The one project that was more remote from Babkin's work, that of Verbitzky on the response to heat of smooth muscle in the iris, was acknowledged to have been his suggestion.

From the mid 1920s when this analysis ceases, there were few Russian names appearing in the author index of the J. Physiol. or the QJEP, and those who did contribute were principally those who made their careers in the West such as Anrep, Babkin, and Korenchevsky . However, the establishment in 1917 by Pavlov of the I. M. Sechenov Russian Journal of Physiology (1917-1931), subsequently the I. M. Sechenov Journal of Physiology of the USSR (1932 - 1940, 1945-1967) (now - Russian Journal of Physiology) definitely provided a publishing outlet for Russian and Soviet physiologists at a time when publishing in foreign journals was discouraged. However, in the early years of the twentieth century a number of Russian physiologists, including some who were, or who became, most distinguished practitioners,

he was in the process of publishing articles by Russian and Soviet physiologists in the 1920s and 1930s, when publications by Russian scientists in foreign journals were not encouraged. However, in the early years of the 20th century, many Russian physiologists visited British laboratories and published their work in British physiological journals, including scientists who were among the most prominent researchers of their time.

E. M. Tansi thanks The Wellcome Trust for their support.

LITERATURE

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2. Boldyrev V.N. Work with Ivan Petrovich Pavlov // Kazan Med. and. - 1925. - No. 3. - S. 228 - 236.

3. Koshtoyants H.S. Essays on the history of physiology in Russia. - Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1946. / Per. in English. D.P. Boder, K. Hanes, N. O'Brien, editor D.B. Lindsley, American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1964.

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