Features of the lexical system of the language. The lexical system of the language Linguistic ideas about the lexical system of the language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. Studying lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical-phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma example, example).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which also manifests systemic connections in the vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. Compatibility words is determined by their subject-semantic connections, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with words ball, glass; possible combinations glass jar (bottle, dishes), even glass saucepan (frying pan)- from fire-resistant glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass patty" and so on, since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. You can't link words either. glass And run, glass And far: this is opposed by their grammatical nature (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, a circumstantial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build phrases hair glass smoke(Es.), glass sight. Words that do not have this ability ( refractory, metal cutting and below), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility `already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. Compatibility features individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan), expanding our understanding of the world around us ( walk on the moon), figurative energy of language ( glass smoke hair).

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates the great expressive power of vocabulary. At the same time, we must not forget that the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic(gr. para- about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extralinguistic(lat. extra- over-, out- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, functioning conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is necessary condition scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Solution theoretical problems gets direct access to practice both in the compilation of various dictionaries, and in the development of literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in the analysis of techniques for the individual author's use of the expressive possibilities of the word in artistic speech.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan), expanding our understanding of the world around us ( walk on the moon), figurative energy of language ( glass smoke hair).

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is a necessary condition for the scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The solution of theoretical problems gets direct access to practice both in compiling various dictionaries, and in developing literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in analyzing the methods of individual authorial use of the expressive possibilities of a word in artistic speech.

The lexical system of the Russian language. The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

System relations in vocabulary. A word is always associated in speech with other words. The ability to combine with other words is called lexical compatibility. Some words enter into connection with other words relatively freely, practically without restrictions. Yes, the word head can be combined with big amount adjectives-definitions naming various signs: size - big, small; form - round; hair color - redhead, gray. Therefore, we can talk about free lexical compatibility words.

Along with words that have free lexical compatibility, there are words in the Russian language, the use of which is not free; two groups of lexically related words and word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned.

Phraseologically related meaning of the word (more precisely, phraseologically related word) is a meaning (word) whose lexical connections are limited with respect to set phrases in which the word of non-free use functions. For example, brown combined with the word eyes.

A syntactically defined meaning is a special kind of figurative meaning a word that occurs in a certain context when the word performs a function that is unusual for it. Often syntactically determined meaning is acquired by words naming birds, animals: crow, bear; item names flora: oak, thorn; various names denoting specific objects: hat, mattress. In a figurative sense, these words always have expressiveness. As a rule, in this case they perform the function of a predicate, less often an addition, a subject: “Well, this admiral drank,” the embarrassed midshipman said in the wardroom.

Borrowings. Their types.

Borrowing - This

1) the transition of elements of one language into the system of another language as a result of more or less prolonged contacts between these languages;

2) a word or phrase that entered the language as a result of such a transition. Phonemes can be borrowed (for example, the phoneme (f) was borrowed from the Greek language), morphemes (such, for example, morphemes -ism, anti-, etc.); according to foreign language samples can be created syntactic constructions(eg, adverbial headings like Summing up - the result of the influence of English syntax).

But the most frequent and typical type of language borrowing is word borrowing, or lexical borrowing.

So, depending on which language certain words came from, two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) borrowings from related languages (in Russian - from Slavic) and 2) borrowings from other languages.

Consider this on the example of the Russian language.

The first type includes, firstly, borrowings from Old Church Slavonic, as well as from other Slavic languages(for example, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Bulgarian, Czech, etc.).

The second type includes borrowings from Greek, Latin, as well as Turkic, Iranian, Scandinavian, Western European (Romance, Germanic, etc.), etc.

The reasons for lexical borrowing can be external and internal. The main external reason is close political, trade and economic ties between peoples who speak languages. The most typical form of influence due to such connections is the borrowing of a word together with the borrowing of a thing or concept (cf. words like car, conveyor, radio, cinema, television, laser, transistor, etc.).

Another external reason is the need to designate with the help of a foreign word k.-l. reappeared special kind objects or concepts; for example, to refer to a servant in a hotel in Rus. language strengthened French. by origin, the word porter (the word servant does not clearly indicate the scope of this person).

The need for specialization of names is associated with one of the intralinguistic reasons of borrowing, namely, with the tendency inherent in the language towards an increasing differentiation of linguistic means in meaning. As a result of this trend, the meaning expressed by Rus. in a word, it can “split” into two and one of them receives a foreign language nomination: fear - panic, comfort - comfort, etc. Another intralinguistic reason for borrowings is the tendency to replace descriptive names with one-word ones; so, in Russian the words sconce (instead of a wall lamp), sniper (instead of a well-aimed shooter), safe (instead of a fireproof cabinet), service (instead of consumer services), etc., appeared in the language.

Borrowing can be carried out in two ways - oral and written. For Russian language to con. 18th century was characterized by preim. oral route; In the 19th and especially in the 20th centuries, due to the strengthening of the communicative role of journalism, the mass media, and the language of science, borrowings through written sources predominate. In the modern era, borrowing occurs very intensively - both through written sources and orally.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that studies lexicon language or vocabulary. The set of words of a language that serve to designate objects, phenomena and concepts is called the vocabulary, or vocabulary of the language.

One of the main tasks of lexicology is the study of the meanings of words and phraseological units, the study of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and other relationships between the meanings of words. The scope of lexicology also includes changes in the vocabulary of the language, reflection in the vocabulary of social, territorial, professional characteristics of native speakers. Lexicology explores the layers of words distinguished by different grounds: by origin (original and borrowed vocabulary), by historical perspective (obsolete words and neologisms), by sphere of use (popular, special, colloquial, etc.), by stylistic coloring (interstitial and stylistically colored vocabulary).

The basic unit of language is the word. F. de Saussure believed that "the word, despite the difficulty of defining this concept, is a unit that relentlessly appears to our mind as something central in the entire mechanism of language." This status of a word is determined by the functions it performs, namely: 1) nominative (words-names of the realities of the world); 2) significative (words contain information about reality); 3) cumulative (cumulative, associated with the enrichment of the semantic side of the word in the course of its life in the language); 4) pragmatic (associated with the sphere of use of the word, with connotative information); 5) building (or constructive, proves that the word is building material language).

It is the variety of functions performed by the word that determines the complexity of the definition of this concept. So, for example, V.V. Vinogradov believed that “the word is the ultimate (i.e., already more indecomposable into grammatically separate and at the same time lexically integral units of speech) linguistic “symbol”, which, firstly, serves for some social environment, the designation (nominative sign) of a particular content, emotion, relationship, in a word, some “object” in the world of reality, in the world material culture or social ideology and psychology, often expressing an assessment, the attitude of this social environment to reality and thereby inherent in this social environment understanding and perception of reality; secondly, it is or can be a receptacle for several meanings common to the entire given collective, and thirdly, finally, it is a structural speech unity that forms speech, utterance, message or is distinguished from speech as one of its correlative members with others, divided into phonemes and morphemes and entering into syntactic chains according to the laws of the grammar of a given language. In turn, D. N. Shmelev gives the following definition to the word: "A word is a unit of naming, characterized by a complete design (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomaticity."

In lexicology, the word is considered, first of all, from the point of view of the meaning, meaning and connections of this word with other words. Not a single word in a language exists in isolation from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows. In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc. ). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic.

So, the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic and extralinguistic factors has formed: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, operating conditions , fixation time in the language, etc.

Now we can say with confidence that the current era of the development of linguistics is the era of the science of semantics. Semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of language units. Semantics answers the question of how a person, knowing the words and grammatical rules of a natural language, is able to convey with their help the most diverse information about the world (including his own inner world), even if it is the first time he encounters such a problem. This section of the science of language allows a person to understand what information about the world is contained in any statement addressed to him, even if he hears it for the first time.

The central position of semantics in the circle of linguistic disciplines follows directly from the fact that human language in its main function is a means of communication, encoding and decoding information. Already in ancient times, questions were raised about the meaning of the word. Disputes about life and death, the origin of language, thinking and different philosophical problems somehow reduced to the actual meaning of the word. In terms of proper linguistics, until the 19th century, inclusive, only one discipline - etymology - touches on the problems of semantics, since, explaining the formation of some words from others, it is forced to both register and explain changes in the meanings of words. Only in the second half of the 19th century, due to increased interest not only in the sound, but also in the “psychological” side of the language, the question arose of the need to single out semantics as a doctrine of changes in the meaning of words. The term "semantics" itself was introduced by the French linguist M. Breal. Today, the main applied, i.e. practical task semantics is the rapid search for information in artificial systems (eg, the Internet). The theory of semantic analysis is aimed at solving problems related to the possibility of understanding the meaning of a phrase and issuing a query by a search engine in a given form.

Semantics is now understood as a special component, without which it is impossible to fully understand the word, the process of encoding and decoding speech, in other words, the language cannot be studied in isolation from its conceptual side, its meaning.

Thus, people who know the language can perform the following operations with it:

1) build a text in this language that expresses the desired meaning (coding), as well as extract meaning from the perceived text (decoding);
2) connect words with each other idiomatically, i.e. in accordance with prevailing in given language norms of syntactic, semantic and lexical compatibility;
3) to establish various semantic relations between statements, in particular:
- a) the relationship of synonymy;
- b) relations of logical consequence . When speaking, this ability is manifested in the ability to paraphrase the constructed text. different ways, leaving its content unchanged. And in understanding - in the ability to see the complete or partial semantic identity of outwardly different texts.
4) Set various semantic properties of sentences, in particular:
- a) distinguish semantically correct sentences from semantically incorrect;
- b) distinguish semantically coherent texts from semantically incoherent ones.

So, the semantic component has long been recognized as a necessary part of a complete description of a language - grammar. Contribute to the formation of the general principles of semantic description different theories language. For example, the foundations of semantic research were laid by linguists J. Katz and J. Fodor and further developed by R. Jackendoff, Yu.D. Apresyan, A.K. Zholkovsky, I.A. Melchuk and others.

The semantic component necessarily includes a dictionary (lexicon), in which each word is reported about what it means, as well as the rules for combining it with other words. The meaning of a word in a dictionary is described using a dictionary definition or interpretation, which is an expression in the same natural language or in an artificial semantic language specially developed for this purpose, in which the meaning of the interpreted word is presented more fully (explicitly) and, ideally, , strictly.

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