Which are necessary to link components in a complex sentence, homogeneous members in a sentence, as well as individual sentences in one text.

In Russian, the class of allied words and conjunctions includes those words that are responsible for syntactic links in a sentence or word form. Unlike prepositions that perform an auxiliary function in unity with case noun forms, this part of speech is not only not connected in any way with the grammatical form of the combined words, but is generally indifferent to their belonging to any part of speech. The same thing can connect as nouns (for example, " i have a dad and a mom”), as well as verbs (“ boy singing and dancing""), adjectives (" girl is beautiful and smart”), adverbs and even those words that belong to different parts of speech. The only condition is the coincidence of their syntactic functions - for example: " write beautifully and without errors ".

Many unions and allied words should not so much establish a connection as identify and concretize it. This is another of their distinctive abilities that prepositions do not have. The latter with case inflection not only reveal the connection, but at the same time form it.

Unions are not only not considered members of the proposal - they do not change. By origin, they are divided into derivatives - for example, to, as if in which one can trace the method-formation connection with those significant words from which these unions were formed. Another variety is non-derivative unions, which are not related by origin in today's Russian with other parts of speech. These are unions or, yes, and.

And according to the method of use, the following forms are distinguished:

• non-recurring or single - however, but;
• pairs or doubles, for example, how…and if…then;
• recurring is and…and, neither…nor.

Based on the structure, unions are divided into simple ones, which are written without spaces - ah, because, and into components- while, since.

By the nature of the syntactic relations expressed with their help, there are coordinating and subordinating unions.

Coordinative types connect equal components - such as parts

According to their meaning, coordinating allied words are:

• connectives that express the enumeration relation - yes, and, also, and...and, also;
• adversative, expressing the attitude of opposition - however, but, ah, same;
• dividing, expressing the relationship of mutual exclusion - or ... or, or, then ... then;
• explanatory, which express the relation of explanation - like that, exactly;
• joining, expressing the relation of joining - and also, yes and.

Their other variety - subordinating conjunctions - is designed to show the dependence of one component on another, linking together, mainly, the links of a complex sentence. Sometimes they are also used in simple sentences for heterogeneous and homogeneous members.

For example, subordinating conjunctions although, as, as if, as if, than.

The day in winter is shorter than the night. The lake is like a mirror. As you can see, subordinating conjunctions connect any members of the sentence. They can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Separate compound conjunctions are used in cases where there is a main and several. These are, for example, such words: who, where, which, which, whose, where, how much, from where, why, why, how much.

According to the value parameter, subordinating conjunctions are of the following categories:

• causal - By Besides that, since, because;
• temporary - when, only, while, hardly;
• target - in order to, in order to;
• conditional - if, if, if;
• explanatory - how, what, to;
• concessions - although; Although;
• comparative - as, as if, exactly, as if, than;
• consequences - So.

Before starting to study the topic Coordinating conjunctions”, consider which section of the Russian language they are included in. In the Russian language there are service parts of speech, where particles, prepositions, conjunctions and copulas are studied. They do not have a nominative function, i.e. do not name objects, signs, phenomena, but help to express the relationship between them. In a sentence, they are not members and are used as a formal grammatical means of the language. They have no stress, they are unchangeable and morphologically indivisible.

Unions

Unions connect homogeneous members simple sentences and part of a complex sentence. They are composing and subordinating.

Homogeneous members of a sentence and parts of a compound sentence can connect coordinating conjunctions.

Unions and their groups

By value, these unions are divided into the following groups:

1. Connecting: and, yes (and), neither ... nor, and ... and. For example: Write And read in Russian. It rained all day And the wind continued to whistle outside the window. And he listens to everything Yes shakes his mouth. Neither wind, neither storm, neither the thunder could not keep him from the trip. AND first, And second, And the third was brought to the table without delay.

2. Nasty: but, yes (but), but, however, the same. For example: Father said A the whole family listened attentively. Today is cloudy, But warm. Small, Yes remote. It was difficult there but very interesting. The officer approached the building however not in a hurry to enter the entrance.

3. Dividing: or, or…or, either, or…or, then…that, or…either, not that…not that. For example: Whether Sun, either snow, either love, either No. Be or not to be? Wet dogs wandered around or sat waiting for food. Or I had to go ahead or stay and wait. Sharp gusts of wind That plucked the leaves from the trees, That branches were bent to the ground.

4. Comparative: like…and; not only but). For example: Guests How unexpectedly arrived so suddenly they left. They visited Not only in Moscow, But and in Kyiv.

5. Connecting: yes, and, also, also. For example: We are learning, adults are learning Same. He laughed at us Also became fun. We were praised for our work yes and for the children too

Writing unions. Kinds

Differ:

Singles: But...

Recurring: and...and, or...or, either...either, neither...nor...

Double: like...and, not only...but also...

Spelling of coordinating conjunctions. Punctuation marks

A comma is placed before the union And when it connects parts of a complex sentence.

before the union And the comma is not put if it connects two members of the sentence.

When repeating the union And a comma is placed after each member of the sentence connected by it.

Before opposing alliances ah, but, yes (but) always put a comma: The sky was overcast, But there was no more rain. We went to the commandant A the son went into the room. Small spool, Yes roads.

Unions are written together: also, also, but. To make sure that also, also, but unions, you need instead too, also substitute union And, but instead but- union But. If such a stand is possible, then these are unions and they need to be written together.

Coordinating conjunctions: examples

1. I Same wrote, but Same(pronoun That and particle same) while listening carefully.

2. Poet Also sang well. They all Also(adverb So and particle same) every day waiting for letters from children.

3. Hide for that(pretext behind And demonstrative pronoun That) tree. Worked a lot but all finished.

Conclusion

Sentences with coordinating conjunctions are very widely used in the scientific, colloquial, official vocabulary of the Russian language. They make our speech rich and interesting.

V. Y. Apresyan, O. E. Pekelis, 2012

Subordinating unions are unions used to express a subordinating syntactic connection (see the articles Subordination and Union). In the general classification of unions, subordinating unions are opposed to coordinating ones.

1. Introduction

The classification of subordinating conjunctions is based on semantic principles. In accordance with AG-1954. [Grammar 1954: p. 1012] in this article the following groups of conjunctions are distinguished:

(1) causal conjunctions ( because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that);

(2) conjunctions of consequence ( so, and then, and not that);

(3) target unions ( so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that);

(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (would, b), if, if, when, when);

(5) concessive alliances ( although, at least; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, while; it would be good, let it be; only truth);

(6) temporary alliances ( barely, barely, as soon as, as, when, only, only, as soon as, after, since, until, until, until, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, a little, a little, a little, before, while);

(7) comparative conjunctions ( as, that, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (like), like, exactly, exactly (like), than, rather than).

(8) explanatory conjunctions ( what, what, as if, how);

The composition of the groups is given according to AG-1954, with the exception of the group of concessive unions (see): its composition is somewhat wider than what is proposed in the grammar. Concession unions are described in this article in accordance with the works of [V. Apresyan 2006. a, b, c] and [V. Apresyan 2010].

Unions are considered in each subsection only in their main meaning; for example union to(see ) has, in addition to the target ( He did it to help her.), the optimal value ( For him to be empty), which is used to express a negative wish; union though has, in addition to the concessive ( We went for a walk, even though it was very cold), also the value of free choice ( Come at least in a ball gown, even in a tracksuit), as well as many others, but they are not mentioned in this article.

2. Causal unions

List of causal unions: because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that.

Causal conjunctions constitute one of the largest groups among subordinating conjunctions; cf. Unions / p. 4. Statistics. Semantically, they form a very homogeneous group, with some semantic and stylistic variations.

General semantics of this group of unions X because<так как, ….> Y-‘Y is the cause of X’. Syntactically, all unions of this group introduce the valency of the cause, i.e. subjugate a causal subordinate clause.

2.1. union because

Union because the most neutral stylistically and therefore the most frequent (117.467. occurrences in the Main Corpus):

(1) Executives are not afraid to expand IT services,<...> because thanks to ITSM, they consider themselves insured against the risk of loss of IT management [N. Dubova]

(2) I ran around the kitchen, because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time [O. Zueva]

Syntactically because differs in that it cannot occupy the initial position in the sentence. Wed:

(3) I ran around the kitchen, because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time<…>["Dasha" (2004)]

(4) *Because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time, I was rushing around the kitchen.

This syntactic feature is apparently explained by the following semantic-communicative property because: this union introduces information about the causal relationship between the situations expressed by the dependent clause and the main one, as unknown to the Listener; the unknown, meanwhile, tends to coincide with the end of the statement - with the rheme (see Communicative structure).

2.2. Stylistically colored causal conjunctions

2.2.1. Unions because, because the, thanks to

Because,because the, thanks to somewhat shifted towards unnecessary and therefore less frequent:

(5) In this case, Newton's law of gravity is used, because the gravitational field of black holes at large distances is close to Newtonian. [Vestnik RAS (2004)]

(6) The fees charged are also drastically reduced, because the reducing the cost of translations. ["Questions of statistics" (2004)]

(7) Only thanks to we held on as a team of like-minded people, the magazine retained its face. ["Science and Life" (2009)]

All of these unions are rather slightly official in connotation and are rarely found in the Poetic Subcorpus (10 occurrences per million - because, 1 occurrence per million - because the, thanks to does not occur).

2.2.2. Union because of

Union because of tends to high style, which is why it is quite frequent in poetry:

(8) It was even more difficult for me because of I, after all, knew: he did not love the one / Who was no longer there ... [Z. Gippius]

(9) I would like to find a scapular, / Because of my time is near... [A. Akhmatova]

From a synonymous union because because of differs in that it cannot express a causal relationship between the proposition of the dependent clause and the epistemic modality included in the meaning of the main clause (see Illocutionary use of conjunctions). Wed inability to replace because on because of in the relevant context:

(10) There was nothing to delay: I shot, in turn, at random; sure, the bullet hit him in the shoulder, because<*оттого что> suddenly he lowered his hand … [M. Y. Lermontov. Hero of our time (1839-1841)]

Because of, moreover, is not subject to the prohibition on the initial position in a sentence, which applies to because(cm. ). Wed:

(11) Because of <*because> Clara now knew his hardships, his languid smile squeezed her with sympathy. [A. Solzhenitsyn. In the first circle (1968)]

2.2.3. Unions due to, due to the fact that And due to the fact that

Due to, due to the fact that And due to the fact that- book associations:

(12) Had to curtail work due to The deposit turned out to be unsuitable for industrial exploitation. [IN. Skvortsov]

(13) Aerolites, or meteorites, are iron or stone masses that fall out of world space onto the Earth in the form of pieces of various sizes, melted from the surface due to the fact that they become hot as they travel rapidly through the atmosphere. [IN. Obruchev]

(14) I was suffocating in Moscow, in general in Russia, where, like a cancerous tumor, the national financial pyramid grew due to the fact that the government and the population, by mutual agreement, deceived themselves and each other. [IN. Skvortsov]

2.2.4. Union due to the fact that

Due to the fact that has an official shade:

(15) He<...>showed me two resolutions: one - on bringing me to justice under such and such an article of the criminal code and under such and such a note to it - and the other - on choosing a measure of restraint (a written undertaking not to leave) due to the fact that due to health reasons, the accused cannot participate in the investigation and trial [Yu. Dombrovsky]

2.2.5. Unions for And then what

For And then what outdated or high style; however for, like many other obsolete unions, it is quite widespread in modern newspaper language (30 occurrences per million in the Newspaper subcorpus).

(16) Therefore, those who do not know the matter should<...>take on it: for what is said in Scripture is said not only so that they know, but also so that they do it. [Bishop Ignatius (Bryanchaninov)]

(17) Developed countries will not want to let in all the migrants, for this means that you will have to part with your development, with your usual standard of living [RIA Novosti (2008)]

(18) I have never called you my sister before, then what could not be your brother then what we were uneven, then that you were deceived in me! [F. M. Dostoevsky]

Among other causal unions for stands apart: although this union is traditionally considered subordinating, due to a number of its formal properties for approaches the composition (for more details, see the article Composition).

2.3. Differences in the semantics of causal conjunctions

Unions thanks to,due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that And due to the fact that retain the semantic features of the prepositions from which they are formed (see the article Preposition); most of these features are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004].

Yes, union thanks to indicates not only the cause, but also the desirability of the effect: He made a full recovery thanks to the timely treatment health care , but not * He died due to the fact that medical care was not provided on time.. Wed Also:

(19) My fate was developing successfully thanks to Mother had well-established friends and well-married friends who were happy to help us. [L. Vertinskaya]

Unions due to And due to the fact that indicate a direct, close connection between cause and effect, and due to the fact that- to a more indirect one:

(20) Judgment was annulled due to the fact that <due to> gross violations in the conduct of the process were revealed. - direct connection

(21) Parkinson's disease develops due to the fact that the content of the neurotransmitter dopamine begins to decrease in the brain - an indirect connection

when weird:

(22) Parkinson's disease develops due to <due to the fact that>brain levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine begin to decline

In addition, for unions due to the fact that And due to the fact that characterized by the presence of an objective connection between events, and for the union due to the fact that - a motive that motivates a person to act in a certain way.

Due to the fact that often used metatextually, to indicate logical connections in inferences and conclusions: Demand for apartments has risen again, perhaps due to the fact that the supply remains low. Wed Also:

(23) The constituent pairs of such elements have fairly close atomic weights due to the fact that are formed from a single proto-kernel [Geoinformatics (2003)]

3. Conjunctions of consequence

List of coercive unions So(cm. ), and then, not that(cm.

3.1. Union so and combination so / such + that

Unlike the meaning of ‘cause’, which is expressed in Russian by numerous unions (see), the meaning of ‘consequence’ is directly “served” by a single union - So. Union So is a semantic converse of the conjunction because. Thus, the meaning of the union So can be defined through the meaning of ‘cause’: x, soY= 'X causes Y':

(24) She worked conscientiously, So panicles of palm leaves had to be changed every half an hour. [A. Dorofeev]

(25) Alyosha ate enough, So was very happy. [ABOUT. Pavlov]

Syntactically union So introduces the valency of the consequence, i.e. subordinates the subordinate clause of the consequence.

The meaning of ‘consequence’ can also be expressed by the adverb So or adjective such in the main clause in combination with the union What in the subordinate:

(26) So got scared What he seemed to be paralyzed, he could not take a step towards the black abyss and huddled against the bench. [IN. Bykov]

(27) It was written on Gosha's face such genuine confusion, What no one doubted his sincerity. [IN. Belousov]

3.2. Unions of threat: otherwise

Alliances "threats" and then... And not that... can be conditionally classified as conjunctions of the consequence, but in fact their semantics is more complicated. Phrases like X, but (not) thenY assume that if condition X is not met, then an undesirable situation Y will arise (i.e., failure to fulfill X entails unpleasant consequences Y):

(28) Get away otherwise <not that> will crush you; fall behind otherwise <not that> ladies in the face.

Their exact statistics are difficult due to homonymy with disjunctive conjunctions. otherwise And not that, which, however, are much rarer, as well as with the union A combined with a pronoun That.

4. Target alliances

List of target unions: so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that.

The meaning of 'goal', expressed by the unions of this group, has been repeatedly discussed in the linguistic literature; the classic work [Zholkovsky 1964] is devoted, in particular, to the word target; prepositions with the meaning of purpose, first of all For And for the sake of are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004], [V. Apresyan 1995].

4.1. Conjunctions in order to

Unions to And in order to express the same idea as the noun target and preposition For. Their meanings combine the meanings of cause, desire and action: X toY means that the action X performed by the subject will be, in his opinion, the cause of the situation Y he desires. To - one of the most frequent subordinating unions (1479 per million uses in the Main Corpus):

(29) Mom and dad generally slept standing up, propping each other up, to don't collapse. (A. Dorofeev)

(30) The hammerer was dragged away from the stone, - to did not interfere. (V. Bykov)

(31) Indeed, store navigation is intuitively simple, in order to collect a basket and place an order, you need to do just a few simple steps (O. Feofilova)

To can also act as an explanatory union, for these uses, see.

4.2. Stylistically colored target unions

Other target unions - stylistically marked and, accordingly, less frequent, synonyms to.

So that- colloquial or poetic version of the union to(300. uses per million in the Main Corpus, 546. - in the Oral, 1662. - in the Poetic):

(32) This is what I use now, so that write a dissertation [LiveJournal Entry (2004)]

So as to and especially then to- book synonyms of the union to (so as to has a touch of formality and is often found in newspaper texts):

(33) Leonid Polezhaev, speaking in the Federation Council, proposed holding a referendum, so as to toughen criminal liability for illegal production and distribution of drugs. ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]

(34) After all, we came then to put an end to all disputes that have been going on completely fruitlessly for the past seven years. [YU. Dombrovsky]

Union so that with the same meaning stylistically colored as obsolete, tall or, most often in modern language, playful:

(35) Created distant skies, To contemplate from them all your creation ... [D. S. Merezhkovsky]

(36) Well, the powder will be kept warm for ten days, so that microbes of anthrax, if its spores turn out to be a powder, showed themselves in all, so to speak, completeness ... ["Criminal Chronicle" (2003)]

5. Conditional unions

List of conditional unions: if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (would, b), if, if, when, when. All of them except whether, have the option of That(if... then, if b(s)... then and etc.).

5.1. union if

The main conditional union, If devoted to a large literature. In some works, it is considered a semantic primitive, i.e. a word that cannot be decomposed into simpler semantic components; in some works, including within the framework of the Moscow Semantic School, attempts are made to interpret it. Special attention union If is given in recent works [Sannikov 2008] and [Uryson 2011], each of which offers, in particular, its interpretation. However, these interpretations are not used in this article, due to their formal complexity, as well as reliance on semantic components that are more complex in meaning than the union If(meaning ‘probability’ as interpreted by Sannikov, meanings ‘hypothesis’ and ‘influence’ as interpreted by E. V. Uryson). This article adopts a point of view on the semantic primitiveness of the union If, however, material from the works of V. Z. Sannikov and E. U. Uryson is used to explain and present its uses.

Union If there are two main meanings - If"conditions" (see) and "comparative" If(cm. ).

5.1.1. If conditions

bivalent union If"conditions" ( IfX, thenY) introduces the concept of such a relationship between two situations X and Y, when the presence of one of them (X) makes the presence of the other (Y) very likely:

(37) If their gang will be opened, Oleg will automatically go to jail. [IN. Tokarev]

It is characterized by the use of the verb with the future tense. The work [Paducheva 2004: 103–104] considers the implicature ‘and if there is no X, then there is no Y’, i.e. condition is usually understood not only as sufficient, but also as necessary: If you call, I will come[meaning ‘and if not, then no’].

The work [Uryson 2011] provides a more detailed classification of uses If"conditions":

(1) If"hypotheses" If the summer is dry, there will be no mushrooms(we are talking about single hypothetical situations);

(2) if “generalizations”: If we managed to get money somewhere, we immediately went for a bottle (we are talking about repeatedly repeated situations);

(3) If"given state of affairs": If you, Lelisha, ate the second lozenge, then I will bite off this apple again(M. Zoshchenko) - we are talking about a real-life situation that causes some other situation.

5.1.2. Comparative If

Much rarer and bookish usage, "comparative", rhetorical If can be illustrated with the following example:

(38) If Masha married at the age of seventeen and gave birth to eight children, her own sister Katya lived all her life in a monastery.

In this meaning If does not indicate the connection of situations, but reflects the speaker's idea of ​​them as taking place simultaneously and contrasting with each other.

5.2. Unions once and for all

Union If in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see) the union is synonymous once, which also presents situation X as a given, which, according to the Speaker, "The addressee will not deny" [Iordanskaya, Melchuk 2007: 495]:

(39) Once he was so received at home, once made a criminal, they don’t shake hands, then he doesn’t need anyone either. [D. Granin]

Wed also the following example, where once used after If, as if reinforcing the hypothesis, which, being repeated, is already accepted as an axiom:

(40) Dostoevsky believed that if there is no God, then everything is permitted, and once allowed, then you can lose heart, despair. [D. Granin]

As soon as- book synonym If"state of affairs" and once(precise statistics are not possible due to homonymy with the noun once):

(41) And as soon as Ivanovsky crossed Europe to see his relatives, then it would not be difficult for him to take another five hundred steps to his, Yagudin's, home. [A. Rybakov]

(42) As soon as the world has become simpler, there is no place left for skilled work. [D. Bykov]

5.3. Unions if and if

Colloquial-reduced union if- a synonym for the conditional if in the meaning of "hypothesis" and sometimes in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see):

(43) He gave me a power of attorney for the right to conduct business and receive money, if such will follow. [A. Hair]

(44) If born a slave - it means that such is your bitter fate. [G. Nikolaev]

Examples on if"generalizations" (see) are not found in the Corpus, however, in principle, the following are possible:

(45) If money appeared, we immediately ran for a bottle.

If - obsolete synonym for conditional If, also commonly used in newspaper language, in all uses, with a large percentage of the use of "state of affairs" (see):

(46) The guys and I will add if[V. Astafiev] - if"hypotheses"

(47) A if did not take him, then he ran away from home and came on his own [B. Ekimov] - if"generalizations"

(48) Tom occupies a very good position, if was in the Bolshoi, and in the Small, and in the Art, and besides, she was treated to free gifts [L. Ulitskaya]

(49) So, there is a matter, your honor, if came. [A. Panteleev]

(50) Well, well, say if already started. [A.N. Ostrovsky] - if"state of affairs"

5.4. Conditional conjunctions on would: if b (s), if b (s), if only

Union if and its variant if only(for the distribution of these options, see Subjunctive mood / clause 3.4.1) are added to the meaning of the main conditional union If the semantic component of the imaginary, unreality of situation X, which in fact does not take place, which is why the situation Y following from it does not take place (the so-called counterfactual meaning, see Subjunctive mood / clause 2.1): If you were here, then we would go for a walk; If yes, if only, then mushrooms would grow in the mouth. Wed Also:

(51) If If you wanted Sasha and I to live normally, you would have invested your money. [IN. Tokarev]

(52) You wouldn’t even go to a restaurant then, if I didn't pay for you. [A. Gelasimov]

(53) If honestly pay for the work, then all the repairmen from the depot would have fled long ago. [IN. Astafiev]

(54) If only knew right away, but would he have uttered even a word? [ABOUT. Pavlov]

(55) If only not potatoes on three household acres, then fellow villagers would swell from hunger. [A. Azole]

Simultaneous to it ( as long as, as long as, as long as, as long as), cm. ;

following it ( before, before, before), cm. .

The submission of temporary alliances in this article is largely based on [V. Apresyan 2010].

Another semantic feature is the time that passes between situations in case of their non-simultaneity. On this basis, unions formed from adverbs and particles with a low degree value are opposed to all the others, namely, unions barely, barely... as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, just, just, just, just, just a little, just a little, just a little indicate the immediate precedence of one situation to another, the absence of a time interval between the onset of the initial and subsequent situations.

The main and most frequent temporary union When(390. 262. occurrences in the Main Corpus) is neutral with respect to these signs, and can introduce both precedence, and following, and simultaneity: When he came he washed the dishes[precedence], When he arrived, the dishes had already been washed.[following], When you work with acid, keep the window open.[simultaneity].

7.1. Conjunctions with precedence value

The conjunctions of this group introduce a situation that occurs before the situation introduced by the main clause.

7.1.1. Conjunctions indicating immediate precedence: as soon as, until and etc.

as soon as(15 020 entries in the Main Corpus) - the most frequent in this group:

(82) Consideration of the case took no more than thirty minutes - as soon as the court was presented with photographs of the place of the "violation", the question of the forbidden exit to the opposite side of the road disappeared by itself. ["Driving" (2003)]

Its colloquial synonyms How And only are much rarer, but their statistics are impossible due to homonymy with other meanings:

(83) False ubopovtsy (this has already become clear) threw a bound prisoner with the words, they say, How let's figure it out - we'll come and let go. ["Daily News" (2003)]

(84) Only get out of this hollow - and skiff! [M. Bubennov]

Other unions of this group - barely, barely(3 occurrences per million in the Main Body) , only, just only(7 occurrences per million in the main body), just a little(0.2 occurrences per million) , just a little, just a little(1.5. occurrences in the Main Corpus) - typical for written texts (in the Oral Corpus - single occurrences in the desired meaning):

(85) Barely it was dawn when Valentin Kazarka appeared on the pier. [A. Azole]

(86) Barely Nerzhin wrote down this conclusion on a piece of paper, just as he was arrested. [A. Solzhenitsyn]

(87) And only a point will appear, move, it soars and suddenly falls down like a stone! [M. Bulgakov]

(88) Just he opened the door, Tanya immediately saw him and went out [Yu. Trifonov]

(89) Just a little he will lose his temper, she will immediately go to her room - and on the key. [TO. Chukovsky]

(90) a little if he gets a free moment, he immediately starts sweeping the carpet by the dustpan, by the broom, otherwise he rinses the cups, vacuums the sofa, or starts a little laundry. [YU. Trifonov]

(91) But You didn't know that just a little If a person rejects a miracle, then he immediately rejects God, for a person seeks not so much God as miracles. [IN. Rozanov]

Statistics barely, a little And only difficult due to homonymy with particles.

Standing apart in this group is the frequency union until(14 682. occurrences in the Main Corpus), which indicates that upon reaching the situation introduced by the union, the situation described in the main sentence stops:

(92) Close the lid and simmer for about 30 minutes or Bye chick Not will become soft. [Recipes of national cuisines: France (2000-2005)]

Its exact statistics are difficult due to homonymy with the adverb Bye combined with particle Not: The work has not been completed yet. Its synonyms, unions until(392. entries in the main body) and not yet(109. entries in the Main Corpus) are obsolete or colloquial:

(93) So Lieutenant Yegor Dremov fought, until misfortune happened to him [A. N. Tolstoy]

(94) Continuing the service, Gribovsky Goryushka did not know, not yet added provocation to the denunciation. [YU. Davydov]

Unions Bye, as long as And meanwhile in this meaning are possible, but much less common (see more about them):

(95) Wait until I will die... Soon I will die ... [Z. Prilepin]

(96) However, mother pushed her little son to her father, and had to endure, as long as the giant will pat on the head or clasp his cheeks with his large plump palms and give him a few greasy sweets. [A. Varlamov]

(97) If I was sitting on a math test, not disturbing anyone, calmly waiting, meanwhile my friend will solve the problem, then everything was attributed to this my laziness, and not stupidity. [F. Iskander]

7.1.2. Conjunctions that do not indicate immediate precedence: after, since

Union after(10 157 occurrences in the Main Corpus) can indicate both immediate and more distant following:

(99) I watched "Star" by Nikolai Lebedev almost a year later after the film was released. [L. Anninsky] - remote follow

Since(3 222. occurrences in the Main Corpus) indicates that a certain period of time passes between the onset of the first situation and the onset of the second:

(100) Seventeen years have passed since then,How he told me this. [A. Gelasimov] - but not *immediately since then,How he told me that

Since has an additional semantic component - namely, it assumes that both situations occurred quite a long time ago relative to the moment of speech:

(101) Spivakov and Pletnev have known each other for a very long time, since Misha studied with Flier, with whom Volodya was friendly and in his youth even lived at his house [S. Spivakova] - but not * Since he called her an hour ago, she was on pins and needles

7.2. Unions with the meaning of simultaneity of situations

The union is most stylistically neutral and frequent in this group. Bye(see other uses Bye And until Also ):

(102) Scientists, businessmen and petty thieves<...>at the request of prosecutors, judges are sent to a pre-trial detention center for months, or even years, Bye investigation continues. [“MN Time” (2003)]

(103) Bye our crazy sultan / Promises us the way to the prison ... (B. Okudzhava)

Its precise statistics are impossible due to homonymy with the adverb Bye: We are still working on the article..

Union as long as - obsolete or colloquial (2729. occurrences in the Main Corpus), union meanwhile(1250 entries in the main building) – obsolete or colloquial:

(104) But I, the high priest of the Jews, as long as I'm alive, I won't let my faith be desecrated, and I'll defend the people! [M. Bulgakov]

(105) As long as our President was preparing to send the Federal Assembly<...>, as long as he adapted himself to say about the need for a steady further improvement in the well-being of the people<...>, in the city of Volzhsky, located in the vicinity of Volgograd, events took place that made all this melody recitation meaningless. [Crime Chronicle (2003)]

(106) In these few seconds, meanwhile he ran to the other end, she managed to swing quite strongly. [F. Iskander]

Unused Union as(1667. occurrences in the Main Corpus) indicates not just the simultaneous existence of situations, but the gradual increase in the situation described in the main sentence, against the background and because of the gradual increase in the situation introduced by the union, i.e. as contains a component of causality, causality (for conjunctions of cause, see):

(107) Visual acuity improved as narrowed the outer opening of the eye. [A. Zaitsev]

(108) As trips were shortened, connections were broken, he began to suffer. [D. Granin]

rare alliance while describes the parallel unfolding of two situations:

(109) While the Supreme Court was considering the case of citizen A. A. Zhukov, many taxpayers calculated the amounts that they might have to pay extra for several years [“ Accounting» (2004)]

Its exact statistics are difficult because of its polysemy, and its concessive meaning (see), which does not imply mandatory simultaneity, is much more frequent:

(110) It is also pointed out that Big Western Money will not come to Russia now, while under the old system, they came or promised to come ["Tomorrow" (2003)]

7.3. Conjunctions with the meaning of following

The conjunctions of this group introduce a situation that follows the situation introduced by the main clause. Stylistically neutral union before(8 526 entries in the Main Corpus) - the most frequent in this group:

(111) Before move on to the consideration of specific data on the composition of the jury, we will make a number of comments general. (A. Afanasiev)

It usually introduces controlled actions, cf. weirdness ? We got everything cleaned up before it started to rain. and especially in preposition to the main clause ?? Before it started to rain, we cleaned everything.

Union before(2236. occurrences in the Main Corpus) is also stylistically neutral and, although it can introduce purposeful actions ( Before she began to sing, the Rotarov fans shouted: come on Rotaru!(I. Kio)) is mainly used in the context of uncontrolled events, processes and influences:

(112) Here she died before I was born, and she and I lived in the same century [E. Grishkovets]

(113) But before the stone was thrown, it had kinetic energy [V. Lukashik, E. Ivanova. Collection of problems in physics. 7-9. class (2003)]

(114) Often people knock on a neighbor's door long before before the smell of a decaying corpse will spread throughout the apartment. [A. Azole]

Synonym before(731. entry in the Main Corpus) - obsolete or bookish synonym before:

(115) Before I managed to answer something, she burst into tears [A. I. Herzen. The Thieving Magpie (1846)]

(116) Before an ear may appear above the ground, something inevitable must happen to the seed underground: it must dissolve, as if disappearing [Metropolitan Anthony (Blum). "The Beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." Discourses on the Gospel of Mark (1990-1992)]

8. Comparative conjunctions

List of comparative unions: like, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, as, than than.

The work [Sannikov 2008] provides arguments in favor of the special status of comparative constructions and, accordingly, comparative conjunctions.

Comparative constructions come close to coordinating ones (see Essay) in the following ways:

(1) unlike subordinating conjunctions, coordinating and comparative conjunctions can attach syntactic units of a lower level than a clause:

(117) Dialed the code of Moscow and Sasha's phone number. [IN. Tokarev]

(118) Lid, How door, shut up after me... [Oh. Pavlov]

(2) the compared members, like the composed ones, have a dual syntactic status: on the one hand, there is a syntactic connection between the compared members (comparatives), on the other hand, there is a syntactic connection of each of the comparatives with the main word, i.e. comparative and subordinating connections are “superimposed” [Sannikov 2008: 395] on each other.

(119) <…>How grove in september, / Showers brains with alcohol [S. Yesenin]

This is not possible for composed members: cf. Katya and Misha came vs. impossibility * And Katya Misha came.

In this article, as in traditional Russian studies, comparative conjunctions are considered as part of subordinating ones.

For more information about comparative constructions, see the special article Comparative constructions.

8.1. union as

Basic Comparative Union, How(statistics not possible due to homonymy with temporary How, which is part of complex temporary unions (see), and very frequent explanatory How(see )), can attach members of a sentence or whole sentences:

(120) Driven in these questions, How bullets in the forehead [A. Gelasimov]

(121) All my soldiers<...>Abdulka loved and remembered like sons. [ABOUT. Pavlov]

(122) The elephant's head is empty, How the streets of the city are empty during the hours of midday heat [A. Dorofeev]

In a comparative sense, it is semantically trivalent (although syntactically related only to the second comparat) and has the following semantics: P Z as Q 'The object P (the object of comparison) and the object Q (the standard of comparison) have a common attribute Z', see Comparative Constructions / Definition .

What- obsolete poetic synonym How:

(123) And Razin dreams of the bottom: / Flowers - What carpet boards [M. Tsvetaeva]

For What characteristic is the failure to mention the sign by which the comparison is made: And she is like death, / The mouth is bitten into the blood(M. Tsvetaeva) instead of She is as pale as death. Its statistics are impossible due to homonomy with one of the most frequent conjunctions of the Russian language - explanatory What, as well as with the pronoun What V nominative case(cm. ).

8.2. Synonyms as with a narrower meaning: as if, as if, exactly, etc.

Most other comparative conjunctions are as if as if), as if(statistics not possible due to homonymy with explanatory as if)as if, as if, as if (like), as if (as if),(on the distribution of options with would and without would see Comparative constructions / item 2.2), exactly(statistics is impossible due to homonymy with much more frequent adverbs and short adjective), exactly (would)(statistics is impossible due to homonymy with a much more frequent adverb and a short adjective), just like- synonyms How, only with a narrower meaning, namely, they all emphasize that the two comparators are not equivalent, but only superficially similar. They are often used for figurative comparisons of really distant objects belonging to completely different classes; compare:

(124) Light as if <as if would, like> fluff

(125) The numbers somehow caught on in my head, as if pillow studded with sewing needles. [A. Dorofeev]

(126) This whole tin plane was shaking, like malarial fever. [IN. Bykov]

(127) The cloak dangled strangely on the shoulders - dull and scratched, exactly catering aluminum utensils. [ABOUT. Pavlov]

(128) Sitting smooth Mother of God, / Yes, pearls will be lowered on a string [M. Tsvetaeva]

Wherein as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, exactly book unions, exactly - folk poetry. Syntactically, they can join both sentence members (see examples above) and whole sentences:

(129) He loved only himself in the world<...>lustfully, lustfully, as if one flesh lusted incessantly for another, more beautiful. [ABOUT. Pavlov]

(130) Light high consonance to the accompaniment of calm basses - like in a communal apartment, a neighbor walks behind the wall. [A. Slapovsky]

(131) The floorboards in the hall creak by themselves, exactly someone came and walks [V. Pietsukh]

(132) And Razin dreams - ringing: / Smooth droplets silver drops [M. Tsvetaeva]

For the choice of union depending on the syntactic type of the comparative construction, see Comparative constructions / clause 3.2.2.

8.3. Union, just like

Union similar to - book synonym for union How, which has the following syntactic restriction: it can link entire sentences, but not individual members of the sentence; compare:

(133) Similar to You may not notice the stupidity of a beautiful woman, so you may not notice the magnificence of a stupid man. [F. Iskander]

(134) Similar to the shadow of a person gives an idea of ​​his figure, so anti-Semitism gives an idea of ​​the historical fate and path of the Jews. [IN. Grossman]

but not * I love Katya like a daughter.

Use with an adverb So also characteristic of the union How when it links sentences:

(135) How little girls tirelessly dress up dolls, So and Pavel spent hours collecting and disassembling cardboard models of a person and his individual organs [L. Ulitskaya]

8.4. Unions of what and what

comparative union how and its synonym than (than) fundamentally different in their semantics from other comparative conjunctions. If most comparative conjunctions convey the idea of ​​similarity between two objects on the basis of a common feature, how And than convey the idea of ​​a difference between two objects on some basis: He is smarter than her;He will have to spend more time there than he expected.. The meaning of these unions can be formulated as follows: PZ than<нежели> Q‘P differs from Q in regard to the degree to which it has the attribute Z’. How And than are used with the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb that expresses a sign, according to the degree of which two objects are distinguished:

(136) At that moment he was more afraid of the Elector, how those that were on the tower [V. Bykov]

(137) Both flowers were even more fragrant with nectar, how oregano. [IN. Kologriv]

(138) Passing the hollow, which turned out to be much more extensive, than it seemed to Travkin during observation, the sappers stopped. [E. Kazakevich]

(139) And the knight had to beg a little more and longer after that, than he assumed. [M. Bulgakov]

Union than usually qualifies as bookish, which is refuted by corpus data - its general frequency, as well as statistics on the Oral and Newspaper corpus (in percentage terms 0.0057 in the Main corpus, 0.0024 in the Gazetny, 0.0012 in the Oral corpus).

9. Explanatory conjunctions

List of explanatory conjunctions: what, to, (as) as if, as.

(140) I know What he no longer works there; He said, What She is gone; I want, to You came; They say, as if <as if>he left He watched How carry hay.

This distinction has syntactic and semantic consequences. So, the main clause in the complex explanatory sentence is not a component (see Glossary) and therefore cannot be used in isolation; cf. wrong * He said, *I want, *They say, *He was watching. For other subordinating conjunctions, this is not necessary or uncharacteristic. Wed:

(141) I will come If <When> she will come; I will come, because <Although> it will not be; I decided to return to Moscow in advance, to everything was there by the time the children arrived; The rain is over So you can go for a walk.

(142) I will come; I decided to return to Moscow in advance; The rain is over.

Semantically explanatory conjunctions are the least filled of all subordinating conjunctions.

Accurate statistics of these unions is impossible due to their homonymy with allied words ( what how), pronouns ( What), pronominal adverbs ( How), target unions ( to), comparative conjunctions ( How, as if).

Stylistically neutral union What - the most common of all explanatory (and of all subordinating) conjunctions. In some contexts, instead of What used to. Office of subordinate clauses with union What and, less often, to characteristic of many classes of verbs, including verbs of speech ( say that<чтобы> ; claim that; report that;insist that <to> etc.), for mental predicates ( think that; understand that; know that; think that), verbs of perception ( see that; to hear that; make sure, etc.) and many others:

(143) And you They say, What your friend has already left… [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]

(144) PA speaks, to I didn't approach her with it. [L. Ulitskaya. Case of Kukotsky (2000)]

(145) Key stubbornly insisted, What Vertinsky is an outstanding poet, as proof of which he cited the line: "Hallelujah, like a blue bird." [IN. P. Kataev. My Diamond Crown (1975-1977)]

(146) Mom hard insisted that we got it right. [A. Alexin. Division of property (1979)]

Between What And to there is a compatibility-semantic distribution: when a speech verb conveys not only the content of someone else's speech, but also the wish of the subject of speech, as in examples (144) and (146), What is replaced by to. Wed impossibility in interpreting the transmission of wishes # She says I didn't hit on her(the only possible interpretation is ‘She denies there was any molestation’), # She insisted that we understood her correctly.(the only possible interpretation is ‘She claims we got her right’).

Verbs of speech ( talk, chat, weave), mental predicates with an unreliability value ( seem to wonder) and some other classes of verbs can also govern clauses with book conjunctions as if And as if, indicating the unreliability of the reported:

(147) What are you telling me as if don't play anything but Tchaikovsky! [WITH. Spivakov]

(148) So it seems to us, as if the stars are falling. ["Murzilka" (2003)]

(149) Rumors spread as if another monetary reform is coming. ["Results" (2003)]

(150) It seemed as if a whole family of grasshoppers settled in an abandoned children's coffin. [YU. Dombrovsky]

For verbs of perception it is often possible to manage a stylistically neutral conjunction How: see how; hear how; watch how and so on.

Verbs with a volitional meaning are characterized by the control of a stylistically neutral conjunction to: want to; require that; ask that etc.:

What can introduce facts or opinions, but not situations; cf. know that… And count…, but not * watch that.

How introduces situations, but not facts and opinions: watch how, but not * know how[in the meaning of an explanatory conjunction] and not * count how.

To, as if And as if cannot enter facts (cannot * know to, *know that, *know as if).

Explanatory conjunctions What And How must be distinguished from allied words, which, unlike unions, are members of the subordinate clause, obeying directly the verb in the subordinate clause; also, unlike unions, they carry a phrasal accent:

(151) I know ¯ What\ we need to do, I saw, ¯ How\ they treat her.

Due to their semantic unsaturation, explanatory conjunctions can be omitted: I know (what), he has already come.

Bibliography

• Apresyan V.Yu. (a) Concession as a backbone meaning // Questions of Linguistics, 2. 2006, pp. 85–110.
• Apresyan V.Yu. (b) From Although before even if
• Apresyan V.Yu. (c) Concession in language // Linguistic picture of the world and systemic lexicography. Apresyan Yu.D. (Ed.) pp. 615–712. M. 2006.
• Apresyan V.Yu. For And for the sake of: similarities and differences // Questions of linguistics, 3. 1995. P. 17–27.
• Apresyan V.Yu. Dictionary entries of the fields 'correspondence and inconsistency with reality', 'small quantity and degree', 'compliance' and 'organization' // Prospectus of the Active Dictionary of the Russian Language under the general supervision of Academician Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2010.
• Grammar 1954. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of Linguistics. Grammar of Russian language. v.2. Syntax. part 2. M. 1954.
• Zholkovsky A.K. Vocabulary of Purposeful Activity // Machine Translation and Applied Linguistics, 8. M. 1964.
• Jordanskaya L.N., Melchuk I.A. Meaning and compatibility in the dictionary. M. 2007.
• Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, BECAUSE of the New Explanatory Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 1997. (1st ed.).
• Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, BECAUSE of the New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2004. (2nd ed.).
• Paducheva E.V. Dynamic models in the semantics of vocabulary. M. 2004.
• Sannikov V.Z. Russian syntax in the semantic-pragmatic space. M.: Languages ​​of Slavic cultures. 2008.
• Uryson E.V. Experience in describing the semantics of unions. M.: Languages ​​of Slavic cultures. 2011.
• Wierzbicka A. The semantics of “logical concepts” // The Moscow Linguistic Journal, 2. 1996.

Main literature

• Apresyan V.Yu. From Although before even if: to the systematic description of concessive units in the language // Russian language in scientific coverage, 1(11). 2006, pp. 7–44.
• Apresyan Yu.D., Boguslavsky I.M., Iomdin L.L., Sannikov V.Z. Theoretical problems Russian syntax: interaction of grammar and vocabulary. Rep. ed. Yu.D. Apresyan. Languages ​​of Slavic cultures. M. 2010.
• Jordan L.N. Semantics of the Russian union times (in comparison with some other unions) // Russian Linguistics, 12(3).
• Latysheva A.N. On the semantics of conditional, causal and concessive conjunctions in Russian // Bulletin of Moscow State University, 5, ser. 9. Philology. 1982.
• Uryson E.V. Experience in describing the semantics of unions. Languages ​​of Slavic cultures. M. 2011.
• Uryson E.V. Union IF and semantic primitives // Questions of Linguistics, 4. 2001. P. 45–65.
• Khrakovsky V.S. Theoretical analysis of conditional constructions (semantics, calculus, typology) // Khrakovsky V.S. (Ed.) Typology of conditional structures. SPb. 1998, pp. 7–96.
• Comrie V. Subordination, coordination: Form, semantics, pragmatics // Vajda E.J. (Ed.) Subordination and Coordination Strategies in North Asian Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2008. P. 1–16.

In general, this meaning has its own, quite numerous lexical means of expression - therefore, therefore, therefore- however, they are adverbs, not conjunctions (cf. their ability to be used with conjunctions - and therefore, therefore, and therefore).

Syntactically unions if only And if only are of a complex nature. On the one hand, they combine the properties of conjunctions and particles (cf. the possibility of being used in combination with other coordinating unions - but only, but only); on the other hand, they combine the properties of coordinating and subordinating: in example (77) if only forms a dependent clause, like a typical subordinating conjunction, and in example (78) it joins in combination with the conjunction But an independent clause, while another concessive union appears in the dependent one - let.

/> The issue of differentiation of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions on a syntactic basis Shiryaev explains as follows: “The opposition coordinating / subordinating conjunctions is closely related to the opposition coordinating / subordinating relations in a complex sentence, where conjunctions and allied words are the most important formal exponent of the connection. Subordinating are such conjunctions and allied words in which it is impossible to interchange predicative constructions, leaving the union in place, without changing the meaning of the complex sentence as a whole or without destroying it at all: I saw that it was raining. On this basis, it is considered that the union is included in one of the predicative constructions, marking it as a subordinate clause in relation to the main one. Thus, it can be stated that there are no theoretically impeccable foundations for the differentiation of coordinating / subordinating conjunctions and, accordingly, coordinating / subordinating connections. And the matter usually comes down to the fact that the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are given by the traditional list. The circle of coordinating unions does not remain unchanged, their number increases, and the meanings of unions become more diverse. The expansion of the composition of coordinating unions occurs due to the involvement in their environment of “mixed, hybrid words that combine, combine, as Academician V. V. Vinogradov points out, the forms and functions of unions with the meaning of other grammatical categories. When grammars list coordinating conjunctions, and is usually placed first as the most typical. In most cases, and does make up parts of a complex sentence, for example: His ambition, he confined to me, was to become "a dead shot", and the marvel of it is that he did not succed. The setting sun was flaming upon it, a summer shower was falling, and it was spanned by two magnificent rainbows.“At present, one of the most ancient conjunctions in all languages, the union “and” is involved in the expression of so many and so different relations that to bring them under one rubric on the basis of the presence of this truly universal union would mean an impermissible simplification of the matter.” Based on the materials of a carefully conducted study of intonation, the author of the dissertation O. V. Kaminskaya finds it possible to divide complex sentences with and in English and “and” in Russian into two main groups: a) sentences consisting of parts with homogeneous statements, b ) sentences consisting of parts with heterogeneous statements. Complex sentences with the union for Examples of cases of connecting parts of a complex sentence with the union for is perhaps the most convincing evidence of the futility of all attempts to divide unions only into coordinating and subordinating. So, according to V. S. Peeling, out of 46 college textbooks published between 1892 and 1949, 33 textbooks call the union for coordinating, 6 - subordinating, and 7 generally avoid mentioning it. V.S. Peeling herself, after long doubts, stops at the opinion that the union for is a coordinative one, unlike because, since it can be used only at the beginning of the second part of a complex sentence. In the most common cases, this is true: where the second part of the complex sentence expresses the reason, the union for can be replaced by the union because, and only then transfer the second part to the place of the first. For example: I paused, for was thinking of something else now. You can change to I paused because I was thinking of something else now, and then, apparently, to Because I was thinking of something else now, I paused. Such sentences are found in the language. Compare: Because Mrs. Howdershell wished to talk about New York and my work there, I was squeezed in between her and Rella. However, one could not say For I was thinking of something else now; I paused. Thus, the for part of a sentence does show one sign of composition: it cannot open the entire sentence. And yet, the union for cannot be considered coordinative, because the relations of causality in the implementation of which it participates in this case cannot be considered coordinative. The part of a complex sentence with for explicitly serves the other, the first part. This can be seen at least from the fact that the second part, expressing the reason, always answers the question why ? Therefore, the parts of a complex sentence here are unequal and cannot be considered composed. Professor V. V. Vinogradov believes that in modern English language the following groups of coordinating unions can be distinguished: 1. Connecting. 2. Dividing. 3. Repugnant. 4. Investigative and effective. 5. Causal. All of the listed groups of unions act within a compound sentence, expressing certain relationships between the connected sentences. Connecting unions This is the most numerous group of unions, the category of which in English includes the following: and; not only… but; not only … but also; as well ... as; neither ... nor; both ... and; nor; the union neither, with its negation; union nor, with the negation related to it; combination of union and and union so; combination of union and and union yet. For example: They spoke little, AND much of what they said was in the Welsh tonger. There was NEITHER fire NOR candle was lit; she died in the dark. That same evening, the gentlemen in the white waistcoat most positively and decidedly affirmed, NOT ONLY that Oliver would be hung, BUT that he would be drawn and quatered into the bargain. Divisive unions The category of divisive unions in modern English should include the unions or either ... or. Some grammarians also include unions neither ... nor in the category of divisive conjunctions; not only … but also; neither; nor. But as was shown in the "Connecting Unions" section, these unions express the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bconnection and have no divisive meaning. For example: You ought to make him OR he won`t come back. Opposite conjunctions and allied words Opposite conjunctions and allied words represent the most numerous group from the category of coordinating unions and allied words. Adversarial unions in modern English should include unions: but, whereas, while, or (adversative-investigative), allied words and allied adverbs: yet, still, nevertheless, only, else, however, otherwise. For example: Sorry to bother you with all this, BUT I had to say it. His eyes snapped vindictively, WHILE his ears joyed in the sniffles she emitted. Consequential-resultative unions Causal relationships are widely represented in the language. Their specific expression is embodied in certain linguistic forms, in certain unions and allied words: for, so, thus, therefore. For example: She had walked some distance, FOR her shoes were worn to pieces; but where she came from or where she was going to, nobody knows. Causal Conjunctions of English Cause and effect are known to be closely related. The consequence manifests itself as the generation of another phenomenon, action, which is the cause. Under certain conditions, successive phenomena, actions can be considered as being in a causal, causal relationship with each other, where the first phenomenon, action is the cause, and the second is the effect. With such a sequence of actions, phenomena in the language, this is reflected by connecting sentences with the union so, i.e. this union introduces a sentence containing a consequence following from the previous statement. For example: The more the case presented itself to the board, in the step appeared, SO they came to the conclusion that the only way of providing for Oliver was effectually to send him to sea without delay. Compound sentences with subordinating conjunctions Ya. G. Birenbaum writes that English conjunctions, allied and relative words in the subordinate clause correspond ... In most grammars known to us, this union while is related to subordinating, and complex sentences, parts of which are connected with its help, are complex. Indeed, in a number of cases, the subordinate nature of the part of the sentence introduced by the union while is beyond doubt, for example: While he was in gaol, Dickens, Macready, and Habbot Browne came across him by chance. Alva, unable to pursue while Louis threatened his rear bought the surrender of Moks on good terms. While these, and many other encomiums, werw bring passed on the accomplished Nancy, that young lady made the best of her way to the police-office. The part of the sentence introduced here by the union expresses the action during which the action of the other part is performed - without the union; thus, the part with the union plays a subordinate, serving role in relation to the main part. The assignment of sentences of this type to complex ones is proved primarily by the fact that the subordinate clause in this case answers the question when or during what time? and can stand in front of another part, after it, be inserted into its middle. It is impossible to divide a complex sentence of this type into two parts and make them independent simple sentences in correct unemotional speech. It is not uncommon for the conjunction while to connect parts of a sentence that none of which serves the other, or rather, those parts that equally serve each other. The relations between the parts of such a complex sentence are of a pronounced nature of comparison or even opposition. For example: In the North the nobility had dropped into the background, while the burgher class, merging with small landowners, ruled unchallenged. Now the child loved kippers with an affection that amounted almost to passion, while she loathedkidneys worse than powder. Compound sentences with when union The most common function of the conjunction when is the addition of a part of a complex sentence expressing the time of the action expressed in the main part. For example: Later, whem the Carthaginians began to die from an epidemic, the Romans reconquered the rest of Sicily. When I was at St. Ives, in Huntingdowshire, an open country, I sat with the farmers and smoked a pipe by way of preparation for evening service. Sentences of this type are typically complex. However, in English one can also observe such sentences with when, where the parts of the sentence are equal and, as was the case with while, are compared or contrasted. For example: Curious that Fleur should have dark eyes, when his own were grey. They do not think so, and their bent is to glean hurriediy and form conclusions as hasty, when their business should be sift at each step, and question. There is no reason to believe that in this case we have complex sentences with subordinate clauses, as was the case in the previous case; this time we have a compound sentence. A compound sentence with when can also be a compound clause with a concessive clause, for example: He sent her to the academy over at Birdstail for two years when it took nearly every pound of wool to pay the expenses.When he admitted them to his presence, he did not suffer them to sit, and treated them with the most contemptuous reserve and haughtiness. Compound sentences with the union if The if union has always been considered the primary means of expressing conditional relations. It is in this function that it is most common, for example: If he could reach a table in the restaurant unsuspected success would be his. If she were really innocent, he knew she would have jumped to her feet in her defiant way. If it's good enough for an ordinary seaman… However, a careful study of the relationships that are carried out with the participation of if (participates, but in no way plays a dominant role here), shows that these relationships can be very diverse. So, a sentence with if can be complex, between the parts of which there are both temporary and conditional shades of relationships: “You’re over young to smoke”. "I find it soothing", he said with much bravity, "if I get overworked or worried". The union if can introduce a subordinate clause: ask if it is locked. Even more interesting is that if can participate in a sentence that could be called compound (contrastive relations) if the if was not at the beginning of the first part, which is completely impossible when composing. This type of relationship is called dual. For example: It Shakespeare could sing with myriad lips, Browning could stammer through a trousand mouths. If God is omnipresent by a calm necessity, Satan is everywhere by an infinite activity. Compound sentences with though The main function of the union though is the implementation of concessive relations between parts of a complex sentence. For example: And the, one day, without warning, the gulf between them was bridged for a moment, and thereafter, though the gulf remained, it was ever narrower. Nor can this language ever be said to have died, though if constantiy modifies itself. However, this feature is not the only one. Sometimes the union though attaches a part of a complex sentence that does not express any concession. Relations in this case would be best described as adversarial, similar to relations with the union but, for example: There was no liquor, though the guests did one by one disappear to the room of the rich young ruler, who was also in uniform. We never felt any special need for a university degree, though we had acquired a species of intrinsic intelligence in knocking around the world that we could use in emergencies. The union though is closest here to the Russian one, however, however, nevertheless, etc. For example: “There were no alcoholic drinks at the table, however (however) the guests disappeared one by one in the room of a rich young member of the leadership ...” (it is understood that in this room, those who wished could steal a drink). Or “We never felt any need for an academic title, nevertheless we got some feeling ...”, etc. Thus, the union though does not always subordinate parts of a complex sentence. Compound sentences with so that If the union so ... that always connects parts of a complex sentence, then this cannot be said about the union so that. In a number of cases, this is true: so that can attach parts that express the purpose of performing an action expressed in another, subordinate part. This is especially true for complex sentences, where the second part contains a modal verb, for example: I rang up Llewellyn, asked him to see the case with me, so that I could get it into the ward. Meanwhile I felt like a sacrificial victim awaiting the priestly knife. Had my hosts spared me only so that I might serve as an offering to some pagan god? However, even in this case, such a situation is impossible, when even in the presence of modal verb in the second part, it will be taken as an investigative, not a target part: A pair of knee duck trousers and an old sweater made him a presentable wheel costume, so that he could go with Ruth or afternoon rides. Now, this back-room was immediately behind the bar, so that any person connected with the house… could not only look down upon any guests in the back room.., but could ascertain… the sudject of conversation. "Knee-length canvas pants and an old sweater made a decent cycling suit, with the result that he could (now) ride with Ruth on bike rides." “In addition, this back room was directly behind the counter, with the result that (so) any of the household could not only follow the patrons who were in the back room, but also hear what they were talking about.”

Subordinating conjunctions attach subordinate clauses to the main clauses of a complex sentence. Some subordinating conjunctions are also used in the construction of a simple sentence. Yes, union How can be placed before the nominal part of the compound predicate: House as a courtyard or enter into a modus operandi: Like smoke dissipated dreams(Lermontov), ​​union to can attach the circumstance of the goal expressed by the infinitive: Gathered to discuss a plan of action. Wed: We met to discuss a plan of action.

Subordinating conjunctions are usually divided into semantic and asemantic. The latter include unions that attach subordinate explanatory sentences: what, how, to, as if. They are usually compared with grammatical cases, since with the help of explanatory conjunctions such syntactic places are often replaced, in which there may be a grammatical case. (The noise of the wind is heard, It is heard that the wind seems to be rustling; Spring is dreaming. Spring is dreaming; I remembered what happened. I remembered what happened). Like grammatical cases, explanatory conjunctions express syntactic relations predetermined (given) by the semantics of the word (or word form) to which the subordinate clause refers. The explanatory union does not form the syntactic meaning of a complex sentence, but only expresses it.

However, it would be wrong to think that in terms of content, explanatory conjunctions are empty words. Explanatory conjunctions differ among themselves by the modal components of the meaning. Union to expresses the desired modality (tell me to come) as if - uncertainty (I see that someone is standing) that And How associated with real modality.

Semantic subordinating conjunctions have their own meanings. They define syntactic relations in the structure of a complex sentence.

Semantic unions are divided into groups according to their meaning:

1) temporary alliances when, before, after, just ... as, as soon as, just,

2) causal because, because, since, in view of the fact that, especially since, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, as a result of the fact that;

3) conditional if, if... then, in case, in the event that, provided that, if and etc.;

4) concessions despite the fact that, although, despite the fact that, despite the fact that, despite the fact that, regardless of the fact that;

5) consequences so, resulting in;

6) goals so that, in order to, in order to, in order to, so that;

7) comparative: as, as if, as if, as if, just as, as if, as if, as if;

8) comparative unions that coincide with subordinating unions on a formal basis, but in meaning are not opposed to coordinating unions if ... then, while, meanwhile, how, then how, as, as, than ... that. For example, The fathers did not visit each other; she had not yet seen Alexei, while(= a) young neighbors only talked about him(Pushkin).

allied words

Allied words (or relative pronouns) are pronominal words of various parts of speech used in the construction of a complex sentence as a subordinating conjunction. Submission, formalized by the allied word, is usually called relative.

The following lexemes are used as allied words: who, what, what, which, what, whose, where, where, from where, when, how, why, why, why, how much.

Unlike unions, allied words are members of a sentence, a semantic question can be posed to them, and, importantly, they are introduced into subordinate parts on the basis of a syntactic connection with other components. For example, in a sentence The most amazing thing was how quickly they agreed(Fadeev) word How forms a phrase with an adverb fast, in which the value of the degree is expressed, and therefore cannot be considered a union. Similarly, the union word What - it is always or strongly controlled V. p. (Remember what you said in the morning), or I. p. subject (It's hard to understand what's going on).

The allied function of relative pronouns is based on their different properties.

1. When making subordinate explanatory sentences, pronouns implement their interrogative semantics and are selected depending on what the question is directed to: We were asked who is coming, what happened when the cold sets in, why the planes are not flying, what summer is expected and so on.

Note. lexeme When is a conjunction if it attaches a clause of tense.

2. If the subordinate clause refers to a noun or correlative pronoun, then its ability to be used anaphorically is realized in the allied word: most often it introduces the component mentioned in the main part into the subordinate clause: tell me about the letter you received; I am the one you are waiting for; we were where you go; on the birch that grows under my window, jackdaws have made a nest.