Interrogative sentences in Latin. Word order in a Latin sentence. Comparative clauses

5. Interrogative sentences can begin with interrogative pronouns or adverbs: quis? (Who?), quid? (What?), qui? quae? quid? (Which, oh, oh? Which, oh, oh?), quot? (How many?), quo? (Where?), unde? (where?), quam? (How?), cur? (for what? why? why?), ubi? (Where?).

6. The role of the union And can be performed by a postpositive particle -que. It stands after the word to which it refers, and is written together with it: Jus vitaenecis que . -Right lifeAndof death .

7. In sentences in the present tense, the verb is not omitted be(essay): Scientia potentia est.- Knowledge [is] power. The exceptions are maxims and aphorisms.

Verb essay (be) forms the present tense from the suppletive, i.e. changed base. Wed In russian language: to be is.

Present tense forms (praesens) of the verb esse

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is the peculiarity of the syllable section in Latin?

2. List the conditions of longitude and brevity of a syllable.

3. Tell us about the structure of a simple sentence in Latin.

4. How are interrogative sentences formed in Latin?

5. What is the function of the -que particle in Latin?

6. What is the peculiarity of the use of the verb esse in Latin? How does the verb esse change in person and number in the present tense?

EXERCISES

1. Read the words and break them into syllables. Justify your answer. Put stress in words:

A. Communis, agricola, honestus, humanus, laborāre, scaena, authenticum, cognatio, respublica, universitas, Aristoteles, Danuvius, Scythia, Sicilia, Neapolis, Germania, emptio, tribūnal, falsus, lucrum, curia, basialis, formularum, demonstratio, intentio, labyrinthus, finium, regundorum, socios, communi, index, milia, qua, numero, quaelibet, ubi, sae, filia, declare, poena, Latium, Cicero.

B. justitia, consul, grata, lex, homo, tabula, privata, publica, causa, codex, camera, corpus, custodia, decretum, edictum, plebiscitum, constitutio, senatus, magistratus, aurum, roeta, Cyprus, charta, tribunus, praesidium, argumentum, symphonia, labyrinthus, Caesar, dictator, lingua, praetor, auris, auditorium, praerogativa, oeconomus.

2. .Read the text, observing the rules for pronunciation of Latin sounds. Translate. Where possible, match the words of the text with cognate words from other languages:

1. Scientia potentia est. 2. Terra sphaera est. 3. Terra stella est. 4. Terra et luna stellae sunt. 5. Philosophia magistra vitae est. 6. Historia magistra vitae est. 7. Historia schola vitae est. 8. Schola via scientiarum est. 9. Rome in Italy est. 10. In terra et in aqua vita est. 11. In luna non vita est. 12. In silvis bestiae sunt. 13. In Africa sunt silvae palmarum. 14. Minerva est dea pugnarum. 15. Incola insulae est nauta. 16. Ibi victoria, ubi concordia. 17. Experientia est optima magistra. 18 Aurora musis amica.

agua, ae f - water

concordia, ae f - consent

dea, ae f - goddess

est - 3 l. unit current time from the verb esse - to be

filia, ae f - daughter

incola, ae, f - inhabitant

insula, ae, f - island

lingua, ae, f - language

nauta, ae, f - sailor

potentia, ae, f - strength

pugna, ae, f - battle, battle,

schola, ae, f - school

scientia, ae, f - knowledge

silva, ae, f - forest

stella, ae, f - star, planet

sunt - 3 l. plural current time from the verb esse - to be

terra, ae, f - earth

via, ae, f - road, path

victoria, ae, f - victory

vita, ae, f - life

3.Answer the questions:

1. Quid scientia est? 2. Quid terra est? 3. Quid stellae sunt? 4. Quid magistra vitae est? 5. Quis schola eat? 6. Ubi Roma est? 7. Ubi silvae palmarum sunt? 8. Quis Minerva est? 9. Quis incola insulae sunt? 10. Ubi victoria est?

4. Answer the questions. Write your answers in Latin:

1. Where there is no life? 2. What is experience? 3. Is the earth a planet? 4. Where do animals live? 5. What is there in Africa? 6. What is strength? 7. Who is the friend of the Muses? 8. Who are the sailors? 9. Who is the teacher of life? 10. What is the road of knowledge?

5.Read the words and phrases, explaining the rules of pronunciation and stress. Learn by heart:

extra ordinaria cognitio - an extraordinary process

falsa accusatio - false accusation

fictio juris - legal fiction; something invented

fictio legis - legal fiction

furtum manifestum - theft in which the thief is caught red-handed

furtum nec manifestum - non-obvious theft

furtum oblātum - harboring stolen goods

generalis - common

guaestio - interrogation, investigation

heredes legitimus - legal heirs

heredes testamentarium - testamentary heirs

hereditas - inheritance, inheritance

heres legetimus - rightful heir

intra leges - in accordance with the internal meaning of the law

leges actionis - a collection of judicial formulas

leges duodecim tabularum - Laws of the twelve tables

mala fides - dishonesty

manumissio - letting a slave go free

manumissio censu - the release of a slave to freedom by entering the slave into the censor's lists

manumissio tastamento - the release of a slave by will

manumissio vindicta - the release of a slave to freedom by an imaginary trial for freedom

6. Read the fragments of Magna Carta (Appendix 2), paying attention to the pronunciation of words in the text.

Lesson 3

Grammar of the Latin language. Verb. Verb bases and types of conjugation. Present tense of a Latin verb.

According to its grammatical features, the Latin language belongs to the languages of the inflectional system. This means that the relationship between words is expressed by changing words in cases, numbers, genders, persons, tenses (depending on belonging to a particular part of speech). These changes occur due to the addition of suffixes and endings to the base of the word. There are 10 parts of speech in Latin:

Noun - nomen substantivum (lex - law);

Adjective - nomen adjectivum ( bonus - good);

Numeral name - nomen numerāle ( unus - one);

The pronoun is pronomen ( ego - me);

Verb - verbum ( accusare - to accuse);

Adverb - adverbium ( bene- good);

Preposition - praepositio ( in - in);

Union - conjunctio ( et-and);

Particle - particŭlae ( non - not);

Interjection - interjectio ( heu! - ah!).

Verb

The Latin verb has the same grammatical categories, as the verbs of the Russian language:

1. persona- face: prima persona.- 1 l. (I - we) second persona. - 2 l. (you you), tertia persona. - 3 l. (he, she, it - they);

2. numberus- number: singularis(sing.) - the only thing pluralis(pl.) - plural;

3. mode- inclination: indication- indicative (denotes a real action in the present, past or future tense), conjunctivus- subjunctive (denotes an action desired, possible, conditional, expected, required), imperative- imperative (expresses a request or order to perform / not to perform any action);

4. genus- pledge: activum- active (denotes an action performed by the subject), passivum- passive (denotes an action that is directed at the subject);

5. tempus- time: praesens- the present, imperfectum- past incomplete perfectum- past completed plusquamperfectum- past, futurum I- future first futurum II- future second, pre-future;

6. K impersonal forms verbs include: infinitivus(infinitive), participium(participle), gerundium(gerund is a verbal noun), gerundivum(gerundive is a verbal adjective), supinum(supin is a verbal noun with the meaning of purpose with verbs of motion).

Verb conjugations

Verbs change in persons and numbers, i.e. hide. Depending on the features of the stem, 4 types of conjugations of the Latin verb are distinguished.

Indirect speech (oratio obl + qua)

Above (see Lecture IX) we met with the sentences of the indirect question. Any statement expressed in direct speech can be, like interrogative sentences, transmitted in an indirect form, i.e. in the form of one or more subordinate clauses depending on the verbs of speech and thought, sensory perception and desire, will (see lecture IV on verbs on which accusat + vus cum infinit + vo depends).

direct speech: He said: "I will come";

indirect speech: He said he would come.

This dependence is expressed grammatically, i.e. in the choice of forms and moods of verbs-predicates; in fact, indirect speech is a turnover accusativus cum infinitivo. In addition, indirect speech in Latin is characterized by a number of features of word usage that differ from those in direct speech (unlike the Russian language, where when translating direct speech into indirect tense, the mood of the verb does not change). The differences in the forms of tenses and moods of indirect speech verbs from direct speech are due to the fact that indirect speech conveys someone else's words (thoughts, intentions, etc.), and direct speech (as well as any statement whose author is not mentioned) - the opinion of the speaker. In the first case, there is a reference to some person (persons), in the second it is absent. This reference to someone else's opinion is intended to convey special rules use of tenses and moods of the verb:

The main (independent) sentence is declarative (i.e. not interrogative), as well as a rhetorical question that has a predicate in the indicative, are conveyed by the turnover accusat + vus cum infinit + vo ..

A rhetorical question - interrogative sentence, relating to the 1st person of both numbers (question "to oneself"): Well, what can I say? What were we to do? or to the 3rd person of both numbers (i.e. a question to an absent or not participating in the conversation person (s): What could he say? What will they answer us? A rhetorical question does not have the meaning of a question in the strict sense of the word: it does not imply an answer, or the answer is given by the speaker himself.The rhetorical question is often used as a technique to enliven speech (including among ancient orators).

Interrogative main sentences that have predicates in the form of 2 persons, as well as those in which the predicates are expressed by the imperative or conjunctiva, in indirect speech have a predicate in the conjunctiva. The tense of the predicate is determined by consecutio tempOrum, based on the tense and mood of the verb that controls indirect speech. predicates of subordinate clauses in indirect speech are always expressed by the conjunctiva; tenses of predicates - according to consecutio tempOrum. personal pronoun 1 l. direct speech (i.e. I, we: He said: "I ...", etc.) is transmitted in N.sing. the pronoun ipse, in indirect cases - the pronoun sui (i.e., this is how "he", "they" are expressed, into which "I", "we" pass: He said that he ...). 3 person pronouns replacing pronouns 2 persons of direct speech (that pronoun he, she, it, they, which replaces the pronoun you: She said: "don't you know ..." and She asked, doesn't he know), are expressed by means of is and ille.

The possessive pronouns meus, noster of the first person of direct speech and suus, vester of the second person of direct speech are conveyed by the pronoun suus (cf. the rule for using the pronoun suus, lecture)

Direct speech

Ariovistus, cum Caes_ris postul_t_cognovisset: haec Gallia, inquit, mea provincia est (independent sentence).

Nonne (ego) prius in Galliam veni (perf. indic.), quam popmlus Rom_nus (rhetorical question)?

Cur in meas possessiMnes venis (praes.ind.)? (interrogative sentence). Si ego tibi non praescr+bo (praes.ind. - adj. clause), quem ad modum tuo jure ut_ris (praes.conj. - adj. clause), non oportet (praes.ind.) me a te in meo jure imper_ri (infinitivus praes. - independent sentence, narration in 2 sheets). Congred_re (imper. praes. - independent proposal); intell_ges (futkrum I - independent clause), quid Germ_ni virtkte possint (praes.conj. - adjective clause).

Ariovistus, when he learned what Caesar's requirements were, said: "This Gaul is my province. Didn't I come to Gaul earlier than the Roman people? Why do you come to my possessions? If I do not prescribe to you, how should you exercise your then you should not hinder me in my right. Fight, (and) you will understand how strong the Germans are in valor.

Indirect speech

Depending on historical time

Depending on main time

Ariovistus, cum Caes_ris postul_t_cognovisset, respondit (verb of speech in perfectum indicat+vi): hanc Galliam suam provinciam esse (acc.cum inf.). Nonne se (since ego is implied in direct speech) prius in Galliam venisse(inf.perfecti), quam popmlum Rom_num (acc.cum inf.)? Cur in suas (in direct speech meus) posessiMnes ven+ret (perf. conj.)? Si ipsi (in direct speech ego) illi (in direct speech tibi) non praescrib_ret (imperf. conj.), quem ad modum suo jure uter_tur (plusquamperfectum conj.), non oport_re sese (in direct speech me) ab illo (in direct speech speech te) in suo (ex. speech meo) jure imped+ri (acc.cum inf.).Congreder_tur (imperf. conj.), intellectkrum (acc.cum inf. futkri; pronoun and esse omitted), quid Germ_ni virtkte possent (imperf. conj.).

Ariovistus, cum Caes_ris cognovisset, respondet (verb of speech in praes. ind.): hanc Galliam suam provinciam esse. Nonne se prius in Galliam venisse, quam popmlum Rom_num?

Cur in suas posessiMnes veniat (praes. conj.)?

Si ipsi
illi

non praescr+bat (imperf. conj.), quem ad modum suo jure ut_tur (praes. conj.), non oportere sese ab illo in suo jure imped+ri.
Congredi_tur (praes. conj.), intellectkrum, quid Germ_ni virtkte possint (praes. conj.).

Ariovistus, having learned the requirements of Caesar (lit. when he found out), answered (answers) that this Gaul is his province. Did he not come to Gaul earlier than the Roman people? Why does that (Caesar) come into his domain? If he (Ariovistus) does not prescribe to that (Caesar) how he should use his right, then that (Caesar) should not interfere with him (Ariovistus) in his right. Let him fight, (and) he will understand how strong the Germans are in valor.

Notes.

In the example where indirect speech is dependent on the main tense, the tenses of the verbs and the construction acc. cum inf. coinciding with an example containing indirect speech, depending on historical time, are not indicated.

Instead of the verb inquam, inquit, which is used only in a break in direct speech, other verbs with the meaning of speech are used in indirect speech (see lecture IV).

From the above example of indirect speech translation, it can be seen that personal pronouns in translation are best conveyed by those names and titles that are replaced by these pronouns.

Sometimes in subordinate clauses that depend on the accusativus cum infinitivo turnover (see the example below), as well as in subordinate clauses that depend on the main ones with a predicate in the subjunctive, the predicate is also used in the form of the subjunctive, although there are no formal grounds for this. Such a phenomenon is called attractio modi ("inclination attraction"): Mos est Ath_nis in contiMne eos (Acc. cum inf.), qui sint in proeliis interfici (praes. conjunct + vi). - In Athens there is a custom to glorify in people's assembly those who were killed in battles; Di tibi dent (conj. optativus), quaecumque optes (praes. conj.).- May the gods send you whatever you desire. Quaecumque - N.pl. from the form cf. gender pronouns quaecumque, quaecumque, quodcumque whoever, whatever; here conveyed by the combination "everything that"

verb ferre

The verb fero, tuli, latum, ferre to carry refers to irregular verbs. Its originality is shown:

The fact that the stems of the infinitive, perfect and supine are of different roots (i.e. the infinitive, perfect and supine are suppletive forms); in the formation of a number of forms praesens indicat + vi, activi and passivi, in infinit + vus praesentis act + vi and pass + vi and in the imperative mood.

Infinit+vus praesentis:

Imperat + vus praesentis: sing. fer! plur. ferte!

Notes on the table.

The verb ferre forms forms from the stem of the infect according to type III conjugation (because the stem of the infect is fer-). However, a number of forms of praesens indicativi activi lack a connecting vowel.

The present infinitive of the active voice is also formed without a connecting vowel; infinitive passive voice- with the help of the ending -re, i.e. by type I, II, and IV ref. (cf. audi-re in ref. IV, etc., but teg-i in ref. III).

The remaining forms from the stem of the infect, as well as the forms from the stem of the perfect and supine, are formed according to type III conjugation.

Numerous verbs are formed from the verb ferre with the help of prefixes:

af-f_ro, at-tmli, al-l_tum, af-ferre (from ad-fero) bring

au-f_ro, abs-tmli, af-l_tum, au-ferre (from ab-fero) carry away

con-f_ro, con-tmli, col-l_tum, con-ferre demolish (in one place);

compare

dif-f_ro, dis-tmli, di-l_tum, dif-ferre postpone, delay

dif-f_ro, -, -, dif-ferre differ

ef-f_ro, ex-tmli, e-l_tum, ef-ferre to endure

in-f_ro, in-tmli, il-l_tum, in-ferre

ob-f_ro, ob-tmli, ob-l_tum, ob-ferre suggest

prae-f_ro, prae-tmli, prae-l_tum, prae-ferre suppose

re-f_ro, re-tmli, re-l_tum, re-ferre lead back; to report, report.

ed_re verb

The verb edo, edi, esum, ed_re forms, along with forms from the basis of the presence, parallel forms that coincide with the forms of the verb esse that begin with es-, i.e. 2nd and 3rd person units numbers and 2 l. pl. numbers praesens indicat+vi act+vi, all forms of imperfectum conjunct+vi, imperat+vus, as well as infinit+vus praesentis act+vi:

imperat+vus: ege//es! eg-te//este!

infinit+vus praesentis: ed_re//esse

Numerals

for a complete set of Latin numerals, see the appendix

There are four types of numerals in Latin:

Quantitative, denoting the number "in itself": unus, a, um one; duo, duae, duo two, etc. ordinal, denoting a number as a sign of an object when counting: pimus, a, um first; secundus, a, um second, etc. dividing, denoting the concept of "because"; do not have an exact analogue in Russian and are translated by a quantitative numeral with the preposition "by": singuli, ae, _ one at a time; bini, ae, _ two each, etc. numeral adverbs denoting how many times a given event has happened (is happening, will happen): semel once, bis twice, etc.

Formation of cardinal numbers

The cardinal numbers of the first ten, as in Russian, are non-derivative words.

Cardinal numbers of the second ten, except "eighteen" and "nineteen", are formed by adding the element -decim (from decem ten) to the truncated basis of the first ten numbers: septem seven, sep - decim seventeen.

Compound numerals (i.e., consisting of two or more words), including 8 and 9, i.e. the last two numbers in the ten: 18 and 19, 28 and 29, etc., are the following combination: duo- (or un-) + de + the name of the next ten: duodeviginti eighteen (lit. "two out of twenty", t .e "twenty minus two"); undeviginti nineteen (lit. "one of twenty"), etc.

The names of tens from 30 to 90 are formed using the -ginta element from slightly modified names of the numbers of the first ten: tri-ginta thirty, quadra-ginta forty, etc. (NB: "twenty" - viginti).

Hundreds are formed from the names of the numbers of the first ten (changed, but not in the same way as in the names of dozens) in combination with the element -centi (after the voiced n-genti), which comes from centum one hundred: tri-centi three hundred, quadrin-genti four hundred.

Compound numerals from two words (i.e. compound numerals of the first hundred) are formed, as in Russian, by combining the names of ten and units: viginti unus twenty-one, or by combining the names of units and tens, connected by the union et and: unus et viginti twenty one.

The names of thousands consist of the word mili_ "thousands" and a cardinal numeral showing how many there are. Duo and tria, which are used in this case with mili_, are forms of cf. gender from duo and tres (by agreement in number and gender with the word milia): duo mili_ two thousand, tria mili_ three thousand, etc. (NB: "thousand" - mille).

A million is denoted by decies centena milia: decies is a numeral adverb, centena is a divisive numeral, i.e. literally "ten times a hundred thousand".

Complex cardinal numbers are formed, as in Russian, by simply enumerating digits (thousands, hundreds, tens, units): tria mili_ octingenti viginti unus three thousand eight hundred and twenty one.

Declension of cardinal numbers

Of the cardinal numbers, only:

· unus, a, um one, one, one - as a pronominal adjective (see lecture IV).

duo, ae, _ two, two:

	m	f	n
N	duo	duae	duo
G	duMrum	du_rum	duMrum
D	duMbus	du_bus	duMbus
acc	duos	duas	duo
Abl	duMbus	du_bus	duMbus

tres, tria three changes as an adjective of two endings and has only plural forms. numbers:

all hundreds (except centum hundred) - as adjectives I - II declensions only plural:

ducenti, ae, a two hundred

NB: the word tres, tria, the names of hundreds and the word mille are not inflected into units. number.

Formation of ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers of the first ten (except for "first" and "second"), as well as "eleventh" undec-mus, "twelfth" duodec-mus (i.e. from "third" to "twelfth" inclusive) are formed from the bases of the corresponding quantitative numerals:

quattor -> quartus, a, um fourth

The names of intervals in music are essentially forms female Latin ordinal numbers: second, third, fourth, etc.).

Two adjectives correspond to the concept "second": secundus, a, um next and alter, _ra, _rum another; they are used according to the context.

Ordinal numbers of the second ten from "thirteenth" to "seventeenth" inclusive consist of an ordinal number denoting units and the word dec-mus: tertius dec-mus thirteenth (lit. "third tenth"), etc.

Ordinal numbers denoting tens, hundreds, as well as the word "thousandth", are formed from the bases of the corresponding cardinal numbers using the suffix -esim- and generic endings of adjectives I-II declensions: vic - esim - us twentieth; cent - esim - us hundredth; mill - esim - us thousandth. With this suffix, ordinal numbers are also formed, derived from compound quantitative ones ending in 8 and 9 ("eighteenth", "nineteenth", "twenty-eighth", etc.): undevic - esim -us nineteenth, duodetric - esim - us twenty-eighth, etc. (since the names of the corresponding cardinal numbers include the names of tens).

Ordinal numbers formed from compound quantitative ones are also written in two (or more) words: unus et vicesimus, or vicesimus unus twenty-first. NB: all the words included in their composition are ordinal numbers (unlike the Russian language, where in a combination like twenty-one, etc. only last word- the name of the unit - is an ordinal number, and the names of tens, hundreds, etc. - quantitative numerals): one thousand nine hundred and sixty-eighth milles-mus nongentens-mus duodeseptages-mus.

Ordinal numbers formed from the names of thousands are formed by adding numeral adverbs (see below) and the words miles-mus thousandth: bis miles-mus two thousandth (lit. "twice thousandth"), etc. The concept of "millionth" is denoted by the expression decies (numeral adverb) centies (numeral adverb) milles-mus (lit. ten times one hundred thousandth).

Ordinal numbers are declined like adjectives of the I-II declension.

Formation of numeral adverbs

The numeral adverbs semel once, bis twice, ter three times and quater four times are non-derivative words. The remaining numeral adverbs are formed from the bases of cardinal numbers with the help of the suffix -ies and are translated by combining the corresponding cardinal number with the word once or -fold: quinqu - ies five times, five times. Numerical adverbs do not decline and do not change in numbers.

Formations and declension of divisive numbers

Dividing numerals, except for singmli, ae, a one at a time, one at a time, one at a time, are formed from the bases of numeral adverbs (often significantly modified) using the suffix -n- and the ending -ibis -> bi - n - i two, two each: vicies -> vice - n - i twenty each, etc.

Dividing numerals are declined as adjectives of I-II declensions in the plural.

The use of numerals

Latin quantitative and ordinal numbers are used with nouns in the function of definition. Inflected numerals agree with nouns in gender, number and case.

The presence of a numeral with a noun does not affect the form of the number and case of this noun (unlike Russian numerals, which require a noun in the genitive plural).

Compare: In legiM Roman_ decem cohortes (N.pl.) erant. - There were ten cohorts in the Roman legion (R.p. pl.).

In campM cohortes (N.pl.) stabant. - There were cohorts in the field (I.p. pl.).

NB: Numerical adverbs in sentences are related to verbs and are adverbs. Marius septies consul fuit. Marius was consul seven times.

Mille in units number does not decline and does not affect the form of the number and case of the noun:

cf. Consul cum mile milit-bus (Abl.pl.) venit. - The Consul came with a thousand soldiers and Consul cum militibus (Abl. pl.) venit. - The consul came with the soldiers.

Mille in pl. number requires after itself the form G. plur. (as in Russian): Consul cum tribus mil-bus mil-tum (militum - G. qualit_tis: see lecture) venit. - The Consul came with three thousand warriors.

Dividing numerals are used in those cases when quantitative numerals with the preposition "by" are used in Russian: Apud Romunos quotannis bini consmles creabantur. - The Romans annually elected two consuls.

Dividing numerals and adverbs are used in multiplication: bis bina sunt quattor twice two four (lit. "twice two is four").

Accusat+vus tempOris

Accusat + vus temporis (accusative time) answers the question "how long (continuously) did the action, process last." It is used without a preposition or with the preposition per and is translated in the genitive case with the preposition during, in continuation: Graeci Troiam (per) decem annos obsed_runt. - The Greeks besieged Troy for ten years. Also, with acc. tempOris is indicated by age: Crassus quttuor et triginta tum hab_bat annos. Crassus was then 34 years old.

Exercise 5

Genet + vus crimnis

Genet+vus crim-nis ("genitive crime")

used with verbs:

acckso 1 accuse

arquo, ui, utum, _re humiliate, blame, condemn

libero 1 free,

absolveo, absolvi, absolktum, absolv_re justify

and other judicial terms that carry the names of the crime, which are put in genet + vus crim-nus. You also need to remember the expressions:

cap-tis damn_re condemn to death, sentence someone to death;

cap-tis absolv_re to release someone from death.

Miltiades proditiMnis (G. crim.) est accus_tus; captis absolktus, pecunia mult_tus est. - Miltiades was accused of treason; being released from the death penalty, he was fined.

References

Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Latin textbook. 2nd ed. M., 1985.

Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.

Kozarzhevsky A.I. Latin textbook. M., 1948.

Sobolevsky S.I. Grammar of the Latin language. M., 1981.

Starting course

Foreword

The educational and methodical manual on the Latin language is intended for students of higher educational institutions legal profile. Since ancient times, the Latin language has played a huge role in the education of the future lawyer. This is primarily due to the fact that Latin is the language of Roman law, which has become the basis of legal thinking and legal proceedings in modern European society.

The purpose of the manual is to give initial information about the specifics of the Latin language, to acquaint students with legal terminology and phraseology.

The structure of the classes involves familiarity with the phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of the language. Each lesson includes theoretical grammatical material, questions to test knowledge, exercises designed to consolidate the topic covered. The theoretical material is designed for joint work students and teacher. The implementation of practical tasks involves independent work of students.

The textbook lacks a lexical minimum for each lesson. This approach is due, on the one hand, to the quantitative unevenness of the lexical material corresponding to each topic. On the other hand, in legal Latin, the significant unit is not so much a single word as word combinations or phrases, which makes it difficult to link terms to one topic. Therefore, acquaintance with professional vocabulary should be included in the independent work of law students, which will help consolidate the skills of grammatical analysis. For this purpose, the textbook is supplied with brief dictionaries - Latin-Russian and Russian-Latin. To consolidate the vocabulary minimum, exemplary dictionary dictations of legal terms are offered.

Control over the assimilation of grammatical material is offered in the form of independent work, given in the appendix to the textbook.

In addition, the textbook is equipped with applications containing winged words and aphorisms of legal subjects, texts for reading, summary grammar tables, questions for self-examination and topics for independent work and essays.

The author expresses his deep gratitude to the staff of the Department of the Russian Language and Culture of the Saratov state academy Law (Head of the Department Prof. N.Yu. Tyapugina), Associate Professor of the Department foreign literature and Journalism of the Saratov State University R.P. Vasilenko, Associate Professor of the Department of Russian and Classical Philology of the Saratov State Medical University O.N. Polukhina for valuable advice in the preparation of this manual.

Introduction

Latin (Lingua Latina) is one of the Indo-European languages of the Italic group (which also included the Os and Umbrian languages). Its formation is attributed to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The original zone of the origin of the Latin language is a small region of Latium, or Latium (lat. Latium, modern It. Lazio) around Rome, but as the ancient Roman state expanded, the influence of the Latin language gradually spread to the entire territory of modern Italy, Southern France (Provence) and significant part of Spain, and by the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. - to almost all countries of the Mediterranean basin, as well as Western (to the Rhine and Danube) and Northern Europe (including the British Isles).

In its historical development, the Latin language has gone through several periods.

1. The most ancient period of the existence of the language is called the pre-literary period (VIII-VII centuries BC - up to 240 BC). The most famous legal monument of the Latin language of this period is the Laws of the twelve tables - Leges duodecim tabularum (451 - 450 BC). Until that time, officials in Rome conducted the court, guided by customs dating back to the tribal past and already outdated. However, in the middle of the 5th c. BC e. under pressure from the plebeians, the patricians were forced to create a commission of 10 people (decem viri - ten husbands) to record court decisions. They were written on XII copper plates and put on display in the central square of Rome - the forum.

2. From 240 BC until about 100 AD. distinguish the ancient literary period, or the period of "archaic Latin". Started in the 4th century BC e. expansion of Rome to the 1st century. BC e. ends with the almost complete Latinization of Italy. An example of an archaic language of the III-II centuries. BC e. with its not yet established norms, it is presented in the comedies of Plautus and Terence. At this time, the foundations of Roman jurisprudence were laid. Fragments of the writings of many lawyers of that time have survived to this day (Appius Caesus, Gnaeus Flavius, Manius Manilius, father and son of Scaevola).

3. The most striking period in the development of the Latin language was the turn of the millennium: approximately 100 BC. - I century. AD This is the period of classical, or "golden" Latin. At this time, grammatical norms are finally stabilized, the language reaches a high literary level in the prose of Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, in the works of poets of the Augustan era (Virgil, Horace, Ovid). The Latin language of this period is currently the subject of study in educational institutions.

4. Latin of a later time generally retains the main features of the classical period. "Silver Latin" (I-II centuries AD) clearly follows the already developed grammatical standards, but somewhat departs from the strict syntax norms of "Golden Latin" (Tacitus). The literary language is characterized by the penetration of poetic stylistic elements into prose and sublime rhetoric into poetry. This period is also called "artistic Latin", and in some cases it does not stand out at all as an independent stage in the development of the language, entering the period of the "golden age".

5. Latin language II-VI centuries. AD defined as "Late Latin". At this time, Latin ceases to be a living language. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, Rome loses its influence over the provinces. Latin is also losing its status as a unified language. literary language. There is a fusion of the Latin language with local dialects. The history of the colloquial Latin language continues until the 9th century, when the formation of national Romance languages on its basis (modern Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian languages, which make up the Romance group of the Indo-European family) ends.

One of the most famous legal monuments of this time is the Code of Civil Laws - corpusjuriscivilis. Until now, this document is considered the basis of modern European legislation. Corpus juris civilis consists of 4 parts:

Codex justinianeus (imperial decrees - in 4 books);

Digesta (excerpts from the writings of jurists - in 12 books);

Institutionis (manual of jurisprudence - in 4 books);

Novellae (novellas).

V.G. Belinsky described this document as follows: Codex Justinian - ripe fruit historical life Romans - freed Europe from the shackles of feudal law».

6. In the Middle Ages (7th-14th centuries), Latin is used as the common written language of Western European society, the language of the Catholic Church, science, and partly literature.

7. Another surge of attention to the Latin language is observed in the XIV-XVI centuries. This is the time of the Renaissance, when interest in antiquity, and therefore in ancient languages, occupies the leading minds of society. Almost until the end of the 17th century, Latin continued to serve as the main language of European science, diplomacy and the church (the works of T. More, Erasmus of Rotterdam, J. Bruno, T. Campanella, N. Copernicus, etc.).

8. From the XVI-XVII centuries. Latin is being phased out national languages, remaining until the 18th century the language of diplomacy, until the 20th century - the language of university teaching and partly of science. Works of philosophers and scientists of the XVI-XVIII centuries. R. Descartes, P. Gassendi, F. Bacon, B. Spinoza, I. Newton, L. Euler, many works of M.V. Lomonosov are written in Latin.

9. In the 20th century, Latin is used in scientific terminology, is the official language of the Catholic Church and acts of the Vatican.

In the history of culture, the Latin language has played a huge role. This is evidenced by the numerous Latin borrowings that can be traced in all European languages. At present, the Latin language remains the basis for term formation in many fields of knowledge (jurisprudence, medicine, biology, general scientific terminology of the natural sciences and the humanities).

Latin Grammar Exam Answers

1. The main functions of the ablative

A) Ablativus auctoris– Ablativecurrentfaces.

Ablativus auctoris essentially goes back to the ablative proper, since it denotes the transition of an action from subject to object in a passive turnover:

Ventus prosper a nautis desideratur. Passingwindexpectedsailors.

Servus a domino suo venditur. Slavefor saletheirmister.

Castra vallo fossaque muniebantur. The camp was fortified with a rampart and a moat.

B) Ablativus separation is– ablativebranches

In Latin ablativus, the functions of three cases were combined: “the actual ablative, i.e., separative, instrumental (instrumentalis) and local (locativus). Actually ablative has different types.

Ablativus separationis means a person or object from which something or someone is separated, removed: Magnomemetuliberabis. "You will deliver me from great fear";causedesistere "withdraw the claim".

IN) Ablativus originis– ablativeorigin.

Ablativus originis denotes the person from whom someone is descended: VenusIovenataestetDiona. "Venus was born from Jupiter and Dione."

G) Ablativus materiae– ablativematerial.

An ablative can denote a material, a substance from which something is made: navis ex tabulis fabricator. "The ship is made of boards"

D) Ablativus instrumenti– ablativeguns.

In the instrumental function, ablativus is close to the Russian instrumental and usually answers the questions: by whom? how? Ablativus instrumenti denotes a tool or means by which this or that action is performed: Cornibustaurisetutantur

"Bulls protect themselves with horns";memorytenere "remember", lit.: "keep memory".

E) Ablativus cases– ablativecauses.

Ablativus causae expresses the cause of an action or state: casu "accidentally", iussu "by order". duxVictoria superbuserat. The leader was proud of the victory.

Yo) Ablativus limitationsis– ablativerestrictions(relationship).

Ablativus limitationis indicates in what respect or from what point of view a given action or state is limited: Poeta Graecorum Aesopus nomine. "A certain Greek poet named Aesop." Galliomneslinguaintersediffernt. "All Gauls differ from each other in language."

Note: occasionally there is accusativus limitationis, which is otherwise called Graecus, since it is organically inherent in Greek syntax: alba capillos femina "a woman with blond hair" (lit.: "a woman is fair in relation to her hair")

AND) Ablativus loci used in unprepositional combinations with words: locus, i m "place", pars, partis f "part", totus, a, um "whole", for example: Hosteslocoidoneoscary. "Enemies fight in a convenient place."Dextraparte "on the right side",totaAsia"throughout Asia".N.B. :terra marique "on land and sea".

Designation of cities

To the question where? in the singular of 1-2 declensions genetivus is used, in other cases - ablativus: Romae "in Rome", Corinthi "in Corinth", Athenis "in Athens", Carthagine "in Carthage".

To the question where? – accusativus: Romam “to Rome”, Corinthum “to Corinth”, Athenas “to Athens”, Carthaginem “to Carthage”.

When asked where? – ablativus : Roma “from Rome”, Corintho “from Corinth”, Athenis “from Athens”, Carthagine “from Carthage”.

Note: the same construction is observed in the words: domus, us f (house); rus, ruris n (village); humus, i f (earth).

Z) Ablativus comparationis - ablativecomparisons.

At comparative degree in case of omission of the union quam "than" in Latin, the ablative comparison is used Ablativus comparationis. In Russian, in an allied construction, it is used Genitive:

Quidveritatisdulciushabemus? “What is more pleasant for us than the truth?”

Quid dulcius, quam veritas habemus?"What's nicer than the truth?"

AND) Ablativus mensurae– ablativemeasures.

The ablative measure is used with the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, as well as with words containing a shade of comparison (superare, ante, supra, etc.): multo maior “much more”, quo - eo “than - by that”, quarto - tanto "as much as", nihilo minus "nevertheless". Hibernia dimidio minor est, quam Britania. "Hibernia (Ireland) is half the size of Britain."

2. Accusativus cum infinitivo.

Romani vincunt. "The Romans are winning."

DicoRomanosvincere. "I say the Romans are winning."

The turnover Accusativus cum infinitivo is a compound direct object, within which the logical subject is expressed through accusativus, and the predicate through infinitivus.

Accusativus cum infinitivo is translated into Russian with an additional sentence. Turnover is used depending on the verbs expressing:

sensory perception (verba sentiendi): sentire "feel", videre "see", audire "hear", etc.;

thinking(verba putandi): putare "think", censere, arbitrari "count", scire "know", etc.;

wish(verba voluntatis): cupere "strongly want", velle "wish", iubere "order", vetare "forbid", etc.

emotions(verba affectuum): gaudere "to rejoice", dolere "to be sad", mirari "to be surprised", etc.

expression of thoughts(verba declarandi): dicere "to speak", tradere "to transmit", scribere "to write", and also depending on impersonal expressions: constat, notum est "known", oportet "necessary", necesse est "necessary", iustum est " fair”, etc.

Note: Sentiendi and other –ndi terms are the verbal noun of the gerund in the genitive case singular.

Accusativus cum infinitivo, mainly with verba sentiendi, is also used in new languages. So, the Latin phrase video arborem florere "I see that the trees are blooming" corresponds in English: I see the three blossen. In the Old Slavonic language, accusativus cum infinitivo was encountered as a tracing of the Greek-Latin turnover in the translation of sacred scripture (for example: Whom do men say to be). From here, with other Slavicisms, he penetrated into the language of writers of the 18th century, for example: My soul longs for you (Derzhavin. God).

3. Nominativus cum infinitivo.

nominative case with indefinite form

Most of the verbs that require the turnover accusativus cum infinitivo in the active voice, in the passive voice are combined with the turnover nominativus cum infinitivo and, moreover, in a personal construction: the infinitive has a subject in the nominative case, with which the controlling verb in the passive voice agrees in person and number. This turnover is a constituent subject: Romanivinceredicuntur. "They say the Romans are winning."

A sentence with a turnover nominativus cum infinitivo is translated into Russian by an indefinitely personal control sentence and an additional subordinate clause depending on it.

A similar turnover is found in English, for example: He is said to live in the country. "They say he lives in this country."

It is convenient to translate the verb videre in the passive voice with the words “it seems”, “apparently”, etc.: intellegere videris “it seems you understand”.

Ablativus absolutus -ablative self .

The combination of a noun with the agreed participle Troia capta "Troy taken" in ablativus (Troia capta) takes on the meaning of circumstances:

time: when Troy was taken (Greeks returned home)

causes: since Troy was taken (the Trojans began to look for a new fatherland)

conditions: in case Troy is taken (the Greeks had to make thanksgiving sacrifices to the gods)

concessions: although Troy was taken (the glory of Priam remained eternal)

course of action: the capture of Troy (the Greeks established their position in Asia Minor).

In such a function, the combination of an agreed participle with another name is called ablativus absolutus.

Ablativusabsolutus- this is a participial turnover that is grammatically independent of any member of the sentence, standing in ablativus and having the meaning of circumstances of time, reason, concession, condition, mode of action. This turnover is translated into Russian by the corresponding adverbial clauses, nouns with prepositions and sometimes participles.

Participium praesentis activi means simultaneous action : Graeci advenientibus Persis Thermopylas ceperunt."The Greeks, when (= while) the Persians were approaching (= at the approach of the Persians), occupied Thermopylae."

Participium perfecti passivi denotes the preceding action: Tarquinio Superbo expluso duo consules creati sunt. "When (after) Tarquinius the Proud had been expelled (after the expulsion of Tarquinius the Proud), two consuls were elected."

In ancient Greek there was genetivus absolutus, in Old Russian and Old Slavonic - a dative independent. Lomonosov, for example, has the following turnover: "I was at sea, a great storm arose." Detached participial phrases available in French, German, English. There are no absolute participial constructions in the modern Russian literary language. They meet in folk speech(for example: Beans are not mushrooms, they won’t sprout without sowing), as well as in the language of individual writers: “Having left Vyatka, I was tormented by a memory for a long time” (Herzen), “Having smoked, a conversation began between the soldiers” (L. Tolstoy). An independent adverbial turnover is occasionally used in impersonal expressions, for example: Talking about this, I want to remind ...

Let's compare two sentences: Troia capta Aeneas in Italiam venit. "When Troy was taken, Aeneas arrived in Italy." Troia capta Graecidomos reverterunt. "Having taken Troy, the Greeks returned home."

It becomes clear that ablativus absolutus can be translated as a participle only when the logical actor in both parts of the sentence is the same (the Greeks took Troy and the Greeks returned home).

Since the present and past participles of the verb esse do not exist, there is an incomplete ablativus absolutus, consisting of a logical subject and a nominal part of the predicate. The latter are usually nouns: adiutor "assistant", dux "leader", testis "witness", praetor "praetor", auctor "doer, adviser", iudex "judge", consul "consul", senex "old man", and others and adjectives: vivus “alive”, “healthy”, invitus “reluctant, against will”, conscius “knowing”, inscius “unknowing”, etc.: Natus est Augustus Cicerone et Antonio consulibus. "Augustus was born in the consulship of Cicero and Antony."

5. Genetivussubjectivusetobjectivus– Genitive logical subject and object.

The expression timor populi can mean "fear of the people" (i.e., the people are afraid) and "fear of the people" (i.e., someone is afraid of the people). Therefore, with a verbal or verbal noun, the genitive case can be a logical subject (subjectivus) or a logical object (objectivus).

Genetivus objectivus is used with verbs with the meaning: "remember", "remind", "forget", depending on adjectives with the meaning: desiring, knowing, remembering, participating, possessing, complete. For example: cupidus gloriae "hungry for fame."

In essence, genetivus criminis goes back to genetivus objectivus - a genitive accusation used to denote an offense or punishment: accusare proditionis "accused of treason", capitis damnare "sentence to death"

6. Gerund. The use of the gerund.

Infinitivus, acting as a subject or object, can be seen as a neuter verbal noun: legere necesse est "to read is necessary" = "reading is necessary".

If Infinitivus is conditionally considered a form of the nominative case, then the missing forms of the indirect cases of the infinitive are filled in by the verbal noun gerund (gerundium), which is formed by adding the suffix –nd to the stem of the infect - nd - in conjugations 1 and 2 and -end - in 3 and 4 conjugations and declined according to 2 declension only in the singular.

The gerund is translated into Russian by an indefinite form of the verb, a verbal noun, and a participle. The English gerund can be compared with the Latin gerund.

Gerund - from gerere to act.

acc. legere

Abl. legendo reading - reading

For example, ars legendi "the art of reading", operam do legendo "I make an effort to read", legendo memoriam exerceo "by reading (reading) I exercise memory".

Genetivus gerund is used in the sense of genetivus objectivus and depending on the prepositions gratia and causa "for", "for the sake of". The dativus gerund denotes a target (dativus finalis) and is rarely used.

In Accusativus, the gerund is used with the preposition ad. Ablativus gerund performs an instrumental function, and is also used with the prepositions ab, ex, de, in.

The gerund retains verbal properties: it is determined by the adverb and retains the verb control. For example: ars bene faciendi versus (acc.) "the art of writing poetry well."

7. Gerundivum -gerund.

The gerundive is a verbal adjective denoting the action being tested or the need for this action, formed by adding the suffixes –nd - in 1 and 2 conjugations and –end - in 3 and 4 conjugations to the base of the infect and is declined by 1-2 declensions.

1 monstra -nd -us,a,um that, that, that, who needs to be shown

2 mone -nd -us, a, um that, that, that, who needs to be convinced

3 teg -end -us ,a ,um that, that, that who needs to be covered

4 audi -end -us ,a ,um that one, that one, that one who needs to be listened to

liber legendus "a book to be read"; epistula legenda "letter to be read"; rescriptum legendum "prescription to be read."

From the Latin gerund forms come in modern languages words: legend, dividends, propaganda, memorandum, referendum, etc.

Constructions with a gerund.

With an impersonal construction, i.e. in the absence of a subject, the gerund, being the nominal part of the predicate, is used in the form of the neuter singular and does not agree with any word. The name of the character, both in this construction and in other constructions with a gerund, is used in the dative case - dativus auctoris: mihi legendum est "I need to read."

With a personal construction, the gerund, being the nominal part of the predicate, agrees with the subject in gender, number and case. This construction is usually called the descriptive conjugation of the passive voice - conjugatio periphrastica passiva: liber mihi legendus est “I need to read a book” (the book must be read by me); libri mihi legendi erant "I needed to read books."

The gerund as an agreed definition, especially in oblique cases, is equal in meaning to the gerund and is translated into Russian with an indefinite form of the verb, a verbal noun and a gerund: cupiditas libri legendi “the desire to read a book” (literally translated, it would be nonsense: “the desire for a book that should be read"); operam do libro legendo "I am making an effort to read a book"; paratus sum ad librum legendum "I am ready to read a book"; libro legendo memoriam exerceo "I exercise my memory by reading a book."

When reading a Latin text, it is easy to confuse the gerund with the gerund, as they are formed and declined in the same way. It is important to remember that the gerund is only in the form of a noun of the middle gender singular of the 2nd declension and cannot be consistent with another part of speech.

8. Functions of the subjunctive in an independent clause.

While indicative indicativus serves to state, express a fact (indicare - to show), the subjunctive mood expresses the relation of action to real implementation, that is, modality.

In the Latin conjunctiva, two Indo-European moods historically merged: the subjunctive proper and the optative (the so-called optative that existed in ancient Greek).

In classical Latin, conjunctivus expresses: desire, possibility, unreality in a variety of shades. Negation in conjunctive forms ne.

I. a) Conjunctivus optativus expresses the desire: Utinam pater veniat! "Oh, if only my father would come!"

b) Conjunctivus iussivus expresses the command: Audiatur et altera pars. Let the other side be heard.

c) Conjunctivus hortativus expresses a call to action: Gaudeamus igitur! So let's rejoice!

d) Conjunctivus prohibitivus expresses the prohibition: ne dicas! do not speak!

II a) Conjunctivus potentalis expresses the possibility: dicam "I would say", "I could say"

b) Conjunctivus dubitativus expresses doubt: quid agam? what should I do?

c) Conjunctivus concessivus expresses a concession, an assumption: sit hoc verum "let's (suppose) that this is true."

III Conjunctivus irrealis expresses unreality, a contradiction of reality and is practically used only in conditional periods.

Since the Russian language does not have a developed subjunctive mood system, when translating Latin conjunctive forms, one has to use not only the particle by-, but also the words let(especially in the 3rd person), let's, let's, particle –ka (especially in the 1st person plural), and also imperative form(in the 2nd person).

In dependent clauses, Conjunctivus is used to express a subordinating relationship (subjunctivus)

Suggestions of purpose and additions

In Latin, there is a strict dependence of the form of the predicate subordinate clause on the form of the predicate control clause.

The tenses of the control sentence are divided into two groups: main tenses: praesens, futurum 1 and futurum 2; historical, that is, past tenses: imperfectum, perfectum, plusquamperfectum.

TO historical times relate : praesens historicum, perfectum praesens, infinitivus historicus.

As in Russian, Latin target and additional sentences have the same conjunctions: ut "to", ne "not to".

Unions of the goal are called finale, unions of the complement - objectivum.

Sentences with ut (ne) finale are used with any verb denoting a purposeful action. Sentences with ut (ne) objectivum are used depending on verbs expressing desire and will (verba studii et voluntatis), care (verba curandi), fear (verba timendi), obstruction (verba impediendi).

In sentences with ut (ne) finale and objectivum, conjunctivus is used.

In Russian, an additional-target union to includes the union itself What and a particle of the subjunctive mood would.

If the predicate of the control sentence is used in the main tense, then praesens is used in the subordinate clause: Do , (praes.Ind.),utdes(praes.Conjunct.). I give so that you give meutfinale).

If the predicate of the control sentence is used in historical time, then imperfectum is used in the subordinate clause: Omnes cives optaverunt (perf. Ind), ut pax esset (imperf. Conjunct.). All citizens wished for peace (ut objectivum)

With verba timendi, the union ne indicates an undesirable fact, and the conjunction ut (or ne non) indicates a desirable fact: TimorRomaegrandisfuit,neiterumGalliRomamVenirent. In Rome there was great fear that the Gauls would not go to Rome again.timeo,nePaternonveniat, orutPaterVeniat. I am afraid that the father will not come (that is, the arrival of the father is desirable).

With verba impediendi, in addition to the union ne, the conjunction quominus is used: Plura ne scribam, dolore impedior. Sorrow prevents me from writing more. Quidobstat ,quominussitbeatus? What prevents him from being happy?

There are other conjunctions of the complement: quod "what", "to" with indicativus and quin with conjunctivus depending on negative expressions (mainly from expressions of no doubt)

subordinate clauses Withut andquodexplicative.

Subject clauses with the unions ut and quod explicativum (explanatory) are used depending on the expressions: accidit, evenit “happens”, mos est “there is a custom”, etc., and the union quod is used if the indicated expressions contain a definition or adverbial word (bene est, bonus mos est). With the union ut, conjunctivus is used, and the time is what it would be if this sentence were independent. The rule of consecutio temporum does not really apply here. When quod is used indication: His rebus fiebat, ut Helvetii minus late vagerentur (imperf. Conjunct .). “Due to these circumstances, it turned out that the Helvetians roamed in a small space”. In an independent sentence it would be: "The Helvetians roamed in a small area", Optimeaccidit ,quodamicusmeusvenit. It turned out great that my friend came.

Adverbial clauses of the corollary.

The subordinate clauses of the consequence are attached to the control clause with the union ut consecutivum (investigative) "so", "what", "to". Negative - non.

The control sentence often contains demonstrative words: ita, sic "so"; adeo "before"; tantus, talis "such"; tam "so much", etc.

In the sentences of the consequence, as in the sentences of the subjects, conjunctivus is used, and the time is what it would be if this sentence were independent. Consecutio temporum is used restrictively: after historical times imperfectum conjunctivi is used. For example , Atticus ita vivebat, ut omnes eum amarent (imperf. Indicat ). "Atticus lived in such a way that everyone loved him." An independent proposal would be:omnesAtticumamabant (imperf. Indication.) "Everyone loved Attica".

Union usecum (=quum)

1 cum temporale (subordinate temporary)

It is used in a narrative about the present or future tense, it can also be used in the past, but the specificity limits.

The subordinate clause is long, the main thing is one thing against the background of a long one.

CumTiberiumregnabat, magnusmotusterraefit- when Tiberius ruled, there was a big earthquake.

Requires indicative mood.

Special case.

A) iterativum(repeated action)

... whenever ...

After him the choice indicator carried out according to a specific rule, which is somewhat similar to consecutiotemporum. In particular, you can use perf. after the main times, Plusqperf. after historical.

pqmp can be translated into Russian in the future tense.

Galli cum superaverunt (perf), animalia capta immolant/ The Gauls, when they are victorious, sacrifice the captured animals.

2 Cum historicum

After cum put conjunctiv.

3 Cum case ( adventitious reasons )

Marcus, cum aeger esset, in scholam non venit. Mark, because he was sick, did not go to school.

+quod(but after indication)

4 Cum concessivum (concessions)

Although, in spite of the fact that

Official version:

Temporary Offers

The most common conjunction of tense in Latin cum(in some editions of Latin texts quum) "When".

In a story about past events, the union is used cumhistoricum. Imperfectumconiunctivi expresses simultaneous action, and pqmpconiunctivi- previous: CumessemBrundisi, letterstuasaccepi. "When (while) I was in Brundisi, I received your letter"; Graeci, cumTroyamexpugnavissent, omnesfereincolasnecaverunt. "When (after) the Greeks conquered Troy, they killed almost all the inhabitants."

In offers with cumhistoricum usually there is an internal logical connection, so it is used Conjunctivus.

In purely temporary sentences without an internal logical connection with control sentences, the union is used cumtemporale With indication relevant tenses: CumTiberiusregnabat, magnusterraemotusfit. “When Tiberius ruled, there was a great earthquake” (naturally, there is no logical connection between the reign of Tiberius and the earthquake).

Note: Union cum With indication applies to other types of temporary proposals.

A) Cumiterativum denotes a repetitive action: Galli, cumsuperaverunt, animaliacaptaimmolant. "Whenever the Gauls are victorious, they sacrifice the animals they have taken."

B) Cumcoincidences(matching) or explicative(explanatory) is used when the subordinate clause explains the meaning of the control clause that coincides in time: Dete, Catilina, cumtacent, clamant. "About you, Catiline, when (those that) are silent, they shout."

C) If the sentence of time is only formally subordinate, containing main idea, union applies cuminversum(reverse): vixdumepistulamtuamlegeram, cumadmePostumusCurtiusVenit. "I had hardly read your letter when Postumus Curtius came to me."

There are other unions of time: postquam"after"; ut, ubiprime, simulation"as soon as" indication; dum, donec, quoad"Bye"; prisquam And antequam"before" with Conjunctivus, if the desired, possible, supposed action is expressed.

Causal Suggestions

Union cum in addition to temporary sentences, he can attach caused ones; in that case it is called cumcausal(causal and is translated “because, because.” With this union, Conjunctivus, and times - depending on the time of the predicate in the control sentence and the ratio of the actions of both sentences.

Cum aeger essem, ad te non veni."Because I was sick, I didn't come to you." Imperfectumconiunctivi expresses an action that is simultaneous with another action ( nonveni) in past.

Other alliances reasons: quod, Quia, quoniam"because", "because" are used with coniunctivus in the case when the reason is given not as something real, but as something supposed or subjectively expressed (“since”, “according to him”, “since, de ...”): noctuamulabatThemistocles, quodsomnumcaperenonposset; "Themistocles walked at night, because (according to him) he could not sleep."

Concession offers.

Union cum may also attach concessive offers; in that case it is called cumconcessivum(concessive) and is translated “although”, “despite”.

This union uses coniunctivus, and times - according to the rules by which cumcausal. Phocionfitperpetuopauper, cumditissimusessayposset. "Phocyon was constantly poor, although he could be very rich."

WITH coniunctivus other concessive unions are combined: ut, licet, quamvis; etsi, tametsi, etiamsi; union quamquam usually requires indicator.

In terms of meaning, subordinate clauses are close to concessive sentences, in content they are contrasting to the control sentence. They use union cumadversativum("opposite") - "whereas". The subjunctive tenses are applied according to the rule consecutiotemporum: Nostrorumequitumeratquinquemiliumnumberus, cumhostessesnonampliusoctingentosequityhaberent"The number of our horsemen was five thousand, while the enemies had no more than eight hundred horsemen."

13. Definitive clauses with adverbial connotations.

Definitive sentences with relative pronouns qui, quae, quod“which, -th, -th” can include shades of various circumstances: goals, consequences, causes, concessions, conditions. Therefore, in such attributive sentences, coniunctivus, and times - according to the general rules of the corresponding adverbial clauses.

target shade : Dux legatos misit, qui (ut ii) pacem peterent.“The leader sent envoys who would ask for peace (so that they ...)

connotation of consequence : Exegi monumentum, quod (ut id) Aquilo diruere non possit.“I erected a monument that Aquilon cannot destroy (such a monument that it)

shade of reason : O, magna vis veritatis, quae (cum ea) facile se per se ipsa defendat.“O great power of truth, which easily defends itself (since it)

shade of concession : Pompeii milites exercitui Caesaris luxuriam obiciebant, cui (cum ei) simper omnia ad necessarium usum defuissent.“The soldiers of Pompey reproached Caesar’s army for luxury, which always lacked all the essentials (although he always had)

hue conditions : Qui (si quis) videret, urbem captam diceret.“Whoever saw, he would say that the city was taken (if anyone saw)

consecutio temporum– Time Sequence Rule

The form of the predicate subordinate clause depends, firstly, on the form of the predicate control clause and, secondly, on the ratio of the actions of both sentences.

If in the control sentence the predicate is used in one of the main tenses ( praesens, futurum 1, futurum 2), then in the subordinate clause the simultaneous action expresses praesensconiunctivi, previous - Participiumfuturiactivi of this verb in combination with praesensconiunctivi auxiliary verb essay.

If in the control sentence the predicate is used in one of the historical, that is, past tenses ( imperfectum, perfectum, pqmp), then in the subordinate clause the simultaneous action expresses imperfectumconiunctivi, previous - pqmpconiunctivi, and the upcoming Participiumfuturiactivi given verb essay

Completely rule consecutiotemporum It is used in an indirect question and in indirect speech, and partially in other types of subordinate clauses.

Thus, in target and additional sentences, the action is thought to be logically simultaneous, therefore the choice of the tense of the predicate in the subordinate clause depends entirely on the form of the predicate in the control clause.

Cumhistoricum is always used with the historical tense of the predicate in the control clause, so the choice of the tense of the predicate in the subordinate clause depends on the simultaneity or precedence of the action.

Quaestioobliqua is an indirect question.

An indirect question is an additional subordinate clause that begins with interrogative pronouns, adverbs, and particles. In an indirect question, the rule of succession of times applies in full:

I ask what you read, read, read

( ask ) ( read ) ( you will read )

Interrogo, quid legas, legeris, lecturus sis

(Interrogabo) (praes. coni) (perf. coni)

I asked what you read, read, read

Interrogavi, quid legeres legisses lecturus esses

interrogabam

Particles are used in double and multiple indirect questions: utrum"or", ne – an"whether or". For example: Quaero, utrumhocverum, anfalsesit. "I'm asking if this is true or false."

The full rule of the sequence of tenses is also applied in additional clauses with a union quin"what" when the control clause expresses the absence of doubt: Nondubito, quinintellegas, intellegeris etc. "I have no doubt that you understand, understood, etc."

indirect speech andattractio modi

attractionmodi– attraction inclination

Above we spoke about the subjective, subordinating function of the Latin coniunctivus. It is this function that coniunctivus in subordinate clauses depending on infinitive constructions or on another sentence whose predicate is used in coniunctivus. Such a use case coniunctivus called attractiomodi: Ditibident (praes. Coniunct.) quaecumqueoptes (praes. Coniunct). "May the gods send you whatever you desire." Mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos, qui sint in proeliis interfecti."It is the custom in Athens to glorify in the public assembly those who have been killed in battle."

oratiooliqua- indirect speech

Indirect speech in Latin presents certain difficulties for understanding and translation:

Narrative control sentences in indirect speech are transmitted through accusativuscuminfinitivo

Control sentences are interrogative, imperative, and also containing coniunctivus in its optative function have a predicate in coniunctivus.

By virtue of attractiomodi in subordinate clauses, the predicate is always placed in coniunctivus.

Time coniunctivus are used according to consecutiotemporum in accordance with the tense of the control verb, on which all indirect speech depends.

The pronoun of the 3rd person, replacing the pronoun of the 1st person of direct speech, is expressed in oblique cases by the reflexive ( suit, sibi, se), and in nominativus– through ipse, the possessive pronoun of the 1st person becomes reflexive ( suus)

The pronoun of the 3rd person, replacing the pronoun of the 2nd person of direct speech, is expressed by is or ille.

Indirect speech may depend not only on verbadeclarandi, but also from verbasentiendi, putandi, voluntatis.

Conditional periods (long heaped sentences when nothing is clear)

The period is the main and subordinate.

What is introduced by the union + subordinate clause.

If - si And nisi- if not

Casusrealis- conditional periods of a real form (realistically translate). The reality of the condition is not evaluated by the speaker. Used indication all times and peoples.

Siiddicis, eras

Casuspotentialis- possible form (it is possible to translate)

The conditions and the result were thought possible, mainly in the future.

Or praes. coniunct, or Perf. coni. The difference is only visual.

Siiddicas, eras If you say that, then you are wrong.

Casusirrealis(both condition and result are impossible)

coniimperf/pqmp

Prot, to that, / prot to that,

What is what was

Si id diceres, errares

If you said that, you would be wrong

LATIN LANGUAGE

FOR LAWYERS

Starting course

Foreword

Teaching aid in Latin is intended for students of higher educational institutions of a legal profile. Since ancient times, the Latin language has played a huge role in the education of the future lawyer. This is primarily due to the fact that Latin is the language of Roman law, which has become the basis of legal thinking and legal proceedings in modern European society.

The purpose of the manual is to give initial information about the specifics of the Latin language, to acquaint students with legal terminology and phraseology.

The structure of the classes involves familiarity with the phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of the language. Each lesson includes theoretical grammatical material, questions to test knowledge, exercises designed to consolidate the topic covered. The theoretical material is designed for the joint work of students and teachers. The implementation of practical tasks involves independent work of students.

Control over the assimilation of grammatical material is offered in the form independent work given in the appendix to the tutorial.

The author expresses his deep gratitude to the staff of the Department of Russian Language and Culture of the Saratov State Academy of Law (Head of the Department Prof. N.Yu. Tyapugina), Associate Professor of the Department of Foreign Literature and Journalism of the Saratov State University R.P. Vasilenko, Associate Professor of the Department of Russian and Classical Philology of the Saratov State Medical University O.N. Polukhina for valuable advice in the preparation of this manual.

Introduction

In his historical development Latin has gone through several periods.

1. The most ancient period of the existence of the language is called the pre-literary period (VIII-VII centuries BC - up to 240 BC). The most famous legal monument of the Latin language of this period is the Laws of the Twelve Tables - Leges duodecim tabularum (451 - 450 BC). Until that time, officials in Rome conducted the court, guided by customs dating back to the tribal past and already outdated. However, in the middle of the 5th c. BC e. under pressure from the plebeians, the patricians were forced to create a commission of 10 people (decem viri - ten husbands) to record court decisions. They were written on XII copper plates and put on display in the central square of Rome - the forum.

5. Latin language II-VI centuries. AD defined as "Late Latin". At this time, Latin ceases to be a living language. After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, Rome loses its influence over the provinces. Latin also loses the status of a single literary language. There is a fusion of the Latin language with local dialects. The history of the colloquial Latin language continues until the 9th century, when the formation of national Romance languages on its basis (modern Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldavian languages, which make up the Romance group of the Indo-European family) ends.

One of the most famous legal monuments of this time is the Code of Civil Laws - Corpus juris civilis. Until now, this document is considered the basis of modern European legislation. Corpus juris civilis consists of 4 parts:

Codex justinianeus (imperial decrees - in 4 books);

Digesta (excerpts from the writings of jurists - in 12 books);

Institutionis (manual of jurisprudence - in 4 books);

Novellae (novellas).

V.G. Belinsky described this document as follows: The Code of Justinian - the mature fruit of the historical life of the Romans - freed Europe from the shackles of feudal law».

6. In the Middle Ages (7th-14th centuries), Latin is used as the common written language of Western European society, the language of the Catholic Church, science, and partly literature.

8. From the XVI-XVII centuries. Latin is gradually being replaced by national languages, remaining until the 18th century the language of diplomacy, until the 20th century - the language of university teaching and partly of science. Works of philosophers and scientists of the XVI-XVIII centuries. R. Descartes, P. Gassendi, F. Bacon, B. Spinoza, I. Newton, L. Euler, many works of M.V. Lomonosov are written in Latin.

9. In the 20th century, Latin is used in scientific terminology, is the official language of the Catholic Church and acts of the Vatican.

In the history of culture, the Latin language has played a huge role. This is evidenced by numerous Latin borrowings that can be traced in all European languages. At present, the Latin language remains the basis for term formation in many fields of knowledge (jurisprudence, medicine, biology, general scientific terminology of the natural sciences and the humanities).

Lesson 1

Alphabet. Pronunciation. Word order in Latin sentences.

The Latin alphabet consists of 24 / 25 letters (the letter j appeared in the 16th century), denoting vowels and consonants.

Letter	Name	Pronunciation	Usage examples
A a	A	[a]	aqua
Bc	be	[b]	bona
c c	ce	[k], [c]	cause, censor
D d	de	[e]	dominus
e e	e	[e]	experientia
F f	ef	[f]	fortune
G g	ge	[G]	gens
H h	ha	[x breathed]	homo
I i	i	[And]	ira
J j	jota	[th]	jus
K k	ka	[To]	katapoda
l l	el	[l']	lupus
M m	em	[m]	manus
N n	en	[n]	nemo
O o	o	[o]	opus
Pp	pe	[P]	populus
Q q	ku	[To]	quaerimonia
R r	er	[R]	ratio
S s	es	[s], [s]	sententia
T t	te	[T]	testis
U u	u	[y]	unus
Vv	ve	[V]	vita
X x	iks	[ks], [ks]	xenium
Y y	ypsilon	[And]	tyrannus
Zz	zeta	[h]	zone

Vowels

The vowels are:

- sounds a=[a], e=[e], o=[o], u=[y], i=[u], y=[u] (occurs only in borrowed words: rh y thmus=[p And tmus] - rhythm);

- diphthongs(two sounds united by homogeneous articulation): au=[au], eu=[eu]: c au sa=[to ay for] - reason, n eu ter=[n eu ter] - neither one nor the other;

- digraphs(two vowels conveying one sound): ae=[e], oe=[e]: s ae pe=[with uh ne] - often, p oe na=[n uh on] - punishment.

If the combinations of letters are not diphthongs or digraphs, then a line or two dots is placed above the letters: aer.

Consonants

The pronunciation of some consonants may depend on their position in the word or on the tradition of use.

Letter	Pronunciation	Example
c	[Ц] - in the position before the vowels i, e, y, digraphs ae, oe [К] - in other cases	C ae sar [Caesar] - Caesar c a ntāre [kantare] - to sing
g	[G]	genus [genus] - people
h	[X] is pronounced with a breath	honor [honor] - honor
k	[K] - the letter K is used only in proper names and abbreviations K or KAL from the word Kalendae	Kalendae [kal'ende] - kalends
l	[L']	locus [l'ocus] - place
q	the letter is only used in combination with u + vowel: [KB]	aq ua[aqua] - water
s	[З] - in a position between two vowels (the exception is words borrowed from Greek) [C] - in other cases	c au s a[cause] - reason phil o s o phia [philosophy] - Greek. servus [servus] - slave
x	[КЗ] - in a position between two vowels [KS] - in other cases	e x e mplar [exampl'ar], but n o x a[knox] - harm lex [l'ex] - law
z	[Z] - the letter is found only in borrowed words.	zona [zone] - zone, belt

Some combinations of sounds also have pronunciation features:

In Greek words there are combinations of consonants with h:

Word order in Latin sentences

1. The subject is put in first place.

2. The predicate is usually put in last place, except in cases of inversion: Historia magistra vitae est.- History mentor of life [is].

3. The agreed definition is after the word being defined: lingua Latina- latin language.

4. Direct object expressed by a noun in vip.p. without a preposition, precedes the predicate or is placed close to it: librum lego - I read a book [I].

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is the peculiarity of the Latin alphabet?

2. Name the vowel sounds of the Latin language. How are they used?

3. How are the consonants of the Latin alphabet pronounced? What consonants have pronunciations? What do they depend on?

4. What is the specificity of the use of combinations of sounds ti, su, ngu?

5. Combinations of what sounds indicate borrowed words? How are these combinations pronounced?

6. What are the features of word order in Latin?

EXERCISES

1.Read the words following the pronunciation rules:

A. natura, terra, ager, luna, mare, silva, hora, linea, fabŭla, agricŏla, Homerus, Aesopus, aetas, aestas, coelum, poema, praeda, praetor, aër, occasus, parsimonia, asinus, praesidium, miser, casa, socius, coena, amicus, auctor, natio, obligatio, scientia, sententia, otium, pretium, initium;

B. amicitia, lapsus, legatus, lupus, bellum, alea, sanguis, quisque, quinque, quaestor, aes, ars, pars, auctoritas, plebejus, proletarius, disciplina, fluvius, egestas, historicus, philosophus, rector, decanus, professor, magister, Rhenus, actor, scaena, circus, medicamentum, respublica, veto, declamatio;

2.Read the words, explain the features of pronunciation and stress in them. Learn the words by heart:

caput - legal capacity

aerarium - treasury

accusator - accuser, accuser

acta - minutes of meetings, resolutions

actio - action, lawsuit, legal proceedings

aestimatio capitis - property qualification

alibi - elsewhere

Aulus Agerius - the traditional name of the plaintiff in examples, sample formulas

bona fides - conscientiousness, good morals

casus belli - a casus belli

causa - reason, reason, court case

censura - assessment

Numerius Negidius - the traditional name of the defendant in Roman judicial formulas

cessio - cession, concession

civis - citizen

civitas - citizens, citizenship

corpus delicti - corpus delicti

corpus juris - body of law

crimen publicorum - a criminal offense

cui bono? - in whose interests?

justitia - law and order, justice, legality

2. Read the following words, explain the features of the pronunciation of sounds. Find the meaning of the words in the dictionary:

Clarus, causa, scientia, caedes, amicitia, quinque, rhythmus, Theodōra, aqua, pax, aurōra, nauta, beātus, medĭcus, cultūra, doctor, bestia, poёta, littĕra, Juppīter, lectio, philosphus, poena, dexter, pinguis, negligentia, quadrātus, consuetūdo, Aegīptus, suadeo, Augustus, censūra, potentia, saepe, suus, Euclīdes, zodiācus, Cyprus, chorus, Pithagōras, Athēnae, Graecia, obaerāti, Italia.

3. Read the words, translate them:

A. Thesaŭrus, religio, audio, audīre, theātrum, aetas, elegantia, domus, memoria, amīca, historia, femĭna, publĭcus, decrētum, vita, pater, magīstra, studeo, studēre, fortūna, fabŭla, spectacŭlum, beneficium, instrumēntum , accusatīvus, quaestio, symphonia, coepi, triūmphus, poëta, causa, Decēmber, incŏla, sphaera, Eurōpa, justitia, argumēntum, oceānus, genetīvus, pericŭlum.

4.Read the hymn "Gaudeamus", observing the pronunciation of the words:

Gaudeamus igitur,
Juvenes dum sumus!
Post jucundam juventutem,
Post molestam senectutem
Nos habebit humus. (bis)

Ubi sunt qui ante nos
In mundo fuere?
Vadite ad superos
Transite ad inferos,
Ubi jam fuere. (bis)

Vita nostra brevis est,
Brevi fineur;

Venit mors velociter,

Rapit nos atrociter,
Nemini Parcetur. (bis)

Vivat Academy,
Vivant professors!
Vivat membrum quodlibet,
Vivant membra quaelibet
Semper sint in flora! (bis)

Vivant omnes virgines,
Faciles, formosae!
Vivant et mulieres
Tenerae, amabiles,
Bonae, laboriosae! (bis)

Vivat et Republica
Et qui illam regit!
Vivat nostra civitas,
Maecenatum caritas,
Quae nos hic protegit! (bis)

pereat tristitia,
Pereant sores,
pereat diabolus,
Quivis antiburschius
Atque irrisores! (bis)

Gaudeamus is an old student song that originated in the 13th century from the drinking songs of the Vagantes. It was widely spread among the students of Heidelberg and Paris Universities. The authors of the text and melody are unknown. In the 15th century, the Flemish composer Jean Ockenheim processed and recorded its melody, and since then it has become a traditional student anthem.

Lesson 2

Syllabus. stress. The structure of a simple sentence.

syllable section

The number of syllables in Latin words is the same as the number of vowels in a word. The syllable goes through:

1. between two vowels: r e -u s - defendant;

2. before a single consonant in open syllable or before QU: r o -s a - rose, a-qu a - water;

3. before a combination of consonants multa cum liquida(silent: b, p, d, t, c, g + smooth: r,l): br,bl,pr,pl,dr,dl,tr,tl,cr,cl,gr,gl: doc-tr ina - science, tem-pl um - temple;

4. between two consonants: fu r -t um - theft(if there is a j in the word, then it doubles: pejor: pe j -j or - worst);

5. in a group of several consonants - before the last of them: sa nk- t us - sacred;

6. prefixes always form an independent syllable: re -ceptum - accepted obligation.

Syllables differ in longitude and brevity.

Longitude or brevity of a syllable can be natural or positional. Natural longitude is indicated in writing by the sign ¯, brevity - by the sign ˘, which are placed above the vowel that is part of the syllable. For example, natū ra - nature, tabŭ la - board.

positional the length or brevity of a syllable manifests itself depending on its position in the word.

The syllable is long:

1. if it contains a diphthong: n au ta - sailor;

2. if it contains a vowel before two or more consonants: argumē nt um - proof;

3. if it is before consonants x, z:corrē x i - fixed.

The syllable is brief:

1. before a vowel or h: potentĭ a- force, contră h o - tighten;

2. before consonant combinations br, pr, tr, dr, cr, gr, bl, pl, cl, gl, tl, dl: intĕ gr um - integer.

In modern pronunciation, the longitude / brevity of syllables or vowels does not differ. However, in some cases, these differences affect the understanding of the meaning of the word ( līber - free, lĭber - book) or delimitation of grammatical forms ( lēges - laws, lĕges - you will read).

stress

In Latin, stress

1. never put on the last syllable;

2. in two-syllable words is always placed on the first syllable: cr i men - crime;

3. is placed on the penultimate (second from the end of the word) syllable, if it is long: mag i ster - teacher;

4. is placed on the third syllable from the end of the word, if the second is short: au dio - listening.

Similar information.

Foreword

Introduction

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