There are billions of stars and planets in the universe. And if a star is a flaming sphere of gas, then planets like Earth are made up of solid elements. Planets form in clouds of dust that swirl around a newly formed star. In turn, the grains of this dust are composed of elements such as carbon, silicon, oxygen, iron and magnesium. But where do cosmic dust particles come from? A new study from the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen shows that not only can dust grains form in giant supernova explosions, they can also survive the subsequent shock waves of various explosions that impact the dust.
Computer generated image of how cosmic dust is formed in supernova explosions. Source: ESO/M. Kornmesser
How cosmic dust was formed has long been a mystery to astronomers. The dust elements themselves are formed in the glowing hydrogen gas in stars. Hydrogen atoms combine with each other to form heavier and heavier elements. As a result, the star begins to emit radiation in the form of light. When all the hydrogen is exhausted and it is no longer possible to extract energy, the star dies, and its shell flies into outer space, which forms various nebulae in which young stars can again be born. Heavy elements are formed primarily in supernovae, the progenitors of which are massive stars that die in a giant explosion. But how single elements stick together to form cosmic dust has remained a mystery.
“The problem was that even if dust were formed along with the elements in supernova explosions, the event itself is so strong that these small grains simply should not have survived. But cosmic dust exists, and its particles can be of completely different sizes. Our study sheds light on this problem,” says Professor Jens Hjort, head of the Center for Dark Cosmology at the Niels Bohr Institute.
snapshot Hubble telescope unusual dwarf galaxy in which the bright supernova SN 2010jl originated. The image was taken before its appearance, so the arrow shows its progenitor star. The exploding star was very massive, about 40 solar masses. Source: ESO
In cosmic dust studies, scientists observe supernovae using the X-shooter astronomical instrument at the Very Large Telescope (VLT) complex in Chile. It has amazing sensitivity, and the three spectrographs included in it. can observe the entire light spectrum at once, from ultraviolet and visible to infrared. Hjort explains that at first they were expecting a "proper" supernova explosion. And that's when it happened, the surveillance campaign began. The observed star was extraordinarily bright, 10 times brighter than a typical average supernova, and its mass was 40 times that of the sun. In total, the observation of the star took the researchers two and a half years.
“Dust absorbs light, and using our data, we were able to calculate a function that could tell us about the amount of dust, its composition and grain size. In the results, we found something really exciting,” Christa Gol.
The first step in the formation of space dust is a mini explosion in which a star ejects material containing hydrogen, helium and carbon into space. This gas cloud becomes a kind of shell around the star. A few more of these flashes and the shell becomes denser. Finally, the star explodes, and a dense gas cloud completely envelops its core.
“When a star explodes, the shock wave hits the dense gas cloud like a brick hitting a concrete wall. All this happens in the gas phase at incredible temperatures. But the place where the explosion hit becomes dense and cools down to 2000 degrees Celsius. At this temperature and density, the elements can nucleate and form solid particles. We found dust grains as small as one micron, which is a very large value for these elements. At that size, they should be able to survive their future journey through the galaxy.”
Thus, scientists believe that they have found the answer to the question of how cosmic dust is formed and lives.
Many people admire with delight the beautiful spectacle of the starry sky, one of the greatest creations of nature. In the clear autumn sky, it is clearly visible how a faintly luminous band, called milky way, which has irregular outlines with different widths and brightness. If we consider the Milky Way, which forms our Galaxy, through a telescope, it turns out that this bright band breaks up into many weakly glowing stars, which to the naked eye merge into a solid radiance. It is now established that the Milky Way consists not only of stars and star clusters, but also of gas and dust clouds.
Space dust occurs in many space objects, where there is a rapid outflow of matter, accompanied by cooling. It manifests itself in infrared radiation hot stars Wolf-Rayet with a very powerful stellar wind, planetary nebulae, supernova shells and new stars. A large amount of dust exists in the cores of many galaxies (for example, M82, NGC253), from which there is an intense outflow of gas. The influence of cosmic dust is most pronounced during the radiation of a new star. A few weeks after the maximum brightness of the nova, a strong excess of radiation in the infrared range appears in its spectrum, caused by the appearance of dust with a temperature of about K. Further
Space exploration (meteor)dust on the surface of the earth:problem overview
A.P.Boyarkina, L.M. Gindilis
Space dust as an astronomical factor
Cosmic dust refers to particles solid ranging in size from fractions of a micron to several microns. Dust matter is one of the important components of outer space. It fills interstellar, interplanetary and near-Earth space, penetrates the upper layers earth's atmosphere and falls on the Earth's surface in the form of the so-called meteor dust, being one of the forms of material (material and energy) exchange in the "Space - Earth" system. At the same time, it influences a number of processes occurring on the Earth.
Dusty matter in interstellar space
The interstellar medium consists of gas and dust mixed in a ratio of 100:1 (by mass), i.e. the mass of dust is 1% of the mass of gas. The average density of the gas is 1 hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter or 10 -24 g/cm 3 . The dust density is correspondingly 100 times less. Despite such an insignificant density, dusty matter has a significant impact on the processes occurring in the Cosmos. First of all, interstellar dust absorbs light, because of this, distant objects located near the plane of the galaxy (where the dust concentration is highest) are not visible in the optical region. For example, the center of our Galaxy is observed only in the infrared, radio and X-rays. And other galaxies can be observed in the optical range if they are located far from the galactic plane, at high galactic latitudes. The absorption of light by dust leads to a distortion of the distances to stars determined by the photometric method. Accounting for absorption is one of the most important problems in observational astronomy. When interacting with dust, the spectral composition and polarization of light change.
Gas and dust in the galactic disk are unevenly distributed, forming separate gas and dust clouds, the concentration of dust in them is approximately 100 times higher than in the intercloud medium. Dense gas and dust clouds do not let in the light of the stars behind them. Therefore, they look like dark areas in the sky, which are called dark nebulae. An example is the Coal Sack region in the Milky Way or the Horsehead Nebula in the constellation Orion. If there are bright stars, then due to the scattering of light on dust particles, such clouds glow, they are called reflection nebulae. An example is the reflection nebula in the Pleiades cluster. The most dense are the clouds of molecular hydrogen H 2 , their density is 10 4 -10 5 times higher than in the clouds of atomic hydrogen. Accordingly, the dust density is the same number of times higher. In addition to hydrogen, molecular clouds contain dozens of other molecules. Dust particles are the condensation nuclei of molecules; chemical reactions occur on their surface with the formation of new, more complex molecules. Molecular clouds are an area of intense star formation.
By composition, interstellar particles consist of a refractory core (silicates, graphite, silicon carbide, iron) and a shell of volatile elements (H, H 2 , O, OH, H 2 O). There are also very small silicate and graphite particles (without a shell) with a size of the order of hundredths of a micron. According to the hypothesis of F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasing, a significant proportion of interstellar dust, up to 80%, consists of bacteria.
The interstellar medium is continuously replenished due to the influx of matter during the ejection of the shells of stars in the late stages of their evolution (especially during supernova explosions). On the other hand, it is itself the source of the formation of stars and planetary systems.
Dusty matter in interplanetary and near-Earth space
Interplanetary dust is formed mainly during the decay of periodic comets, as well as during the crushing of asteroids. The formation of dust occurs continuously, and the process of dust particles falling on the Sun under the action of radiative braking is also continuously going on. As a result, a constantly renewing dusty medium is formed that fills interplanetary space and is in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Although its density is higher than in interstellar space, it is still very small: 10 -23 -10 -21 g/cm 3 . However, it noticeably scatters sunlight. When it is scattered by particles of interplanetary dust, such optical phenomena as zodiacal light, the Fraunhofer component of the solar corona, the zodiacal band, and counterradiance arise. Scattering on dust particles also determines the zodiacal component of the glow of the night sky.
Dust matter in the solar system is strongly concentrated towards the ecliptic. In the plane of the ecliptic, its density decreases approximately in proportion to the distance from the Sun. Near the Earth, as well as near other large planets, the concentration of dust under the influence of their attraction increases. Particles of interplanetary dust move around the Sun in decreasing (due to radiative braking) elliptical orbits. Their speed is several tens of kilometers per second. When colliding with solid bodies, including spacecraft, they cause noticeable surface erosion.
Colliding with the Earth and burning up in its atmosphere at an altitude of about 100 km, cosmic particles cause the well-known phenomenon of meteors (or "shooting stars"). On this basis they are called meteor particles, and the whole complex of interplanetary dust is often called meteoric matter or meteoric dust. Most meteor particles are loose bodies of cometary origin. Among them, two groups of particles are distinguished: porous particles with a density of 0.1 to 1 g/cm 3 and so-called dust lumps or fluffy flakes resembling snowflakes with a density of less than 0.1 g/cm 3 . In addition, denser particles of the asteroidal type with a density of more than 1 g/cm 3 are less common. At high altitudes, loose meteors predominate, and at altitudes below 70 km - asteroidal particles with an average density of 3.5 g/cm 3 .
As a result of the crushing of loose meteoric bodies of cometary origin at altitudes of 100-400 km from the Earth's surface, a rather dense dust shell is formed, the dust concentration in which is tens of thousands of times higher than in interplanetary space. Scattering of sunlight in this shell causes the twilight glow of the sky when the sun sinks below the horizon below 100 º.
The largest and smallest meteor bodies of the asteroidal type reach the Earth's surface. The first (meteorites) reach the surface due to the fact that they do not have time to completely collapse and burn out when flying through the atmosphere; the second - due to the fact that their interaction with the atmosphere, due to their negligible mass (at a sufficiently high density), occurs without noticeable destruction.
Fallout of cosmic dust on the Earth's surface
If meteorites have long been in the field of view of science, then cosmic dust has not attracted the attention of scientists for a long time.
The concept of cosmic (meteor) dust was introduced into science in the second half of the 19th century, when the famous Dutch polar explorer A.E. Nordenskjöld discovered dust of presumably cosmic origin on the ice surface. Around the same time, in the mid-70s of the 19th century, Murray (I. Murray) described rounded magnetite particles found in deposits of deep-sea sediments. Pacific Ocean, whose origin was also associated with cosmic dust. However, these assumptions did not find confirmation for a long time, remaining within the framework of the hypothesis. At the same time, the scientific study of cosmic dust progressed extremely slowly, as pointed out by Academician V.I. Vernadsky in 1941.
He first drew attention to the problem of cosmic dust in 1908 and then returned to it in 1932 and 1941. In the work "On the study of cosmic dust" V.I. Vernadsky wrote: "... The earth is connected with cosmic bodies and outer space not only through the exchange of various forms of energy. It is most closely connected with them materially... Among the material bodies falling on our planet from outer space, meteorites and cosmic dust usually ranked among them are available to our direct study... Meteorites - and at least in some part the fireballs associated with them - are for us, always unexpected in its manifestation... Cosmic dust is another matter: everything indicates that it falls continuously, and perhaps this continuity of fall exists at every point of the biosphere, is distributed evenly over the entire planet. It is surprising that this phenomenon, one might say, has not been studied at all and completely disappears from scientific accounting » .
Considering the known largest meteorites in this article, V.I. Vernadsky Special attention pays attention to the Tunguska meteorite, which was searched under his direct supervision by L.A. Sandpiper. Large fragments of the meteorite were not found, and in connection with this, V.I. Vernadsky makes the assumption that he "... is a new phenomenon in the annals of science - the penetration into the area of \u200b\u200bterrestrial gravity not of a meteorite, but of a huge cloud or clouds of cosmic dust moving at cosmic speed» .
To the same topic, V.I. Vernadsky returns in February 1941 in his report "On the necessity of organizing scientific work on Cosmic Dust" at a meeting of the Committee on Meteorites of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In this document, along with theoretical reflections on the origin and role of cosmic dust in geology and especially in the geochemistry of the Earth, he substantiates in detail the program of searching for and collecting the substance of cosmic dust that has fallen on the Earth's surface, with the help of which, he believes, it is possible to solve a number of problems. scientific cosmogony on the qualitative composition and "dominant significance of cosmic dust in the structure of the Universe". It is necessary to study cosmic dust and take it into account as a source of cosmic energy that is continuously brought to us from the surrounding space. The mass of cosmic dust, V.I. Vernadsky noted, possesses atomic and other nuclear energy, which is not indifferent in its existence in the Cosmos and in its manifestation on our planet. To understand the role of cosmic dust, he stressed, it is necessary to have sufficient material for its study. The organization of the collection of cosmic dust and the scientific study of the collected material is the first task facing scientists. Promising for this purpose V.I. Vernadsky considers snow and glacial natural plates of high-mountainous and arctic regions remote from human industrial activity.
The Great Patriotic War and the death of V.I. Vernadsky, prevented the implementation of this program. However, it became topical in the second half of the 20th century and contributed to the intensification of studies of meteor dust in our country.
In 1946, on the initiative of Academician V.G. Fesenkov organized an expedition to the mountains of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau (Northern Tien Shan), whose task was to study solid particles with magnetic properties in snow deposits. The snow sampling site was chosen on the left lateral moraine of the Tuyuk-Su glacier (height 3500 m), most of the ridges surrounding the moraine were covered with snow, which reduced the possibility of contamination with earth dust. It was removed from sources of dust associated with human activity, and surrounded on all sides by mountains.
The method of collecting cosmic dust in the snow cover was as follows. From a strip 0.5 m wide to a depth of 0.75 m, snow was collected with a wooden spatula, transferred and melted in aluminum dishes, merged into glass dishes, where a solid fraction precipitated for 5 hours. Then the upper part of the water was drained, added new party melted snow, etc. As a result, 85 buckets of snow were melted from a total area of 1.5 m 2 , with a volume of 1.1 m 3 . The resulting precipitate was transferred to the laboratory of the Institute of Astronomy and Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, where the water was evaporated and subjected to further analysis. However, since these studies did not give a definite result, N.B. Divari came to the conclusion that in this case it is better to use either very old compacted firns or open glaciers for snow sampling.
Significant progress in the study of cosmic meteor dust occurred in the middle of the 20th century, when, in connection with the launches of artificial Earth satellites, direct methods for studying meteor particles were developed - their direct registration by the number of collisions with a spacecraft or different kind traps (installed on satellites and geophysical rockets launched to a height of several hundred kilometers). An analysis of the obtained materials made it possible, in particular, to detect the presence of a dust shell around the Earth at altitudes from 100 to 300 km above the surface (as discussed above).
Along with the study of dust using spacecraft, particles were studied in the lower atmosphere and various natural accumulators: in high-mountain snows, in the ice sheet of Antarctica, in the polar ice of the Arctic, in peat deposits and deep sea silt. The latter are observed mainly in the form of so-called "magnetic balls", that is, dense spherical particles with magnetic properties. The size of these particles is from 1 to 300 microns, weight is from 10 -11 to 10 -6 g.
Another direction is connected with the study of astrophysical and geophysical phenomena associated with cosmic dust; this includes various optical phenomena: the glow of the night sky, noctilucent clouds, zodiacal light, counterradiance, etc. Their study also makes it possible to obtain important data on cosmic dust. Meteor studies were included in the program of the International Geophysical Year 1957-1959 and 1964-1965.
As a result of these works, estimates of the total influx of cosmic dust to the Earth's surface were refined. According to T.N. Nazarova, I.S. Astapovich and V.V. Fedynsky, the total influx of cosmic dust to the Earth reaches up to 107 tons/year. According to A.N. Simonenko and B.Yu. Levin (according to 1972 data), the influx of cosmic dust to the Earth's surface is 10 2 -10 9 t / year, according to other, later studies - 10 7 -10 8 t / year.
Research continued to collect meteoric dust. At the suggestion of Academician A.P. Vinogradov during the 14th Antarctic expedition (1968-1969), work was carried out in order to identify the patterns of spatio-temporal distributions of the deposition of extraterrestrial matter in the ice sheet of Antarctica. The surface layer of snow cover was studied in the areas of Molodezhnaya, Mirny, Vostok stations and in the area of about 1400 km between Mirny and Vostok stations. Snow sampling was carried out from pits 2-5 m deep at points remote from polar stations. Samples were packed in polyethylene bags or special plastic containers. Under stationary conditions, the samples were melted in a glass or aluminum dish. The resulting water was filtered using a collapsible funnel through membrane filters (pore size 0.7 μm). The filters were wetted with glycerol, and the amount of microparticles was determined in transmitted light at a magnification of 350X.
The polar ice , bottom sediments of the Pacific Ocean , sedimentary rocks , and salt deposits were also studied . At the same time, the search for melted microscopic spherical particles, which are quite easily identified among other dust fractions, proved to be a promising direction.
In 1962, the Commission on Meteorites and Cosmic Dust was established at the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by Academician V.S. Sobolev, which existed until 1990 and whose creation was initiated by the problem of the Tunguska meteorite. Works on the study of cosmic dust were carried out under the guidance of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences N.V. Vasiliev.
When assessing the fallout of cosmic dust, along with other natural plates, we used peat composed of brown sphagnum moss according to the method of the Tomsk scientist Yu.A. Lvov. This moss is quite widespread in the middle lane. the globe, receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere and has the ability to conserve it in a layer that was surface when dust hit it. Layer-by-layer stratification and dating of peat makes it possible to give a retrospective assessment of its loss. Both spherical particles 7–100 µm in size and the microelement composition of the peat substrate were studied, as functions of the dust contained in it.
The procedure for separating cosmic dust from peat is as follows. On the site of the raised sphagnum bog, a site is selected with a flat surface and a peat deposit composed of brown sphagnum moss (Sphagnum fuscum Klingr). Shrubs are cut off from its surface at the level of the moss sod. A pit is laid to a depth of 60 cm, a site of the required size is marked at its side (for example, 10x10 cm), then a peat column is exposed on two or three of its sides, cut into layers of 3 cm each, which are packed in plastic bags. The upper 6 layers (tows) are considered together and can serve to determine the age characteristics according to the method of E.Ya. Muldiyarova and E.D. Lapshina. Each layer is washed under laboratory conditions through a sieve with a mesh diameter of 250 microns for at least 5 minutes. The humus with mineral particles that has passed through the sieve is allowed to settle until a complete precipitation, then the precipitate is poured into a Petri dish, where it is dried. Packed in tracing paper, the dry sample is convenient for transportation and for further study. Under appropriate conditions, the sample is ashed in a crucible and a muffle furnace for an hour at a temperature of 500-600 degrees. The ash residue is weighed and either examined under a binocular microscope at a magnification of 56 times to identify spherical particles of 7-100 microns or more in size, or subjected to other types of analysis. Because Since this moss receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere, its ash component may be a function of the cosmic dust included in its composition.
Thus, studies in the area of the fall of the Tunguska meteorite, many hundreds of kilometers away from sources of man-made pollution, made it possible to estimate the influx of spherical particles of 7-100 microns and more to the Earth's surface. The upper layers of peat made it possible to estimate the fallout of the global aerosol during the study; layers dating back to 1908 - substances of the Tunguska meteorite; the lower (pre-industrial) layers - cosmic dust. The influx of cosmic microspherules to the Earth's surface is estimated at (2-4)·10 3 t/year, and in general, cosmic dust - 1.5·10 9 t/year. Was used analytical methods analysis, in particular neutron activation, to determine the trace element composition of cosmic dust. According to these data, annually on the Earth's surface falls from outer space (t/year): iron (2·10 6), cobalt (150), scandium (250).
Of great interest in terms of the above studies are the works of E.M. Kolesnikova and co-authors, who discovered isotopic anomalies in the peat of the area where the Tunguska meteorite fell, dating back to 1908 and speaking, on the one hand, in favor of the cometary hypothesis of this phenomenon, and on the other, shedding light on the cometary substance that fell on the Earth's surface.
The most complete review of the problem of the Tunguska meteorite, including its substance, for 2000 should be recognized as the monograph by V.A. Bronshten. The latest data on the substance of the Tunguska meteorite were reported and discussed at the International Conference "100 years of the Tunguska phenomenon", Moscow, June 26-28, 2008. Despite the progress made in the study of cosmic dust, a number of problems still remain unresolved.
Sources of metascientific knowledge about cosmic dust
Along with the data obtained modern methods studies, of great interest are the information contained in non-scientific sources: “Letters of the Mahatmas”, the Teaching of Living Ethics, letters and works of E.I. Roerich (in particular, in her work "Study of Human Properties", where an extensive program of scientific research is given for many years to come).
So in a letter from Kut Humi in 1882 to the editor of the influential English-language newspaper "Pioneer" A.P. Sinnett (the original letter is kept in the British Museum) gives the following data on cosmic dust:
- "High above our earth's surface the air is saturated and space is filled with magnetic and meteor dust that does not even belong to our solar system”;
- "Snow, especially in our northern regions, is full of meteoric iron and magnetic particles, deposits of the latter are found even at the bottom of the oceans." “Millions of similar meteors and the finest particles reach us every year and every day”;
- “every atmospheric change on the Earth and all perturbations come from the combined magnetism” of two large “masses” - the Earth and meteoric dust;
There is "the terrestrial magnetic attraction of meteor dust and the latter's direct effect on sudden changes in temperature, especially with regard to heat and cold";
Because “our earth, with all the other planets, is rushing through space, it receives most of the cosmic dust on its northern hemisphere than on its southern”; “... this explains the quantitative predominance of continents in the northern hemisphere and the greater abundance of snow and dampness”;
- “The heat that the earth receives from the rays of the sun is, to the greatest extent, only a third, if not less, of the amount it receives directly from meteors”;
- “Powerful accumulations of meteoric matter” in interstellar space lead to a distortion of the observed intensity of starlight and, consequently, to a distortion of the distances to stars obtained by photometry.
A number of these provisions were ahead of the science of that time and were confirmed by subsequent studies. Thus, studies of the twilight glow of the atmosphere, carried out in the 30-50s. XX century, showed that if at altitudes less than 100 km the glow is determined by the scattering of sunlight in a gaseous (air) medium, then at altitudes above 100 km scattering by dust particles plays a predominant role. The first observations made with the help of artificial satellites led to the discovery of a dust shell of the Earth at altitudes of several hundred kilometers, as indicated in the above-mentioned letter from Kut Hoomi. Of particular interest are data on distortions of distances to stars obtained by photometric methods. In essence, this was an indication of the presence of interstellar extinction, discovered in 1930 by Trempler, which is rightfully considered one of the most important astronomical discoveries of the 20th century. Accounting for interstellar extinction led to a reassessment of the scale of astronomical distances and, as a result, to a change in the scale of the visible Universe.
Some provisions of this letter - about the influence of cosmic dust on processes in the atmosphere, in particular on the weather - have not yet found scientific confirmation. Here further study is needed.
Let us turn to another source of metascientific knowledge - the Teaching of Living Ethics, created by E.I. Roerich and N.K. Roerich in collaboration with the Himalayan Teachers - Mahatmas in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. The Living Ethics books originally published in Russian have now been translated and published in many languages of the world. They pay great attention to scientific problems. In this case, we will be interested in everything related to cosmic dust.
The problem of cosmic dust, in particular its influx to the Earth's surface, is given quite a lot of attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics.
“Pay attention to high places exposed to winds from snowy peaks. At the level of twenty-four thousand feet, one can observe special deposits of meteoric dust" (1927-1929). “Aeroliths are not studied enough, and even less attention is paid to cosmic dust on eternal snows and glaciers. Meanwhile, the Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks ”(1930-1931). "Meteor dust is inaccessible to the eye, but gives very significant precipitation" (1932-1933). “In the purest place, the purest snow is saturated with earthly and cosmic dust - this is how space is filled even with rough observation” (1936).
Much attention is paid to the issues of cosmic dust in the Cosmological Records by E.I. Roerich (1940). It should be borne in mind that H.I. Roerich closely followed the development of astronomy and was aware of its latest achievements; she critically evaluated some theories of that time (20-30 years of the last century), for example, in the field of cosmology, and her ideas were confirmed in our time. The Teaching of Living Ethics and Cosmological Records of E.I. Roerich contain a number of provisions on those processes that are associated with the fallout of cosmic dust on the Earth's surface and which can be summarized as follows:
In addition to meteorites, material particles of cosmic dust constantly fall on the Earth, which bring cosmic matter that carries information about the Far Worlds of outer space;
Cosmic dust changes the composition of soils, snow, natural waters and plants;
This is especially true for the places where natural ores occur, which are not only a kind of magnets that attract cosmic dust, but one should also expect some differentiation of it depending on the type of ore: “So iron and other metals attract meteors, especially when the ores are in a natural state and not devoid of cosmic magnetism";
great attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics is given to mountain peaks, which, according to E.I. Roerich "... are the greatest magnetic stations". "... The Cosmic Ocean draws its own rhythm on the peaks";
The study of cosmic dust may lead to the discovery of new, as yet undiscovered modern science minerals, in particular - metal, which has properties that help to store vibrations with the distant worlds of outer space;
When studying cosmic dust, new types of microbes and bacteria may be discovered;
But what is especially important, the Living Ethics Teaching opens a new page of scientific knowledge - the impact of cosmic dust on living organisms, including man and his energy. It can have various effects on the human body and some processes on the physical and, especially, subtle planes.
This information is beginning to be confirmed in modern scientific research. So in last years on cosmic dust particles, complex organic compounds and some scientists started talking about cosmic microbes. In this regard, of particular interest are the works on bacterial paleontology carried out at the Institute of Paleontology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In these works, in addition to terrestrial rocks, meteorites were studied. It is shown that the microfossils found in meteorites are traces of the vital activity of microorganisms, some of which are similar to cyanobacteria. Several studies have shown experimentally positive influence cosmic substance on plant growth and substantiate the possibility of its influence on the human body.
The authors of the Teaching of Living Ethics strongly recommend organizing constant monitoring of the fallout of cosmic dust. And as its natural accumulator, use glacial and snow deposits in the mountains at an altitude of over 7 thousand meters. The Roerichs, having lived for many years in the Himalayas, dream of creating a scientific station there. In a letter dated October 13, 1930, E.I. Roerich writes: “The station should develop into the City of Knowledge. We want to give a synthesis of achievements in this City, therefore all areas of science should subsequently be presented in it ... The study of new cosmic rays, which give humanity new most valuable energies, possible only at heights, because all the most subtle and most valuable and powerful lies in the purer layers of the atmosphere. Also, don’t all the meteor showers that fall on snowy peaks and are carried down to the valleys by mountain streams deserve attention? .
Conclusion
The study of cosmic dust has now become an independent area of modern astrophysics and geophysics. This problem is especially relevant, since meteoric dust is a source of cosmic matter and energy, which are continuously brought to the Earth from outer space and actively influence geochemical and geophysical processes, as well as have a peculiar effect on biological objects, including humans. These processes are still largely unexplored. In the study of cosmic dust, a number of provisions contained in the sources of metascientific knowledge have not been properly applied. Meteor dust manifests itself in terrestrial conditions not only as a phenomenon of the physical world, but also as matter that carries the energy of outer space, including the worlds of other dimensions and other states of matter. Accounting for these provisions requires the development of a completely new methodology study of meteor dust. But the most important task still remains the collection and analysis of cosmic dust in various natural reservoirs.
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Cosmic dust, its composition and properties are little known to a person who is not associated with the study of extraterrestrial space. However, such a phenomenon leaves its traces on our planet! Let us consider in more detail where it comes from and how it affects life on Earth.
The concept of space dust
Cosmic dust on Earth is most often found in certain layers of the ocean floor, ice sheets of the polar regions of the planet, peat deposits, hard-to-reach places in the desert and meteorite craters. The size of this substance is less than 200 nm, which makes its study problematic.
Usually the concept of cosmic dust includes the delimitation of the interstellar and interplanetary varieties. However, all this is very conditional. The most convenient option for studying this phenomenon is the study of dust from space at the boundaries solar system or beyond.
The reason for this problematic approach to the study of the object is that the properties of extraterrestrial dust change dramatically when it is near a star like the Sun.
Theories on the origin of cosmic dust
Streams of cosmic dust constantly attack the surface of the Earth. The question arises where this substance comes from. Its origin gives rise to many discussions among specialists in this field.
There are such theories of the formation of cosmic dust:
- Decay of celestial bodies. Some scientists believe that space dust is nothing more than the result of the destruction of asteroids, comets and meteorites.
- The remnants of a protoplanetary type cloud. There is a version according to which cosmic dust is referred to as microparticles of a protoplanetary cloud. However, such an assumption raises some doubts due to the fragility of a finely dispersed substance.
- The result of the explosion on the stars. As a result of this process, according to some experts, there is a powerful release of energy and gas, which leads to the formation of cosmic dust.
- Residual phenomena after the formation of new planets. The so-called construction "garbage" has become the basis for the occurrence of dust.
The main types of cosmic dust
There is currently no specific classification of cosmic dust types. Subspecies can be distinguished by visual characteristics and location of these microparticles.
Consider seven groups of cosmic dust in the atmosphere, different in external indicators:
- Gray fragments of irregular shape. These are residual phenomena after the collision of meteorites, comets and asteroids no larger than 100-200 nm in size.
- Particles of slag-like and ash-like formation. Such objects are difficult to identify solely by external signs, because they have undergone changes after passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
- The grains are round in shape, which are similar in parameters to black sand. Outwardly, they resemble powder of magnetite (magnetic iron ore).
- Small black circles with a characteristic sheen. Their diameter does not exceed 20 nm, which makes their study a painstaking task.
- Larger balls of the same color with a rough surface. Their size reaches 100 nm and makes it possible to study their composition in detail.
- Balls of a certain color with a predominance of black and white tones with inclusions of gas. These microparticles of cosmic origin consist of a silicate base.
- Spheres of heterogeneous structure made of glass and metal. Such elements are characterized by microscopic dimensions within 20 nm.
- Dust found in intergalactic space. This view can distort the size of distances in certain calculations and is able to change the color of space objects.
- Formations within the Galaxy. The space within these limits is always filled with dust from the destruction of cosmic bodies.
- Matter concentrated between stars. It is most interesting due to the presence of a shell and a core of a solid consistency.
- Dust located near a certain planet. It is usually located in the ring system of a celestial body.
- Clouds of dust around the stars. They circle the orbital path of the star itself, reflecting its light and creating a nebula.
- metal group. Representatives of this subspecies have a specific gravity of more than five grams per cubic centimeter, and their basis consists mainly of iron.
- silicate group. The base is clear glass with a specific gravity of approximately three grams per cubic centimeter.
- Mixed group. The very name of this association indicates the presence of both glass and iron in the structure of microparticles. The base also includes magnetic elements.
- Spherules with hollow filling. This species is often found in places where meteorites fall.
- Spherules of metal formation. This subspecies has a core of cobalt and nickel, as well as a shell that has oxidized.
- Spheres of uniform addition. Such grains have an oxidized shell.
- Balls with a silicate base. The presence of gas inclusions gives them the appearance of ordinary slags, and sometimes foam.
It should be remembered that these classifications are very arbitrary, but they serve as a certain guideline for designating types of dust from space.
Composition and characteristics of the components of cosmic dust
Let's take a closer look at what cosmic dust is made of. There is a problem in determining the composition of these microparticles. Unlike gaseous substances, solids have a continuous spectrum with relatively few bands that are blurred. As a result, the identification of cosmic dust grains is difficult.
The composition of cosmic dust can be considered on the example of the main models of this substance. These include the following subspecies:
- Ice particles, the structure of which includes a core with a refractory characteristic. The shell of such a model consists of light elements. In particles large size there are atoms with elements of magnetic properties.
- Model MRN, the composition of which is determined by the presence of silicate and graphite inclusions.
- Oxide space dust, which is based on diatomic oxides of magnesium, iron, calcium and silicon.
- Balls with a metallic nature of education. The composition of such microparticles includes such an element as nickel.
- Metal balls with the presence of iron and the absence of nickel.
- Circles on a silicone basis.
- Irregular-shaped iron-nickel balls.
Soils are fertile for the presence of cosmic material. A particularly large number of spherules were found in the places where meteorites fell. They were based on nickel and iron, as well as various minerals such as troilite, cohenite, steatite and other components.
Glaciers also hide aliens from outer space in the form of dust in their blocks. Silicate, iron and nickel serve as the basis for the found spherules. All mined particles were classified into 10 clearly demarcated groups.
Difficulties in determining the composition of the studied object and differentiating it from impurities of terrestrial origin leave this issue open for further research.
The influence of cosmic dust on life processes
The influence of this substance has not been fully studied by specialists, which gives great opportunities in terms of further activities in this direction. At a certain height, using rockets, they discovered a specific belt consisting of cosmic dust. This gives grounds to assert that such an extraterrestrial substance affects some of the processes occurring on planet Earth.
Influence of cosmic dust on the upper atmosphere
Recent studies suggest that the amount of cosmic dust can affect the change in the upper atmosphere. This process is very significant, because it leads to certain fluctuations in climatic characteristics planet Earth.
A huge amount of dust from the collision of asteroids fills the space around our planet. Its amount reaches almost 200 tons per day, which, according to scientists, cannot but leave its consequences.
The most susceptible to this attack, according to the same experts, is the northern hemisphere, whose climate is predisposed to cold temperatures and dampness.
The impact of cosmic dust on cloud formation and climate change is not well understood. New research in this area gives rise to more and more questions, the answers to which have not yet been received.
Influence of dust from space on the transformation of oceanic silt
Irradiation of cosmic dust by the solar wind leads to the fact that these particles fall to the Earth. Statistics show that the lightest of the three isotopes of helium in large quantities falls through dust particles from space into oceanic silt.
The absorption of elements from space by minerals of ferromanganese origin served as the basis for the formation of unique ore formations on the ocean floor.
At the moment, the amount of manganese in areas that are close to the Arctic Circle is limited. All this is due to the fact that cosmic dust does not enter the World Ocean in those areas due to ice sheets.
Influence of cosmic dust on the composition of the ocean water
If we consider the glaciers of Antarctica, they amaze with the number of meteorite remains found in them and the presence of cosmic dust, which is a hundred times higher than the usual background.
An excessively high concentration of the same helium-3, valuable metals in the form of cobalt, platinum and nickel, makes it possible to assert with certainty the fact of the intervention of cosmic dust in the composition of the ice sheet. At the same time, the substance of extraterrestrial origin remains in its original form and not diluted by the waters of the ocean, which in itself is a unique phenomenon.
According to some scientists, the amount of cosmic dust in such peculiar ice sheets over the past million years is on the order of several hundred trillion formations of meteorite origin. During the period of warming, these covers melt and carry elements of cosmic dust into the World Ocean.
Watch a video about space dust:
This cosmic neoplasm and its influence on some factors of the vital activity of our planet have not yet been studied enough. It is important to remember that the substance can affect climate change, the structure of the ocean floor and the concentration of certain substances in the waters of the oceans. Photographs of cosmic dust testify to how many more mysteries these microparticles are fraught with. All this makes the study of this interesting and relevant!
The science
Scientists have noticed a large cloud of cosmic dust created by a supernova explosion.
Cosmic dust may provide answers to questions about how life appeared on earth- whether it originated here or was brought with comets that fell to the Earth, whether there was water here from the very beginning, or whether it was also brought from space.
A recent snapshot of a cloud of cosmic dust that occurred after a supernova explosion proves thatsupernovaeable to produce enough space dust to create planets like our Earth.
Moreover, scientists believe that this dust is enough to create thousands suchplanets like earth.
Telescope data shows warm dust (white) that survived inside the supernova remnant. Supernova remnant cloud Sagittarius A East shown in blue. Radio emission (red) indicates an expanding shock wave colliding with surrounding interstellar clouds (green).
It is worth noting that cosmic dust participated in the creation of both our planet and many other cosmic bodies. Sheconsists of small particles up to 1 micrometer in size.
Today it is already known that comets contain primordial dust, which is billions of years old, and which played leading role in the formation of the solar system. By examining this dust, you can learn a lot abouthow the universe and our solar system began to be createdin particular, as well as learn more about the composition of the first organic matter and water.
According to Ryan Lau of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York,flash,recentlyphotographed by a telescope, occurred 10,000 years ago, resulting in a cloud of dust large enough togot 7,000 planets similar to the Earth.
Observations of a supernova (Supernova)
By using Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA), scientists studied the intensity of radiation, and were able to calculate the total mass of cosmic dust in the cloud.
It is worth noting that SOFIA is a joint a project of NASA and the German Air and Space Center. The aim of the project is to create and use a Cassegrain telescope aboard a Boeing 474.
During the flight at an altitude of 12-14 kilometers, a telescope with a circumference of 2.5 meters is able to create photographs of space that are close in quality to photographs taken by space observatories.
Led by Lau, the team used the SOFIA telescope with a special cameraFORCAST on boardto take infrared pictures of the cosmic dust cloud, also known as the supernova remnant Sagittarius A Vostok. FORCAST isinfrared camera for detecting low-contrast objects.
