Human attention - features of development

23.03.2015

Snezhana Ivanova

Attention is a mental cognitive process aimed at reflecting mental properties, providing concentration of consciousness.

Attention is a mental cognitive process aimed at reflecting the mental properties, states of an object, which ensures the concentration of consciousness. Such a focus on certain subjects has a selective focus and contributes to the formation of an individual attitude towards them.

As objects attention can be both other persons and inanimate objects. Phenomena of nature, objects of art and science are also often in the field of attention of the subject. It must be admitted that only those objects that arouse significant interest in him, or are due to the social need for study, fall into the zone of human attention. The development of attention directly depends on such factors as the age of a person, the purposefulness of his aspirations, interest in the subject or phenomenon being studied, the regularity of performing special exercises.

Types of attention

involuntary attention

It is characterized by the absence of a conscious choice of a person. It occurs when an influencing stimulus appears, which makes you momentarily distract from everyday affairs and switch your mental energy. This type of attention is difficult to manage, since it is directly related to the internal attitudes of the individual. In other words, we are always attracted only by what is of significant interest, what excites and makes the feelings, the emotional sphere “move”.

The objects of involuntary attention can be: unexpected noise on the street or in the room, a new person or a phenomenon that appeared before the eyes, any moving objects, the mental state of a person, individual mood.

Involuntary attention is valuable for its immediacy and naturalness of occurrence, which always provides a lively emotional response. But, at the same time, it can distract a person from performing urgent tasks, solving significant problems.

As a rule, in preschool children, involuntary attention predominates. Educators of children's institutions, of course, will agree that their attention can only be attracted by bright, interesting images and events. That is why classes in kindergarten so replete with beautiful characters, attractive tasks, huge scope for imagination and creativity.

Arbitrary attention

It is characterized by conscious retention of concentration on the object. Arbitrary attention begins when motivation appears, that is, a person understands and consciously focuses his attention on something. Stability and perseverance are its essential attributes. In order for the necessary action to be performed, a person is required to make an effort of will, come into a state of tension, and activate mental activity.

For example, a student before an exam tries his best to focus on the material being studied. And even if he is not entirely interested in what he will have to tell the teacher, his attention is maintained due to serious motivation. The need to close the semester, to come home as soon as possible, sometimes adds a powerful incentive in order to stretch a little, put aside all entertainment and travel.

However, it should be remembered that prolonged concentration of voluntary attention leads to a state of fatigue, even severe overwork. Therefore, between serious intellectual work, it is recommended to take reasonable breaks: go outside to breathe fresh air, do simple physical exercises, exercises. But you don’t need to read books on abstract topics: the head will not have time to rest, in addition, the presence of excess information can provoke further unwillingness to return to business. It has been noticed that a strong interest induces activity, activates the work of the brain, and this can and should be strived for.

Post-voluntary attention

It is characterized by the absence of tension in the subject of activity when performing a task. In this case, the motivation and desire to achieve a specific goal is strong enough. This type of attention differs from the previous one in that internal motivation prevails over external. That is, a person, his consciousness is guided not by social necessity, but by an individual need for action. Such attention has a very productive effect on any activity, gives significant results.

Basic properties of attention

The properties of attention in psychology are a number of significant characteristics that are closely related to the components of the activity of the individual.

• Concentration- this is a deliberate focus on the object of activity. Attention retention occurs due to strong motivation and the desire of the subject to perform the action as best as possible. The intensity of concentration on the subject of interest is controlled by the consciousness of the individual. If the concentration is high enough, then the result will not be long in coming. On average, without a break, a person can focus attention for 30 to 40 minutes, but a lot can be done during this time. It should be remembered that when working at a computer, you should take short breaks of 5 to 10 minutes for yourself to rest your eyes.
• Volume is the number of objects that consciousness can hold simultaneously in its field of vision. In other words, the volume is measured in the mutual ratio of objects and the degree of stability of attention to them. If a person is able to maintain focus on objects for a sufficiently long time and their number is large, then we can talk about a high amount of attention.
• Sustainability. Stability is the ability to keep attention on one object for a long time and not switch to another. If there was a distraction, then they usually talk about lability. Sustainability of attention is characterized by the ability to discover new things in familiar things: to discover relationships and aspects that were not previously noticed and not studied, to see prospects for further development and movement.
• switchability. Switchability is a meaningful purposeful change in the direction of the focus of attention. This property is characterized by the conditionality of external circumstances or phenomena. If the switching of attention does not occur under the influence of a more significant object and does not differ in special intentionality, then one speaks of simple distractibility. It must be admitted that it is difficult to switch attention from one object to another due to strong concentration. Then it even happens that a person moves on to another activity, but mentally continues to concentrate on the previous one: he thinks over the details, analyzes, and emotionally worries. Switching attention is needed to relax after intense mental work, to be included in a new activity.
• Distribution. Distribution is the ability of consciousness to simultaneously focus attention on several objects that are approximately in the same position in terms of importance. The ratio of objects among themselves, of course, has an impact on how this distribution occurs: the transition from one object to another. At the same time, a person often experiences a state of fatigue, caused by the need to be in one focus point to constantly remember about other existing ones.

Features of the development of attention

The development of human attention is necessarily associated with the ability to focus on one or more objects for a certain period of time without any distraction. This is not as easy as it might seem at first glance. After all, in order to focus on something, you need to be sufficiently interested in your business. So, for the development of involuntary attention, only an interesting object is required, on which one could focus the gaze. Arbitrary attention, however, requires a serious approach: purposefulness of actions, strong-willed effort, the ability to control one's feelings in order to prevent distraction at the most inopportune moment are needed. Post-voluntary attention is the most productive of all, as it does not require overcoming and additional efforts.

Attention Development Methods

At the moment, there are a variety of techniques for developing attention that allow you to achieve high results and learn how to control attention.

Development of concentration

It is recommended to choose an object for observation, and for a certain period of time try to focus your attention on it. Moreover, the simpler this subject, the better. For example, you can put a book on the table and imagine what it is written about, what are the main characters. One can only think of a book as an object made of paper and cardboard, imagine how many trees it took to make it. In the end, you can just pay attention to its color and shape. Which direction to choose is up to you. This exercise perfectly trains the focus of attention itself, allows you to develop the duration of concentration on one object.

If you wish, you can try to practice holding two or more objects in your field of vision. Then, to all of the above, it is necessary to add the development of the ability to switch attention from one object to another, memorizing and noting the significant features of each of them.

Development of visual attention

Exercises should be aimed at expanding the ability of the individual to focus on the object. For example, you can put an object in front and set yourself the task of looking at it for 3 to 5 minutes, highlighting as many details as possible. At first you will begin to take shape general idea about the subject: its color and shape, size and height. However, gradually, the more you concentrate, the more clearly new details will begin to appear: small details, minor adaptations, etc. They, too, must be seen and noted to yourself.

Development of auditory attention

To improve this type of attention, you need to set yourself the goal of concentrating on the sounding voice for no more than ten minutes. It's best if it's meaningful human speech, however, if you want to relax, you can include here the singing of birds or any melody that meets the requirements of relaxing music.

If human speech sounds, while listening, it is important to note the speed with which the lecturer speaks, the degree of emotionality of the presentation of the material, the subjective usefulness of the information. It is also quite acceptable to listen to fairy tales, stories in the recording, and then try to remember and reproduce their content. In the case of listening to music, it is important to capture the levels of vibration of the sound wave, try to "connect" to the reproduced emotions and imagine the details of something.

How to manage attention?

Many people who want to increase their level of attention face constant difficulties. Some may not be able to concentrate on the details, others have difficulty with when to perceive the subject as a whole. In this case, I would like to advise you to train at different facilities in all directions and do it every day. Agree, it’s not difficult to spend 5-10 minutes a day working on yourself.

Thus, the problems of developing attention are quite multifaceted and deep. It is impossible to consider this type of cognitive processes only as a component of activity. We must also remember that we always need attention in Everyday life Therefore, it is important to be able to focus on simple things, to notice even the smallest details.

The plan of the lecture and the content of the theoretical lesson

Lesson plan

1. Psychological and physiological essence of attention and its properties.

2. Definition of attention.

3. Properties of attention.

4. Functions and types of attention.

5. Psychological theories of attention.

6. Development of attention.

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

ESSENCE OF ATTENTION, ITS PROPERTIES

A person is continuously affected by many objects and phenomena that have different properties. Of all this, only a little is clearly perceived by him at any given moment. Everything else is either not noticed at all, or is noticed vaguely, indefinitely. Remembering, imagining, thinking, a person also focuses on something specific, limited (which is the object of ideas or thoughts), being distracted from everything else. The same is true for all types of mental activity.

1. Physiological basis of attention

physiological basis attention is the concentration of excitation in certain areas of the cerebral cortex, in the focus of optimal excitability (I.P. Pavlov), with more or less significant inhibition at the same time of other areas of the cortex. This happens according to the law of negative induction, according to which, as mentioned above, the excitation of some parts of the cortex causes inhibition in other parts of it.

The focus of optimal excitability does not remain for a long time in the same place of the cortex, but constantly moves from one area of ​​the cerebral cortex to another. The area that was in a state of optimal excitability turns out to be in an inhibited state after a while, and where there was inhibition before, excitation occurs, a new focus of optimal excitability appears.

Outwardly, attention is expressed in facial expressions, in human movements, which have a slightly different character depending on what kind of activity we are engaged in, what objects we perceive, what exactly our attention is directed to.

2. Definition of attention

Important role attention does not mean, however, that it provides a clear reflection (perception, representation, understanding) of what is its object. Listening, even if very carefully, to the sounds of speech coming from a distance, you can not make out the words that are pronounced. However, they are heard and recognized in these cases (if there is attention to them), still better than when there is no attention to them, focused on something else. Attention provides only a relatively greater clarity of reflection of what is its object, but this is of great importance for the success of the activity performed.

IN modern psychology the following is used general definition attention: attention the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses, and ignoring the other.

Attention research looks at four main aspects: attention span and selectivity, arousal level, attention control, and consciousness.

The fact that our attention is selective has several explanations. First, our ability to process information is limited by "bandwidth". Secondly, we can to some extent control what we put our attention on. If two characters are talking at the same time, we can choose which one to listen to. Thirdly, the perception of events is related to our “level of arousal”, which, in turn, is related to our interest. Finally, what you pay attention to is part of your conscious experience. These four themes constitute the "active center" of attention research.

3. Properties of attention

Characterizing attention, there is a distinction between the degree of its concentration (concentration), which determines such a value as the amount of attention, its intensity (or tension), the distribution of attention, its stability or distractibility, switching attention. The opposite of attention is distraction. The properties (qualities) of attention are shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Qualities of attention.

Thus, there are five main properties of attention, which we will consider below.

3.1 Stability of attention

Stability of attention the property of attention, manifested in the ability for a long time to maintain a state of attention on any object, subject of activity, without being distracted and without weakening attention.

This is his characteristic in time. Stability of attention does not mean its focus all the time on the same object. The objects of actions and the actions themselves can change (and most often they do), but the general direction of the activity must remain constant. However, the general direction of activity, determined by the task that must be performed (read or write a given text, etc.), continues to remain all the time.

One of the important conditions for the stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. Anything monotonous quickly reduces attention. With prolonged exposure to the same stimulus, excitation, due to negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of ​​the cortex, and this serves as the physiological basis for reducing attention. It is difficult to keep attention for a long time on one thing. If there is a change of objects or actions performed, attention remains at a high level for a long time. In order to keep attention on one thing for a long time, it is necessary all the time to reveal more and more new sides in the same thing, to raise different questions in relation to it, to perform different actions subordinate to the common goal that is being pursued. K.S.Stanislavsky correctly characterized the meaning of this condition, saying that in order to be attentive, it is not enough, even very closely, to look at an object, but it is necessary to consider it from different points of view, to diversify its perception.

3.2. attention span

Concentration of attention the property of attention, manifested in the differences that exist in the degree of concentration of attention on some objects and its distraction from others. The narrower the circle of objects of attention, the more concentrated (concentrated) it is.

Physiologically, concentration of attention is a pronounced limitation of the focus of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex.

The number of objects to which attention is distributed during their simultaneous perception is the volume of attention.

3.3. attention span

Scope of attention property of attention, which is determined by the amount of information that can simultaneously be stored in the area of ​​increased attention (consciousness) of a person.

That we selectively direct our attention to some part of all available signs is evident from many common situations.

The amount of attention depends both on the characteristics of the perceived objects, and on the task and nature of the activity of the perceiving person.

Significant changes in the volume of attention are observed with the variation of many other features of objects. When showing, for example, single-color letters, the amount of attention is greater than when presenting letters painted in different colors. With the same arrangement of letters in a line, it is larger than when the letters are placed under different angles to each other. With the same size of letters, they are perceived in more than when they all have different values, and so on.

Consequently, with the same task, the amount of attention is not the same due to differences in the perceived material.

To check the amount of attention, you can use cards with the image of various objects presented for a short period of time (for example, see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. The volume of attention (watch for 3-4 seconds, then list the items that are remembered)

3.4. Switching attention

Attention switchability is a property that manifests itself in the speed of transferring attention from one object to another.

In many cases, the shift in attention is intentional and is caused by the fact that we have already completed the previous work, or we consider the new one to be more important or interesting. If, when attention is turned off, the activity being performed is violated (due to the action of extraneous stimuli), then when attention is switched, there is a legitimate change from one activity to another. And the faster it is carried out, the faster, therefore, the switching of attention occurs.

The speed and success of switching attention depends on how intensely it was attracted to the previous activity, as well as on the nature of the new objects and new actions to which it is transferred. The more intensive attention was before and the less new objects (or new activity) meet the conditions for attracting attention, the more difficult it is to switch it.

Physiologically, the switching of attention means the occurrence of inhibition in the previously existing focus of excitation and the appearance in the cerebral cortex of a new focus of optimal excitability.

3.5. Distribution of attention

Distribution of attention the property of attention, manifested in the ability to disperse attention over a significant space, simultaneously perform several types of activities or perform several various activities.

Physiologically, the distribution of attention is possible because if there is a dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, in some other areas of the cortex there is only partial inhibition, as a result of which these areas can control simultaneously performed actions.

3.6. Attention intensity

The intensity of attention is characterized by the degree of its focus on these objects and the simultaneous distraction from everything else. This is the most vivid reflection of what generally characterizes attention. With intense attention, a person is completely absorbed in what attention is directed to, does not see, does not hear, in addition to this, nothing that happens around him.

A high intensity of attention is achieved when, to the maximum extent, there is something that characterizes the conditions of attention (the action of strong stimuli that stand out sharply against the general background, interest in an object or phenomenon, their importance for solving a task facing a person, etc.)

The physiological basis of intensive attention is the presence of a pronounced excitation in one of the brain foci, with an equally pronounced inhibition of the rest of the cortex. The action of extraneous stimuli in these cases does not cause (or hardly causes) in the focus of optimal excitability the inhibition that occurs in other states of the cortex.

1. FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF ATTENTION

Attention characterizes the consistency of various links in the functional structure of an action, which determines the success of its implementation (for example, the speed and accuracy of a task). There are three functions of attention:

1. The first function of attention is the activation of necessary and inhibition of unnecessary psychological and physiological processes.

2. The second function of attention is to promote an organized and purposeful selection of incoming information.

3. The third function of attention is the provision of selective and prolonged concentration of mental activity on one and the same object or type of activity.

4.1. Types of attention

Each person is born with an orienting reflex, expressed in one way or another. Adequate development of the orienting reflex serves as a basic prerequisite intellectual development. The primary type of attention, on the basis of which the infant is oriented in the world around him, is called natural attention.

natural attentionthe type of attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of informational novelty.

With socialization, the child learns to organize natural attention. He directs him to certain objects of interest to him, which gives him the opportunity to carry out actions of choice and not depend entirely on changes. environment. His attention becomes socially conditioned.

socially conditioned attentionthe type of attention that develops throughout life as a result of training and education is associated with volitional regulation behavior, with selective conscious response to objects.

4.2. Mediocrity of attention

Processes similar to socialization occur when direct attention is transformed into indirect attention.

In the first period of a child's development, direct attention predominates in him.immediate attentiona kind of attention that is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person. Any unusual phenomenon attracts immediate attention: loud noise, sudden changes in background color, strong unexpected smells, etc.

As a person develops, he begins to control his attention, it becomes indirect . Indirect attention a type of attention that is regulated with the help of special means, for example, gestures, words, pointing signs of objects. The duration and quality of attention begin to depend not so much on the stimulus that causes attention, but on the will of the conscious effort of the person himself.

involuntary attentionkind of attention, which is not associated with the participation of the will.

The focus of mental activity on certain objects or phenomena can arise unintentionally, involuntarily, due to the very characteristics of stimuli affecting a person (objects and phenomena of reality). Thus, the attention that arises, respectively, is called unintentional, involuntary.

It differs from involuntary attention arbitrary attention, (which is an arbitrarily, deliberately caused (direction of mental activity to certain objects or phenomena (or their properties, qualities, states). Arbitrary attention is a type of attention that necessarily includes volitional regulation.

This higher kind of attention arose in the process of activity. In his activity, a person achieves a certain result, which usually receives further public assessment and is used by other people.

Table 1

Types of attention and their comparative characteristics

Types of attention	Conditions of occurrence	Main characteristics	Mechanisms
involuntary	The action of a strong, contrasting or significant stimulus that causes an emotional response	Involuntariness, ease of occurrence and switching	An orienting reflex or dominant that characterizes a more or less stable interest of a person
Arbitrary	Statement (acceptance) of the problem	Orientation according to the task. Requires willpower, tiresome	Leading role of the 2nd signaling system
Post-voluntary	Entry into activities and the resulting interest	Maintaining focus and relieving stress	Dominant characterizing the interest that arose in the course of this activity

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF ATTENTION

The range of problems in the study of attention stood out as a result of differentiation of a broader philosophical concept of apperception (G. Leibniz, I. Kant, I. Herbart). Under apperception the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person’s mental activity and his individual characteristics was understood. The term apperception was proposed by the German philosopher G. Leibniz, who interpreted it as a distinct (conscious) perception by the soul of a certain content.

3.2. Experimental models of cognitive attention

psychology

In Western psychology, the problem of attention is given great importance. The main difference between approaches to the study of attention in Western and domestic psychology is that domestic psychology develops general theoretical, conceptual approaches to the problem of attention, while Western psychology is more focused on experimental research to identify the characteristics of attention and the factors of its development and improvement, without attaching so much importance to the allocation of general theoretical categories.

Let's take a closer look at the data experimental studies attention received in modern cognitive psychology.

3.3. Model with Broadbent filtering

A holistic theory of attention was the first in foreign psychology to be developed by the British scientist Broadbent. This theory, called the filtered model, was related to the so-called single-channel theory and was based on the idea that information processing is limited by the bandwidth of the channel - as stated by the original information processing theory of Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. Broadbent argues that the messages traveling along an individual nerve can differ depending on which of the nerve fibers they stimulate or how many nerve impulses they produce. (Neuropsychological studies have shown that high-frequency signals and low-frequency signals are indeed transmitted by different fibers.) Thus, when several nerves are fired at the same time, several sensory messages can arrive at the brain at the same time. In Broadbent's model, such messages are processed by several parallel sensory channels. It is assumed that such channels have different neural codes and can be selected based on such a code.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION

The cultural development of attention, according to L.S. Vygotsky, consists in the fact that with the help of an adult, a child learns a number of artificial stimuli-means (signs), through which he further directs his own behavior and attention.

The general sequence of the cultural development of attention according to L.S. Vygotsky is as follows: “First, people act in relation to the child, then he himself interacts with others, finally, he begins to act on others, and only at the end begins to act on himself .. .”

The first series of stimuli that arouse the child's attention are the surrounding objects themselves, which, with their bright unusual properties, attract the child's attention.

The first stage of development of attention the first weeks-months of life. The appearance of an orienting reflex as an objective, innate sign of the child's involuntary attention.

Initially, the child's attention is involuntary and is caused by the quality of external stimuli; the child is attracted to bright, shiny or moving objects, loud sounds, etc. Already n a In the first month of life, the child shows some manifestations of attention, when he reaches for the mother's breast, looks for it, begins to fix certain objects with his eyes, stops tracking when he hears loud sounds.

From the second half of the year, children show great interest in surrounding objects, begin to examine them, take them in their mouths, and turn them in their hands. The ability to manipulate things greatly expands the range of objects of attention and the duration of its retention on any subject. However, at this age, the attention of the child is still very unstable. It is worth showing him another object, as he drops the first one on the floor and reaches for the second. Seeing any thing that interests him, the child begins to demand, even cries, if his desires are not satisfied, but it is enough to tell him something else at that moment so that he is immediately interested in something new and forgets what exactly he just demanded.

The second stage in the development of attention is the end of the first year of life, the emergence of orienting research activity as a means of the future development of voluntary attention.

The third stage in the development of attention the beginning of the second year of life, the violation of the rudiments of voluntary attention under the influence of verbal instructions from an adult, the direction of gaze on an object named by an adult.

The fourth stage of development of attention the second or third year of life.

A fairly good development of the above-mentioned initial form of voluntary attention. In the second year of life, thanks to the emergence of the ability to move independently and the acquisition of the ability not only to manipulate an object, but to perform the simplest

The fifth stage of attention development four and a half five years. The emergence of the ability to direct attention under the influence of a complex instruction from an adult.

An important role in the development of attention in preschool children is played by the game, as the main activity at this age. The game develops not only the intensity and concentration of attention, but also its stability. Studies have shown that the duration of the game in a 6-year-old child can reach an hour or more, while in a three-year-old child it often does not exceed 20-25 minutes.

The sixth stage of development of attention five six years. The emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instruction (with reliance on external aids).

By the end preschool age the child gains some experience in the management of attention, which is one of the indicators of his readiness for schooling.

The seventh stage of development of attention school age. There is a further development and improvement of voluntary attention, including volitional attention.

The attention of adolescents is associated with the differentiation of interests that arise in them. Some teenagers are better: focus on physical labor, others on mental activities. In some lessons, when studying a subject of interest to him, a teenager can be very attentive, in other lessons, during: studying others academic disciplines, his attention can be concentrated with difficulty and is often the subject of constant concern of the teacher.

Adolescence is characterized further development attention, which determines the already high working capacity of the senior student. A wide range of cognitive interests at this age ensures the intensive development of involuntary attention, and a conscious attitude to learning, an understanding of the tasks associated with preparing for future activities, helps to voluntarily direct and maintain attention. Although the habit of being attentive at work develops already in the primary school child and adolescent, in adolescence it reaches high level, and the older student is much easier to concentrate even on an uninteresting or difficult task for him.

Attention of students to the presentation of new material by the teacher; arises mainly when the teacher's story is distinguished: liveliness, dynamism. If the issue is covered from different angles, the subject under study is revealed in various connections and relations, attention is much more stable.

Trying to present educational material interesting ones should not be concerned with only one entertainment, trying to captivate children with external effects. Even junior schoolchildren, not to mention the elders, they feel great when the teacher just wants to entertain them and when he gives them the necessary and useful knowledge.

An important role in the education of voluntary attention is played by the exactingness of the teacher, which must be consistent and systematic.

Attention is the focus of the psyche (consciousness) on certain objects that have a stable or situational significance for the individual, the concentration of the psyche (consciousness), which implies elevated level sensory, intellectual or motor activity. Characterizing attention as a complex mental phenomenon, a number of functions of attention are distinguished. The essence of attention is manifested primarily in the selection of significant, relevant, i.e. corresponding to the needs, relevant to this activity, impacts and ignoring (slowing down, eliminating) other - insignificant, side, competing impacts. Along with the selection function, the function of retention (preservation) of this activity (preservation in the mind of images, a certain subject content) is singled out until the act of behavior is completed, cognitive activity until the goal is achieved. One of the most important functions of attention is the regulation and control of the course of activity. Attention can be manifested both in sensory and mnemonic, mental and motor processes. Sensory attention is associated with the perception of stimuli of different modality (type). In this regard, visual and auditory sensory attention is distinguished. The objects of intellectual attention as its highest form are memories and thoughts. The most studied sensory attention. In fact, all the data characterizing attention were obtained in the study of this type of attention. There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary. In the psychological literature, several synonyms are used to denote involuntary attention. In some studies it is called passive, in others emotional. Both synonyms help to reveal the features of involuntary attention. When they talk about passivity, they highlight the dependence of involuntary attention on the object that attracted it, and emphasize the lack of effort on the part of a person aimed at concentrating. When involuntary attention is called emotional, then the connection between the object of attention and emotions, interests, needs is distinguished. In this case, there are also no volitional efforts aimed at concentration: the object of attention is allocated due to its correspondence to the reasons that prompt a person to activity. So, involuntary attention is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to some of its features. It is known that any stimulus, changing the strength of its action, attracts attention.
The novelty of the stimulus also causes involuntary attention. Objects that cause a bright emotional tone in the process of cognition (saturated colors, melodic sounds, pleasant smells) cause involuntary concentration of attention. Even more important for the emergence of involuntary attention are intellectual, aesthetic and moral feelings. An object that has caused a person's surprise, admiration, delight, for a long time attracts his attention. Interest, as a direct interest in something that is happening and as a selective attitude to the world, is usually associated with feelings and is one of the most important reasons for prolonged involuntary attention to objects. Synonyms for the word arbitrary (attention) are the words active or volitional. All three terms emphasize the active position of the individual when focusing attention on the object. Voluntary attention is a consciously regulated concentration on an object. A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should do. This kind of attention is closely related to the will. Arbitrarily concentrating on an object, a person makes an effort of will, which maintains attention throughout the entire process of activity. Voluntary attention owes its origin to labor. Arbitrary attention occurs when a person sets himself the goal of an activity, the implementation of which requires concentration. Arbitrary attention requires volitional effort, which is experienced as tension, the mobilization of forces to solve the problem. Willpower is necessary to focus on the object of activity, not to be distracted, not to make mistakes in actions. So, the reason for the emergence of arbitrary attention to any object is the setting of the goal of the activity, the practical activity itself, for the implementation of which a person is responsible. Eat whole line conditions that facilitate arbitrary concentration of attention. Concentration of attention on mental activity is facilitated if practical action is included in cognition. For example, it is easier to keep attention on the content of a scientific book when reading is accompanied by note taking.

An important condition for maintaining attention is the mental state of a person. It is very difficult for a tired person to concentrate. Numerous observations and experiments show that by the end of the working day, the number of errors in the performance of work increases, and the state of fatigue is also subjectively experienced: it is difficult to concentrate. Emotional arousal caused by reasons extraneous to the work performed (preoccupation with some other thoughts, illness, and other similar factors) significantly weakens a person’s voluntary attention. Properties of attention When they talk about the development, education of attention, they mean the improvement of the properties of attention. There are the following properties of attention: volume, concentration (concentration), distribution, stability, fluctuation, switchability. The amount of attention is measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. Usually the amount of attention depends on the specific practical activities of a person, from his life experience, from the goal set, from the characteristics of perceived objects. Objects that are united in meaning are perceived in greater numbers than those that are not united. In an adult, the amount of attention is 4-6 objects. Concentration of attention is the degree of concentration of consciousness on an object (objects). The smaller the circle of objects of attention, the smaller the area of ​​the perceived form, the more concentrated attention. Focus provides in-depth study cognizable objects and phenomena, brings clarity to a person's ideas about a particular object, its purpose, design, form. Concentration, focus of attention can be successfully developed under the influence of specially organized work on the development of these qualities. The distribution of attention is expressed in the ability to simultaneously perform several actions or monitor several processes, objects. In some professions, the distribution of attention becomes especially important. Such are the professions of a driver, a pilot, a teacher. The teacher explains the lesson and at the same time monitors the class, often he also writes something on the blackboard.

Attention- this is the orientation and concentration of consciousness on any real or ideal object, suggesting an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual.

Attention has its own organic basis, which is the brain structures that ensure the functioning of attention and are responsible for the external manifestations of its various characteristics. Among the several billion nerve cells that make up the human brain, there are those that are especially closely related to the work of attention. They are called novelty detector neurons. Such nerve cells differ from others in that they are included in active work only when a person, in his sensations and perception, encounters some objects and phenomena that are new to him and attract his attention.

Irritants that have become habitual usually do not cause a reaction of cells - detectors of novelty. Such cells, apparently, are responsible for involuntary human attention.

The general state of attention, in particular, such a characteristic of it as stability, is apparently associated with the work reticular formation. It is the thinnest network of nerve fibers, which is located deep in the central nervous system between the head and spinal cord, covering the lower sections of the first and the upper sections of the second. Nerve pathways leading from the peripheral sense organs to the brain and back pass through the reticular formation. The reticular formation also regulates the tone of the cerebral cortex and the sensitivity of receptors, changing the dynamic characteristics of attention: its concentration, stability, etc.

Functions and types of attention

Attention in the life and activity of a person performs a lot various functions. It activates the necessary and inhibits the currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes, promotes an organized and purposeful selection of information entering the body in accordance with its actual needs, provides a selective and long-term focus of mental activity on the same object or type of activity.

Consider the main types of attention. These are natural and socially conditioned attention, involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention, sensual and intellectual attention.

According to the activity of a person in the organization of attention, three types of attention are distinguished: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary attention- this is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to its peculiarity as an irritant.
Arbitrary attention is a consciously regulated concentration on an object, directed by the requirements of activity. With voluntary attention, the focus is not only on what is emotionally pleasing, but to a greater extent on what should be done. After about 20 minutes, a person gets tired using this kind of attention.

Involuntary attention is not associated with the participation of the will, and voluntary attention necessarily includes volitional regulation. Finally, voluntary attention, in contrast to involuntary attention, is usually associated with a struggle of motives or motives, the presence of strong, oppositely directed and competing interests, each of which is capable of attracting and holding attention on its own.

In this case, a person makes a conscious choice of a goal and, by an effort of will, suppresses one of the interests, directing all his attention to satisfying the other. But such a case is also possible when voluntary attention is preserved, and efforts of the will to maintain it are no longer required. This happens if a person is passionate about work. Such attention is called post-voluntary.

According to its psychological characteristics, post-voluntary attention has features that bring it closer to involuntary attention, but there is also a significant difference between them. Post-voluntary attention arises on the basis of interest, but this is not an interest stimulated by the characteristics of the subject, but a manifestation of the orientation of the personality. With post-voluntary attention, the activity itself is experienced as a need, and its result is personally significant. Post-voluntary attention can last for hours.

The considered three types of attention in the practical activity of a person are closely intertwined with mutual transitions and rely on one another.

natural attention given to a person from his very birth, in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of informational novelty. The main mechanism that ensures the work of such attention is called the orienting reflex. It, as we have already noted, is associated with the activity of the reticular formation and neurons - novelty detectors.

socially conditioned attention develops in vivo as a result of training and education, is associated with volitional regulation of behavior, with a selective conscious response to objects.

immediate attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.

mediated attention regulated with the help of special means, for example, gestures, words, signs, objects.

sensual attention predominantly associated with emotions and the selective work of the senses.
Intellectual attention is associated with concentration and direction of thought.
In sensory attention, a sensory impression is at the center of consciousness, while in intellectual attention, the object of interest is a thought.

Attention Properties

Attention has certain parameters and features, which are largely a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. The main properties of attention usually include the following.


1. concentration. This is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a particular object, the intensity of communication with it. Concentration of attention means that a temporary center (focus) of all psychological activity of a person is formed.

2. Intensity attention is a quality that determines the effectiveness of perception, thinking, memory and clarity of consciousness in general. The greater the interest in an activity (the greater the consciousness of its significance) and the more difficult the activity (the less familiar it is to a person), the greater the influence of distracting stimuli, the more intense the attention will be.

3. Sustainability. Ability long time maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention. It is determined by the type of the nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, importance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions of human activity. Stability of attention is maintained not only by the novelty of incoming stimuli, but also by their repetition. The stability of attention is associated with its dynamic characteristics: fluctuations and switchability. Attention fluctuations are understood as periodic short-term involuntary changes in the degree of attention intensity. Fluctuations in attention are manifested in a temporary change in the intensity of sensations. So, listening to a very weak, barely audible sound, for example, the ticking of a clock, a person first notices the sound, then stops noticing it. Such fluctuations of attention can be carried out with different periods, from 2-3 to 12 seconds. The longest oscillations were observed upon presentation of sound stimuli, then upon presentation of visual stimuli, and the shortest, upon presentation of tactile stimuli.

4. Volume- an indicator of the number of homogeneous stimuli that are in the focus of attention (for an adult, from 4 to 6 objects, for a child, no more than 2-3). The amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the ability of an individual's short-term memory. The characteristics of the perceived objects (their homogeneity, interconnections) and the professional skills of the subject himself also matter.

5. Switching attention is understood as the possibility of a more or less easy and fairly quick transition from one type of activity to another. Switching is also functionally related to two processes in different directions: turning attention on and off. Switching can be arbitrary, then its speed is an indicator of the degree of the subject's volitional control over his perception and involuntary, associated with distraction, which is either an indicator of the degree of mental instability or indicates the appearance of strong unexpected stimuli.

Switching efficiency depends on the characteristics of the previous and subsequent activities (switching rates decrease significantly when moving from easy to difficult activity, and they increase with the reverse bariant). The success of the switch is related to the person's attitude to the previous activity, the more interesting the previous activity and the less interesting the next one, the more difficult the switch. There are significant individual differences in switchability, which is associated with such a feature of the nervous system as mobility nervous processes.

Many modern professions (weavers, mechanics, managers, operators, etc.), where a person deals with frequent and sudden changes in the objects of activity, place high demands on the ability to switch attention.

Great importance has a shift in attention and educational process. The need to switch the attention of students is due to the peculiarities of the process itself: the change of various subjects during the day, the sequence of stages in the study of material in the classroom, which involves a change in the types and forms of activity.

Unlike conscious switching of attention, distraction is an involuntary disconnection of attention from the main activity to extraneous objects. Distractions have a negative effect on work performance. The distracting effect of extraneous stimuli depends on the nature of the work performed. Sudden, intermittent, unexpected stimuli, as well as those associated with emotions, are very distracting. With prolonged performance of monotonous work, the effect of side stimuli intensifies as fatigue increases. The distracting effect of extraneous stimuli is more pronounced in mental activity that is not associated with external supports. It is stronger with auditory perception than with visual perception.

The ability to withstand distractions is called noise immunity. In the development of this ability in humans, significant individual differences are observed, due both to differences in the nervous system, namely, its strength, and special training aimed at increasing noise immunity.

6. Distribution, that is, the ability to focus on several objects at the same time. At the same time, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes at the same time, without losing any of them from the field of attention.

In difficult modern types Labor activity can be made up of several different, but simultaneously occurring processes (actions), each of which corresponds to different tasks. For example, a weaver working on a loom must carry out numerous control and management operations. This is also typical for the activities of seamstresses, drivers, operators and other professions. In all such activities, the worker needs to distribute attention, i.e. simultaneously focus on various processes(objects). An exceptional role is played by the ability to distribute attention in the activities of the teacher. So, for example, while explaining the material in the lesson, the teacher must simultaneously monitor his speech and the logic of presentation and observe how students perceive the material.

The level of distribution of attention depends on a number of conditions: on the nature of the combined activities (they can be homogeneous and different), on their complexity (and, in this regard, on the degree of mental stress required), on the degree of familiarity and familiarity with them (on the level of mastering the basic techniques activities). The more complex the combined activities, the more difficult it is to distribute attention. When combining mental and motor activity, the productivity of mental activity can decrease to a greater extent than that of motor activity.

It is difficult to combine two types of mental activity. The distribution of attention is possible if each of the activities performed is familiar to a person, and one of them is familiar to some extent, automated (or can be automated). The less automated one of the combined activities, the weaker the distribution of attention. If one of the activities is fully automated and only periodic control of consciousness is required for its successful implementation, a complex form of attention is noted - a combination of switching and distribution.

Development of attention

Attention like mental process, which is expressed in the orientation of consciousness to certain objects, often manifesting itself, gradually turns into a stable property of the individual - mindfulness. At the same time, the range of objects can be limited to one or another type of activity (and then they talk about the mindfulness of the individual in this type of activity, most often this is professional activity), it can extend to all types of activity (in this case, they talk about mindfulness as a general property of the personality). People vary in the degree of development of this property, the extreme case is often called inattention. It is practically important for an engineer to know not only the level of formation of mindfulness among workers, but also the reasons for his inattention, since attention is associated with cognitive processes and the emotional-volitional sphere of the individual.

Depending on the forms of inattention, we can speak of three types of it. The first type - absent-mindedness - occurs with distractibility and a very low intensity of attention, excessively easily and involuntarily switching from object to object, but not lingering on any one. This type of inattention is figuratively called "fluttering" attention. Such inattention in a person is the result of a lack of skills for concentrated work. Another type of inattention is determined by high intensity and difficult shifting of attention. Such inattention may arise due to the fact that a person's attention is focused on some events or phenomena that have previously occurred or met him, which he emotionally perceived. The third type of inattention is the result of overwork, this type of inattention is due to a permanent or temporary decrease in the strength and mobility of nervous processes. It is characterized by a very weak concentration of attention and even weaker switching.

The formation of mindfulness consists in managing a person's attention in the process of his labor and learning activities. At the same time, it is necessary to create conditions that would contribute to the formation of his attention: to accustom him to work in a variety of conditions, not succumbing to the influence of distracting factors; exercise voluntary attention; to achieve awareness of the social significance of the type of work being mastered and a sense of responsibility for the work performed; associate attention with the requirements of the discipline of industrial labor, etc.

The volume and distribution of attention should be formed as a certain labor skill of simultaneous performance of several actions in conditions of an increasing pace of work.

The development of stability of attention must be ensured by the formation of volitional qualities of the individual. For the development of switching attention, it is necessary to select appropriate exercises with a preliminary explanation of the "switching routes". A prerequisite for the formation of mindfulness in a person is under no circumstances to allow him to do any work carelessly.

1. The psychological essence of attention and its properties

A person is continuously affected by many objects and phenomena with different properties. Of all this, only a little is clearly perceived by him at any given moment. Everything else is either not noticed at all, or is noticed vaguely, indefinitely. Remembering, imagining, thinking, a person also focuses on something specific, limited (which is the object of ideas or thoughts), being distracted from everything else. The same is true for all types of mental activity.

1.1. Physiological basis of attention

The physiological basis of attention is the concentration of excitation in certain areas of the cerebral cortex, in the focus of optimal excitability (I.P. Pavlov), with more or less significant inhibition at the same time of other areas of the cortex. This happens according to the law of negative induction, according to which, as mentioned above, the excitation of some parts of the cortex causes inhibition in other parts of it.

The focus of optimal excitability does not remain for a long time in the same place of the cortex, but constantly moves from one area of ​​the cerebral cortex to another. The area that was in a state of optimal excitability turns out to be in an inhibited state after a while, and where there was inhibition before, excitation occurs, a new focus of optimal excitability appears.

Outwardly, attention is expressed in facial expressions, in human movements, which have a slightly different character depending on what kind of activity we are engaged in, what objects we perceive, what exactly our attention is directed to.

External signs of attention do not always correspond to its actual state. Along with real attention and real inattention, there is apparent attention and apparent inattention (V.I. Strakhov) as a discrepancy between the external form of attention and its true state.

Since at every moment in the cerebral cortex there is somewhere a focus of optimal excitability, this means that a person is always attentive to something. Therefore, when it is said about the lack of attention, this means the absence of it not to anything, but only to what it should be directed to at the moment. We call a person inattentive only because his attention is directed not to the work in which he should participate, but to something extraneous.

The presence of a focus of optimal excitability provides the best reflection of what affects the brain under the given conditions. This determines the most important role of attention in the cognitive activity of a person, and at the same time in his labor activity, since cognitive processes participate in any human activity.

Of particular importance for understanding the physiological mechanisms of attention is the principle of dominance introduced by A.A. Ukhtomsky. According to Ukhtomsky, each observed motor effect is determined by the nature of the dynamic interaction between the cortical and subcortical centers, the actual needs of the organism, and the history of the organism as a biological system. The dominant is characterized by inertia, i.e. a tendency to be maintained and repeated when the external environment has changed and the stimuli that once caused this dominant no longer act on the central nervous system. Inertia disrupts the normal regulation of behavior when it becomes a source of obsessive images, but it also acts as the organizing principle of intellectual activity.

By the mechanism of the dominant, Ukhtomsky explained a wide range of mental acts - attention (its focus on certain objects, focus on them and selectivity); the objective nature of thinking (singling out individual complexes from a variety of environmental stimuli, each of which is perceived by the body as a specific real object).

1.2. Definition of attention

The important role of attention does not mean, however, that it provides a clear reflection (perception, representation, understanding) of what is its object. Listening, even if very carefully, to the sounds of speech coming from a distance, you can not make out the words that are pronounced. However, they are heard and recognized in these cases (if there is attention to them), still better than when there is no attention to them, focused on something else. Attention provides only a relatively greater clarity of reflection of what is its object, but this is of great importance for the success of the activity performed.

Modern psychology uses the following general definition of attention: attention- the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses, and ignoring the other.

Attention research looks at four main aspects: attention span and selectivity, arousal level, attention control, and consciousness.

Many modern theories attention is based on the fact that the observer is always surrounded by many signs. The capabilities of our nervous system are too limited to feel all these millions of external stimuli, but even if we detected all of them, the brain would not be able to process them, since our processing capacity is also limited. Our sense organs, like other means of communication, work quite well if the amount of information processed is within their capacity; overload occurs.

In foreign psychology, attention problems began to be actively developed in 1958, when D. Broadbent wrote in his sensational book “Perception and Communication” that perception is the result of an information processing system with limited bandwidth. Essential to Broadbent's theory was the notion that the world contains the possibility of obtaining much more sensations, than allow to cover the perceptual and cognitive abilities of a person. Therefore, in order to cope with the flow of incoming information, people selectively direct attention to only some signs and "detune" from the rest.

For a long time, it was believed that one could pay attention to one attribute only at the expense of another. If we try to understand several messages at the same time, especially those of the same type, we will have to sacrifice accuracy. Our everyday experience tells us that we pay more attention to some features of the environment than others, and that those features that we pay attention to tend to be further processed, and those that do not receive it may not be further processed. . Which signs we pay attention to and which ones we don't - it depends on a certain control over the situation on our part and on our long-term experience. In all cases, the mechanism of attention switches to some stimuli, preferring them to others, although not all of the latter are necessarily completely excluded from attention: they can be tracked and filtered out.

The fact that our attention is selective has several explanations. First, our ability to process information is limited by "bandwidth". Secondly, we can to some extent control what we put our attention on. If two characters are talking at the same time, we can choose which one to listen to. Thirdly, the perception of events is related to our “level of arousal”, which, in turn, is related to our interest. Finally, what you pay attention to is part of your conscious experience. These four themes constitute the "active center" of attention research.

1.3. Attention Properties

Characterizing attention, one distinguishes the degree of its concentration (concentration), which determines such a value as the amount of attention, its intensity (or tension), the distribution of attention, its stability or distractibility, switching attention. The opposite of attention is distraction. The properties (qualities) of attention are shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Qualities of attention.

Thus, there are five main properties of attention, which we will consider below.

1.3.1 Stability of attention

Sustainability of attention- a property of attention, manifested in the ability for a long time to maintain a state of attention on any object, subject of activity, without being distracted and without weakening attention.

This is his characteristic in time. Stability of attention does not mean its focus all the time on the same object. The objects of actions and the actions themselves can change (and most often they do), but the general direction of the activity must remain constant. However, the general direction of activity, determined by the task to be performed (read or write a given text, etc.), continues to remain the same all the time. They say about stable attention, therefore, when a person is long absorbed in some business subordinated to one task.

Physiologically, the stability of attention means that the centers of optimal excitability are consistently those parts of the cerebral cortex that regulate actions that are links in one activity.

One of the important conditions for the stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. Anything monotonous quickly reduces attention. With prolonged exposure to the same stimulus, excitation, due to negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of ​​the cortex, and this serves as the physiological basis for reducing attention. It is difficult to keep attention for a long time on one thing. If there is a change of objects or actions performed, attention remains at a high level for a long time. In order to keep attention on one thing for a long time, it is necessary all the time to reveal more and more new sides in the same thing, to raise different questions in relation to it, to perform different actions subordinate to the common goal that is being pursued. K.S.Stanislavsky correctly characterized the meaning of this condition, saying that in order to be attentive, it is not enough, even very closely, to look at an object, but it is necessary to consider it from different points of view, to diversify its perception.

To be attentive, it is especially important to perform any actions with the subject. This maintains the active state of the cerebral cortex, which is necessary to maintain optimal excitability of its individual sections, which is typical for attention.

Of great importance are outwardly expressed practical actions with objects, operating with them. This contributes to a variety of impressions received, a more complete, versatile acquaintance with the subject, and a better perception of it.

Great is the importance of internal, mental activity, which should be aimed at solving such problems, the content of which requires the best reflection of the object of attention. Setting within the same more and more new particular tasks and active attempts to solve them is one of the most important conditions for sustaining attention.

Even when performing simple and repetitive actions, attention can be maintained for a long time if it is constantly supported by such stimuli that each time require the performance of a certain action.

In Dobrynin's experiments, the subjects had to cross out circles with a pencil that quickly (at a speed of up to three per second) passed in front of them in the window of the screen, behind which was a tape (rewound from shaft to shaft) with circles printed on it, moving at a certain speed. The results of the experiments showed that under these conditions, the subjects could work without errors (despite the high speed of the tape) for a long time - up to 20 minutes. During this time they had to cross out up to 3600 circles.

The state opposite to the stability of attention is its distractibility. Its physiological basis is either external inhibition caused by extraneous stimuli, or internal inhibition as a result of the monotony of activity or the prolonged action of the same stimuli.

The distracting effect of extraneous stimuli depends on the nature of these stimuli and their relationship to what attention is directed to. Homogeneous stimuli, i.e. similar to those on which attention is focused, have a more distracting effect than heterogeneous stimuli. Visual stimuli, for example, if it is necessary to respond to some visual impression, have a more inhibitory effect than when, during the action of extraneous visual stimuli, it is necessary to respond to auditory stimuli.

The nature of the activity requiring attention is very important. Perception, for example, suffers less from the action of extraneous stimuli than mental activity that is not currently based on the perception of surrounding objects. Of the processes of perception, they suffer less from extraneous stimuli visual perceptions.

Periodic distraction or weakening of attention, interspersed with a return to the same object or with an increase in focus on it, is called wavering attention.

Fluctuations in attention occur even with very concentrated work, which is explained by the constant change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex.

The presence of periodic fluctuations in attention can be well detected in the perception of the so-called dual images. To reduce fluctuations in attention, it is useful to try to mentally imagine the pyramid as, for example, a pedestal (then it will seem to be facing us) or as an empty room in which three walls, a floor and a ceiling are visible (then the pyramid will seem to be facing away from us). Giving an image a specific objective meaning helps keep attention in one direction.

Small fluctuations in attention are observed very often. In a number of experiments on the study of the reaction rate, in which, in response to the action of some stimulus (sound, light), it is required to make a predetermined movement as soon as possible (for example, to press an electric key with a hand), it was found that if the supply of the stimulus is preceded by a warning signal “Attention!”, the best result is obtained when this signal is given approximately 2 seconds before the stimulus is given. With a longer time interval, there is already a fluctuation of attention. Such small fluctuations, of course, are harmful only when a very quick reaction to some short-term stimulus is required from a person. In conditions of longer and more varied work, their influence can be negligible.

Not every side irritation causes a distraction. In the complete absence of any external stimuli, holding attention is again difficult. Weak side stimuli do not reduce, but increase excitation in the focus of increased excitability. The dominant, according to Ukhtomsky's data, is not weakened, but is maintained by excitations caused by the action of side stimuli (unless, of course, by virtue of their inherent characteristics, they are not such that they themselves are able to evoke a new dominant corresponding to them).

1.3.2. attention span

attention span- a property of attention, manifested in the differences that exist in the degree of concentration of attention on some objects and its distraction from others. The narrower the circle of objects of attention, the more concentrated (concentrated) it is.

Physiologically, concentration of attention is a pronounced limitation of the focus of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex.

The number of objects to which attention is distributed during their simultaneous perception is the volume of attention.

1.3.3. attention span

attention span- a property of attention, which is determined by the amount of information that can simultaneously be stored in the sphere of increased attention (consciousness) of a person.

That we selectively direct our attention to some part of all available signs is evident from many common situations.

The amount of attention depends both on the characteristics of the perceived objects, and on the task and nature of the activity of the perceiving person.

If, for example, one presents for a short period of time letters that are arranged in a line, but do not make up words, and offer to identify them, then the number of letters called in this case is much less than when letters that make up one or more words are shown. In the first case, a clear perception of each letter is required to complete the task. In the second case, the same problem is solved with insufficiently clear perception of some of the letters that form the word.

Significant changes in the volume of attention are observed with the variation of many other features of objects. When showing, for example, single-color letters, the amount of attention is greater than when presenting letters painted in different colors. With the same arrangement of letters in a line, it is larger than when the letters are placed at different angles to each other. With the same size of letters, they are perceived in greater numbers than when they all have different sizes, etc.

Consequently, with the same task, the amount of attention turns out to be unequal due to differences in the perceived material. However, if the task of perception becomes more complicated when the same objects are presented, then the amount of attention can change significantly. So, if, when displaying letters that do not make up a word, the task is to indicate some irregularities in the spelling of letters, or to name the color of each letter separately (upon presentation of multi-colored letters), then the number of letters considered in accordance with this task turns out to be less, than when it is necessary to name them. The decrease in the amount of attention is caused in these cases by the fact that this work requires a clearer perception of each letter separately compared to what is needed only for the identification of letters. With the same material, the amount of attention is, therefore, not the same due to differences in the task and nature of perception.

As shown by numerous experiments (carried out for the first time in the laboratory of Wundt and others), the amount of attention in the perception of homogeneous, but in no way related objects (for example, individual letters) in adults varies on average from 4 to 6 objects.

In laboratory conditions, the following experiments are carried out to determine the amount of attention.

A special apparatus is placed in front of the test subject, which serves for this purpose - a tachistoscope. In the middle of the vertical plane of this apparatus, an exposition card is fixed, on which a certain number of letters, or numbers, or some figures are drawn. In front of this plane there is a falling screen, which has a slot in the middle, equal in area to the exposition card. Before the start of the experiment, the card is closed by the bottom of the screen, raised up. When the screen falls, the card opens for a while (when a slot in the screen passes by it) and then closes again with the lowered upper part of the screen. The duration of the exposure is limited to a short period of time in order to make the perception of all objects as simultaneous as possible. Usually this time does not exceed 0.1 second, since during such a period the eye does not have time to make any noticeable movements and the perception of objects practically occurs simultaneously. The number of objects perceived during such a short-term display characterizes the amount of attention.

To check the amount of attention, you can use cards with the image of various objects presented for a short period of time (for example, see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. The volume of attention (watch for 3-4 seconds, then list the items that are remembered)

1.3.4. Switching attention

Switching attention- a property that manifests itself in the speed of transferring attention from one object to another.

In many cases, the shift in attention is intentional and is caused by the fact that we have already completed the previous work, or we consider the new one to be more important or interesting. If, when attention is turned off, the activity being performed is disturbed (due to the action of extraneous stimuli), then when attention is switched, one activity is legitimately replaced by another. And the faster it is carried out, the faster, therefore, the switching of attention occurs. On the contrary, the long aftereffect of the previous activity, its inhibitory influence on the new activity, means a slow and insufficient switching of attention.

The speed and success of switching attention depends on how intensely it was attracted to the previous activity, as well as on the nature of the new objects and new actions to which it is transferred. The more intensive attention was before and the less new objects (or new activity) meet the conditions for attracting attention, the more difficult it is to switch it.

Physiologically, the switching of attention means the occurrence of inhibition in the previously existing focus of excitation and the appearance in the cerebral cortex of a new focus of optimal excitability.

1.3.5. Distribution of attention

Distribution of attention- a property of attention, manifested in the ability to disperse attention over a significant space, simultaneously perform several types of activities or perform several different actions.

Various methods are used to study the distribution of attention (Fig. 3).

In the laboratory, the distribution of attention can be studied, for example, under conditions of work on a special caliper. A metal plate with a slot of one form or another is fixed on its upper surface. A metal needle can move along this slot, driven by two rotating handles of the caliper. The rotation of one of them gives the needle a longitudinal direction, the rotation of the other - the transverse direction. By simultaneously turning both handles, you can move the needle in any direction. The task of the subject is to distribute attention between two actions (rotation of both handles), move the needle so that it does not touch the edge of the slot (otherwise, a current circuit will result, registering an error). In all such cases, a special organization of activity is required, which characterizes the distribution of attention.

The organization of activities that contribute to the distribution of attention is characterized by the fact that only one of the actions is carried out with a sufficiently complete and clear reflection of what is needed for its implementation, while all other actions are performed with a limited reflection of what is required for them.

How difficult it is to achieve such a distribution of attention under the action of heterogeneous stimuli coinciding in time can be judged by the fact that usually in these cases one of the stimuli is noticed first and only after some (albeit a very short) time - the second. This can be verified using the so-called complication apparatus (designed for experiments with complication, i.e., a combination of heterogeneous stimuli). The device consists of a dial with 100 divisions, on which the arrow rapidly rotates. When the arrow passes through one of the divisions, a bell sounds. The task of the subject is to determine which division the arrow was on when the bell rang. Usually, the subject does not name the division on which the arrow was located during the call, but either preceding it or following it. His attention, therefore, is directed first to one stimulus (a bell or the position of an arrow) and only then, with some delay, to another.

Physiologically, the distribution of attention is possible because if there is a dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, in some other areas of the cortex there is only partial inhibition, as a result of which these areas can control simultaneously performed actions.

The possibility of performing actions with partial inhibition of the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex is the greater, the more habitual and automated actions are. Therefore, the simultaneous execution of actions is easier than better man mastered them. This is one of the most important conditions for the distribution of attention.

In Dobrynin's experiments (using work on a caliper), the subjects were forced to perform mental calculations while working on a caliper. The study showed that such a combination of mental work with complex manual work is possible if the work on the caliper is performed more or less automatically.

The relation in which simultaneously performed actions are to each other is also essential. If they are not related, it is difficult to perform them simultaneously. On the contrary, if by virtue of their content or frequent repetition in previous experience they have already formed a certain system of actions, it is easier to perform them simultaneously.

1.3.6. Intensity attention

Intensity attention characterized by the degree of its focus on these objects and the simultaneous distraction from everything else. This is the most vivid reflection of what generally characterizes attention. With intense attention, a person is completely absorbed in what attention is directed to, does not see, does not hear, in addition to this, nothing that happens around him.

A high intensity of attention is achieved when, to the maximum extent, there is something that characterizes the conditions of attention (the action of strong stimuli that stand out sharply against the general background, interest in an object or phenomenon, their importance for solving a task facing a person, etc.) .

The physiological basis of intense attention is the presence of a pronounced excitation in one of the brain foci, with an equally pronounced inhibition of the rest of the cortex. The action of extraneous stimuli in these cases does not cause (or hardly causes) in the focus of optimal excitability the inhibition that occurs in other states of the cortex.

Both of these features of attention - its concentration and intensity - are closely related. The narrower the circle of objects to which attention is directed, the greater the possibility of increased attention to them. And vice versa, the more objects are covered by attention, the more difficult it is to achieve its high level. When intense attention to something is required, the circle of objects to which it is directed narrows.

1.3.7. distraction

The opposite of attention is distraction. This is a state when a person cannot thoroughly and for a long time keep his attention on anything, he is constantly distracted by outsiders, and nothing attracts his attention for a long time, and immediately gives way to something else.

Such a state, characterized by complete disorganization of activity, often occurs in a state of great fatigue. Physiologically, it means the absence of any strong and persistent focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex. It can also be based on a very high mobility of nervous processes - the speed and ease of changing excitation by inhibition in the same areas of the cerebral cortex.

It is important to note that absent-mindedness is also often called a state that is completely opposite to the just indicated state, characterized not by a lack of concentration, not by low intensity, not by insufficient stability of attention, but, on the contrary, by its high intensity and prolonged retention on one thing, due to which a person is completely unable to notices everything else, forgets what he had to do, and so on. Such absent-mindedness in many cases is also highly undesirable, but it does not speak of a lack of attention, but of its qualitative originality - of its maximum subordination to any one task and complete distraction from everything else.