Slavic. What languages belong to the Slavic group? School Encyclopedia

SLAVIC LANGUAGES, a group of languages belonging to the Indo-European family, spoken by more than 440 million people in Eastern Europe and Northern and Central Asia. The thirteen currently existing Slavic languages are divided into three groups: 1) the East Slavic group includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages; 2) West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian (which is spoken in a small area in northern Poland) and two Lusatian (or Serb Lusatian) languages - Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, common in small areas in eastern Germany; 3) the South Slavic group includes: Serbo-Croatian (spoken in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Slovenian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. In addition, there are three dead languages - Slovene, which disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, Polabsky, which became extinct in the 18th century, and Old Church Slavonic - the language of the first Slavic translations. Holy Scripture, which is based on one of the ancient South Slavic dialects and which was used in worship in the Slavic Orthodox Church but never been everyday spoken language (cm. OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE).

Modern Slavic languages have many words in common with other Indo-European languages. Many Slavic words are similar to the corresponding English ones, for example: sister – sister,three - three,nose - nose,night and etc. In other cases common origin words are less clear. Russian word see related to Latin videre, Russian word five related to German funf, Latin quinque(cf. musical term quintet), Greek penta, which is present, for example, in a borrowed word pentagon(lit. "pentagon") .

An important role in the system of Slavic consonantism is played by palatalization - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be either hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are also some significant differences between the Slavic languages. In Polish and Kashubian, for example, two nasalized (nasal) vowels have been preserved - ą And ERROR, disappeared in other Slavic languages. Slavic languages differ greatly in stress. In Czech, Slovak and Sorbian, the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish - to the penultimate one; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable can be stressed except for the last one; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, the stress can fall on any syllable of a word.

All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have several types of declension of nouns and adjectives, which change in six or seven cases, in numbers and in three genders. The presence of seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, local or prepositional and vocative) testifies to the archaism of the Slavic languages and their closeness to the Indo-European language, which supposedly had eight cases. An important feature of the Slavic languages is the category of the verb form: every verb refers either to the perfect or to the imperfect form and denotes, respectively, either a completed, or a lasting or repetitive action.

The habitat of the Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe in the 5th–8th centuries. AD expanded rapidly, and by the 8th c. the common Slavic language spread from the north of Russia to the south of Greece and from the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea to the Volga. Up to the 8th or 9th c. it was basically a single language, but gradually the differences between the territorial dialects became more noticeable. By the 10th c. there were already predecessors of modern Slavic languages.

Replenishment of the vocabulary with new words by creating them from the word-formation elements available in the language and by borrowing words from the languages of other peoples is a natural phenomenon for all languages.

native Russian words

Russian language refers to Slavic group languages. Related to it are the living East Slavic languages \u200b\u200b- Ukrainian And Belorussian; West Slavic - Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian; South Slavic - Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian; dead West Slavic - Polabian And Pomeranian; South Slavic - Old Church Slavonic.

Long before our era, tribes of Slavs settled on the lands between the Dnieper and the Vistula, who developed their own common Slavic language. By the 5th - 6th centuries. among the Slavs, who by that time had significantly expanded their territory, three groups separated themselves: southern, western and eastern. This isolation of the Slavic tribes was accompanied by the division of the common Slavic language into independent languages. East Slavic (Old Russian) language is the language of a separate eastern group of Slavic tribes.

Settlement of Slavic tribes in the tenth century.

From the 7th century by the ninth century developed, and from the 9th century. until the second third of the 12th century. there was an East Slavic (Old Russian) state - Kievan Rus. Population Kievan Rus communicated through close dialects of the East Slavic (Old Russian) language. In the XII - XIII centuries. Kievan Rus broke up into separate principalities. The East Slavic (Old Russian) language gave rise to three languages - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. They separated already by the 14th century. On the northeastern outskirts of Kievan Rus in the XIV century. the state of Moscow Rus began to be created, the population of which spoke the emerging Russian language. In the era of the Muscovite state and in subsequent eras, the Russian language is the language of only one of the three East Slavic peoples.

Originally Russian words are divided into three groups: common Slavic, East Slavic (Old Russian) and proper Russian. For example, common Slavic words: beard, eyebrow, hip, head, lip, throat and etc.; East Slavic (Old Russian) words: gaff, enough, rope, blackberry and others. From the XIV century. actually Russian words began to appear in the Russian language ( alcove, get lost, militia and etc.). They were created on the basis of common Slavic, East Slavic (Old Russian) and borrowed words. For example, in the XVI century. the word was borrowed from the Polish language pharmacy. On the basis of this word, the adjective arose in Russian pharmacy(according to the rules of Russian word production). Actually Russian words make up a significant layer of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

From behind the island to the midpoint

Everyone who was born and raised in Russia knows the song about the dashing Don Cossack Stepan Timofeevich Razin, the leader of the popular uprising in the early 70s. 17th century

From behind the island to the rod,

To the expanse of the river wave

Painted ones come up

Stenki Razin Chelny.

The words in this song are ancient. Let's look into their history, and at the same time into the languages of neighboring peoples.

Word island in use since the 11th century; it has an attachment O- connected with the Indo-European root streu-, meaning "flow, leak, pour" (by the way, the same root is in the word jet). Wed: in Latvian strava and in Lithuanian srava, srove- current, flow; in german Strom- current, flow (strömen - flow, run, flow). Is there a connection between the island and the current? Of course have. After all, an island is a piece of land surrounded by water on all sides. Word island appeared not only in Russian, it has relatives in other Slavic languages: island(Ukrainian), vostrau(Belarusian), island(Bulgarian) island(Serbo-Croatian), island(Czech and Slovak), ostrow(Old Polish).

Word rod(a place in the river with the highest flow rate and depth) has been used since the 14th - 15th centuries; compare: shear(Ukrainian), stridzhan(Belarusian).

Words arose in antiquity river And river(Indo-European basis meant "flow, stream"); compare: rika and rich(Ukrainian), cancer and cancer(Belarusian), river and river(Bulgarian), river And speeches(Serbo-Croatian), river And recen(Slovenian), Reka And ricni(Czech), rieka And riecny(Slovak), rzeka And rzeczny(Polish).

From the 11th century the word used in ancient Russian shuttle; its basis is also Indo-European, meaning "to rise, to rise above something"; hence the English hill(hill, hill) and German Holm(elevation, hill, river island). But really dude (pl. canoes) - that is, a boat, a boat - was perceived from a distance as something towering above the smooth surface of the water. Of course, the diminutive is also remembered shuttle - firstly, like a small boat, and secondly, like a part of a loom (elongated in shape, like a boat). Wed: choven And official(Ukrainian), choven And chounik(Belarusian), chlun(Bulgarian) Coln And Colnicek(Slovenian), clun And clunek(Czech), cln And clnok(Slovak), czolno(Polish).

Sailing ships (boats) on the river; shuttle of an automatic loom; space shuttle Clipper (Russia)

How do scientists determine which words are common Slavic, which are East Slavic (Old Russian), and which are actually Russian? To do this, they compare in all Slavic languages the meaning and pronunciation of words denoting the same objects, phenomena, signs, actions. Common Slavic will be those words that will appear in all or most Slavic languages, and each of the three groups of Slavic languages \u200b\u200bmust be represented (eastern, southern, western). If it turns out that words exist, for example, only in Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian and Slovene, then these words should be considered South Slavic; if only in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, then these are East Slavic (Old Russian) words. If there are words in only one of the languages, then these are already their own formations of one or another Slavic language, for example, Russian.

The first scientific etymological dictionary of the Russian language appeared in late XIX V. And in the last century, the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by A. G. Preobrazhensky and the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by Max Vasmer, as well as several short etymological dictionaries, were published.

Speech of the Slav brothers

In one of his books, L. V. Uspensky made an interesting comparison of Russian and Bulgarian words.

“When our soldier entered into a conversation with a Bulgarian, they, smiling sweetly at each other, all the time tried to moderate the pace of the conversation.

“My dear man,” the Russian persuaded, “don’t speak so fast, speak more slowly!”

- Pray those, friend, do not say such a borzo, say funny!

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

federal state autonomous educational institution higher education

«CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky" (FGAOU VO "KFU named after V.I. Vernadsky")

TAVRICHESKA ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

discipline: "Introduction to Slavic Philology"

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Scientific adviser: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

Simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbolussian language

2.5 Polab language

3. South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

SlaviclanguageAnd- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Total number over 290 million speakers They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, use grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, system of regular sound correspondences, morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained both by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages, and by their long and intensive contacts at the level literary languages and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature, due to the long-term independent development of Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with kindred and unrelated ethnic groups.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and West Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with a Kashubian dialect that has retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Lusatian). There are also small local groups Slavs with their literary languages. Not all Slavic languages have come down to us. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. the Polish language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. ABOUTgeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Lusatian languages (upper and lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Teszyn Silesia and Orava). Kashubians live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula, mainly in the Sea and Kartuz regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. On the territory of Czechoslovakia, closely related Czech and Slovak languages are represented: In the western regions, about 10 million. people use Czech, in the east, about 5 million speak Slovak. About 1 million people live outside of Czechoslovakia. Czechs and Slovaks.

The Serboluzhitsky language is spoken in the territory of western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; the Lower Lusatians live in Brandenburg. Lusatians are a national minority of the former GDR; before the Second World War there were about 180 thousand; Currently, their number is estimated at 150 thousand people.

Thus, about 50 million people use West Slavic languages, which is approximately 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the total population of Europe.

In the territory East Germany West Slavic languages were subjected to German assimilation in the XII-XVI centuries and disappeared. The data of modern toponymy testify to the ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other areas. Back in the 18th century Slavic speech was preserved on the Elbe, in the Lyukhovsky district on the river. Etse. The language of the Polabian Slavs is being restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of living speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of the time. In Slavic studies, it is called the "polabian language".

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian. They are distributed throughout most of the Balkan Peninsula. From Eastern Slavs the southern ones are remote by the territory of Romania, from the western ones by Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages are represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovenian language is spoken by about 1.5 million Slovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenes live outside of Yugoslavia. The Kajkavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovene to Serbo-Croatian.

Over 18 million people speak Serbo-Croatian, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosniaks. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. Serbo-Croatian is separated from Bulgarian by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vrane, up to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by people south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of distribution of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyansky lakes, in the east by the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it hardly exceeds 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary processing only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that one hundred outside Bulgaria and Yugoslavia live: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of southern Slavs is about 31 million people.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages are used as the main languages throughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Caucasus Range, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. Especially widespread was the Russian language, which is a means of interethnic communication for many Slavs (over 60 million).

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. To convey some sounds, diacritical marks are used for Latin letters and combinations of letters.

There are eight vowels in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same, in some positions the nasal overtone is lost.

The territory of distribution of the Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Mazovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mavsoshya.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) mazurenia, 2) features of interword phonetics. Masuria dominates in Mavsosh, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selesia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is distributed west of the lower Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scholars believe that the Kashubian dialect should be taken as independent language and attributed to the West Slavic subgroup.

Dialect features:

1. Different from the Polish place of stress. In the southern part of the Kashubian region, the stress falls on the initial syllable; in the north, the stress is free and ubiquitous.

2. Pronunciation of solid s, dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and how ё.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in longitude and brevity.

2.2 Czech

The Czech script uses the Latin alphabet. For the transmission of Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made, based on the use of superscripts.

Czech spelling is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical spellings.

The area of distribution of the Czech language is characterized by dialect diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Czech Republic and Western Moravia), Middle Moravian and Lyashskaya (Silesia and northeastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the marked dialect groups, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group, there are: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Czech dialects; dialect diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of eastern Moravia are close to the Slovak language.

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in eastern regions Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it has a common grammatical structure and a significant part of the main vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc.) are identical.

The Slovak language consists of three dialects: Western Slovak, many of whose features are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Middle Slovak - the dialect basis of the modern literary language, East Slovak, some dialects of which testify to Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 SerbolussianTo

The Lusatian Serbs are the descendants of the Western Slavs, who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and were subjected to Germanization. They speak quite sharply different dialects from each other: Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, in connection with which there are corresponding two literary languages. In addition, the presence of the Eastern Lusatian (muzhakovsky) dialect should be noted.

Writing in both Lusatian languages arose in the 16th century.

Lusatian graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polab language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory between the Oder and the Elbe, only information about the language of the Drevlyane tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Lüneburg (Hannovrer), has survived. The last speakers of the Polabian language died out at the end of the 18th century, and our information about it is based on records and dictionaries of that language made by German folk art lovers.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Velet, Obodrite and Drevlyan dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian

Serbo-Croatian is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosnians, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At present, the differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are only in vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these variants differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which is derived from the Russian civil alphabet, while Croats use the Latin alphabet. Serbo-Croatian is characterized by considerable dialectal diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian. These names were obtained by them from the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokavian dialect occupies most of the territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brac, Korcula and others. located in this region).

3.2 Slovenian language

The Slovenian literary language uses the Croatian script.

The territory of the Slovene language is distinguished by its extreme dialectal diversity. This is due to the fragmentation of the people and partly the nature of the relief. There are up to six dialect groups: 1) Khorutan (extreme northwest); 2) seaside (western Slovenia); 3) Vehnekrainskaya (to the northwest of Ljubljana in the valley of the Sava river); 4) Lower Krainsk (southeast of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Sava); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with Zamursky (beyond the Mura River) dialect, which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet. Bulgarian differs from the Russian alphabet in the absence of letters s And uh.

A characteristic feature that makes it possible to group the Bulgarian dialects is the pronunciation of the replacements of the old ? . All-Bulgarian dialects in this regard are divided into Western and Eastern. The border that separates these two dialects goes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Thessalonica. There are also northeastern dialects.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, in the course of the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, a decision was made to turn Yugoslavia into a federal state on the basis of the national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The basis of the new literary language was the central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo), where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages was relatively weaker. In 1945, a single orthography was adopted, which was brought closer to the graphics in 1946. The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. Northern dialect extending north from Skopje and Kumanov, and also occupying the Dolni Polog, characterized by features close to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics dating back to the Cyrillic alphabet. By order of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slayan alphabet was replaced by the so-called "civilian" one. The letters were given a more rounded and simple shape, convenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters were excluded. The civil alphabet, with some changes, is used by all Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is divided into two main dialects - North Great Russian and South Great Russian, between which the Middle Great Russian dialects stretch in a narrow strip from the gray-west to the south-east, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The Northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features that are common to all its dialects: okanie, distinction of vowels A And O not only under stress, but also in unstressed positions, with the presence G explosive and - T(solid) at the end of the 3rd person of the present tense of verbs. There are also clatters and clatters (no distinction c And h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by akany, the presence of fricative g and -t "(soft) in the 3rd person of verbs. Yakan is characteristic.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in Russian. The peculiarity of e is, first of all, the absence of letters e, b, s, e. For transmission yo in Ukrainian the combination is used yo And yo. In the meaning of separating solid b an apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is divided into three dialects: northern (to the north from the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - Belaya Tserkov - Zhytormir - Vladimir-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvyra through Uman, Ananiev to the lower currents of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features basically coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from the Russian one in the following features: the vowel th always denoted by the letter i; letter b is absent and the separating value is conveyed by an apostrophe; used to convey non-syllable y superscript; missing letter sch, since there is no such sound in Belarusian, but there is a combination shh. The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

The territory of the Belarusian language is divided into two dialects: southwestern and northeastern. The approximate border between them goes along the Vilnos-Minsk-Rogachev-Gomel line. The principle of division is the character of akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative yak and yak. It should be noted that on the border with the Ukrainian language there is a wide band of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

Slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

emergence Slavic writing in the second half of the ninth century. (863) was of great importance for the development of Slavic culture. A very perfect graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on the translation of some parts of the Bible and the creation of other liturgical texts. Old Church Slavonic became common language in connection with Western influence and the transition to Catholicism. Therefore, the further use of the Old Church Slavonic language is associated primarily with the Slavic south and east. The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has experienced a long history. It was during the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristics Slavic languages. Among these phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Proc. Manual for students of philol. special, ped, in-comrade. - 3rd edition, remastered. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigal R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, Moscow, 1951.

6. Trubachev O.N. Ethnogenesis and culture of the ancient Slavs: linguistic studies. M., 1991.

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Origin of the Indo-European languages

About 6 thousand years ago there lived a people who are considered to be the carriers of the Proto-Indo-European language. Where he lived exactly is today the subject of fierce debate among historians and linguists. The steppes of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, and the territory on the border between Europe and Asia, and the Armenian Highlands are called the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. In the early 80s of the last century, linguists Gamkrelidze and Ivanov formulated the idea of two ancestral homes: first there was the Armenian Highlands, and then the Indo-Europeans moved to the Black Sea steppes. Archaeologically, the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language are correlated with representatives of the “pit culture”, who lived in the east of Ukraine and on the territory of modern Russia in the 3rd millennium BC.

Isolation of the Balto-Slavic branch

Subsequently, the Proto-Indo-Europeans settled throughout Asia and Europe, mixed with the local peoples and gave them their own language. In Europe, the languages of the Indo-European family are spoken by almost all peoples, except for the Basques; in Asia, various languages of this family are spoken in India and Iran. Tajikistan, Pamir, etc. About 2 thousand years ago, the Proto-Balto-Slavic language emerged from the common Proto-Indo-European language. According to a number of linguists (including Ler-Splavinsky), the Proto-Baltoslavs existed as a single people speaking the same language for about 500-600 years, and the archaeological culture of Corded Ware corresponds to this period in the history of our peoples. Then the language branch divided again: into the Baltic group, which henceforth began to live an independent life, and the Proto-Slavic, which became the common root from which all modern Slavic languages originated.

Old Russian language

All-Slavic unity persisted until the 6th-7th century AD. When carriers of East Slavic dialects stood out from the common Slavic array, the Old Russian language began to form, which became the ancestor of modern Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. The Old Russian language is known to us thanks to numerous monuments written in Church Slavonic, which can be considered as a written, literary form. Old Russian language. In addition, written monuments have been preserved - birch bark letters, graffiti on the walls of churches - written in everyday, colloquial Old Russian.

Old Russian period

The Old Russian (or Great Russian) period covers the time from the 14th to the 17th centuries. At this time, the Russian language finally stands out from the group of East Slavic languages, phonetic and grammar systems close to modern, there are other changes, including the formation of dialects. The leading among them is the “aking” dialect of the upper and middle Oka, and, first of all, the Moscow dialect.

Modern Russian

The Russian language we speak today began to take shape in the 17th century. It is based on the Moscow dialect. The literary works of Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov played a decisive role in the formation of the modern Russian language. Lomonosov also wrote the first grammar, fixing the norms of the literary Russian language. All the richness of the Russian language, which has developed from the synthesis of Russian colloquial, Church Slavonic elements, borrowings from other languages, is reflected in the works of Pushkin, who is considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language.

Borrowings from other languages

Over the centuries of its existence, the Russian language, like any other living and developing system, has been repeatedly enriched by borrowings from other languages. The earliest borrowings include "Baltisms" - borrowings from the Baltic languages. However, in this case, we are probably not talking about borrowings, but about vocabulary that has been preserved from the time when the Slavic-Baltic community existed. The “Balticisms” include such words as “ladle”, “tow”, “stack”, “amber”, “village”, etc. During the period of Christianization, "Grecisms" - "sugar", "bench" entered our language. "lantern", "notebook", etc. Through contacts with European peoples, “Latinisms” entered the Russian language - “doctor”, “medicine”, “rose” and “Arabisms” - “admiral”, “coffee”, “lacquer”, “mattress”, etc. . A large group of words entered our language from the Turkic languages. These are words such as “hearth”, “tent”, “hero”, “cart”, etc. And, finally, since the time of Peter I, the Russian language has absorbed words from European languages. At first, this is a large layer of words from German, English and Dutch related to science, technology, maritime and military affairs: “ammunition”, “globe”, “assembly”, “optics”, “pilot”, “sailor”, “deserter ". Later, French, Italian and Spanish words related to household items, the field of art settled in Russian - “stained-glass window”, “veil”, “couch”, “boudoir”, “ballet”, “actor”, “poster”, “pasta” ”, “Serenade”, etc. And finally, these days we are experiencing a new influx of borrowings, this time from English, in the main language.