THINKING

1. The ability of a person to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts.

"The brain is the organ of thought"

Basic operations of thinking

The main types of mental operations:

Most often, thinking is divided into theoretical And practical. At the same time, in theoretical thinking there are conceptual And figurative thinking, but in practice visual-figurative And visually effective.

Conceptual thinking is thinking in which certain concepts are used. At the same time, when solving certain mental problems, we do not turn to searching for any new information using special methods, but use ready-made knowledge obtained by other people and expressed in the form of concepts, judgments, and conclusions.

Figurative thinking is a type of thought process in which images are used. These images are retrieved directly from memory or recreated by the imagination. In the course of solving mental problems, the corresponding images

It should be noted that the conceptual creative thinking, being varieties of theoretical thinking, in practice are in constant interaction. They complement each other, revealing to us different aspects of life. Conceptual thinking provides the most accurate and generalized reflection of reality, but this reflection is abstract. In turn, figurative thinking allows you to get a specific subjective reflection of the environment. us reality. Thus, conceptual and figurative thinking complement each other and provide a deep and versatile reflection of reality.

Visual-figurative thinking - this is a kind of thought process that is carried out directly in the perception of the surrounding reality and cannot be carried out without it. Thinking visually-figuratively, we are attached to reality, and the necessary images are presented in short-term and operative memory. This form of thinking is dominant in preschool and younger children. school age.

Visual-effective thinking - this is a special kind of thinking, the essence of which lies in the practical transformational activity carried out with real objects. This type of thinking is widely represented among people engaged in production work, the result of which is the creation of some material product.

It should be noted that all these types of thinking can be considered as levels of its development. Theoretical thinking is considered more perfect than practical, and conceptual is more high level development than figurative.

Basic forms of thinking

Concept - it is a reflection of the general and essential properties of objects or phenomena. Concepts are based on our knowledge of these objects or phenomena. It is customary to distinguish are common And single concepts.

General concepts are those that cover a whole class of homogeneous objects or phenomena that bear the same name. For example, the concepts of “chair”, “building”, “disease”, “person”, etc. The general concepts reflect the features that are characteristic of all objects that are united by the corresponding concept.

Singular are called concepts denoting any one object. For example, "Yenisei", "Venus", "Saratov", etc. Single concepts are a collection of knowledge about any one subject, but at the same time reflect properties that can be covered by another, more general concept. For example, the concept of "Yenisei" includes the fact that it is a river that flows through the territory of Russia.

Another essential feature of understanding is validity, i.e., awareness of the grounds by virtue of which our understanding of an object or phenomenon must be considered correct. It should be noted that not every understanding can be substantiated. There are times when we cannot prove the truth of our judgments.

There are several types of understanding. First, this immediate understanding. It is characterized by the fact that it is achieved immediately, almost instantly, without requiring significant effort. Secondly, this indirect or discursive understanding. This type of understanding is characterized by the presence of significant efforts that we make to achieve an understanding of an object or phenomenon. This type of understanding presupposes the presence of a number of mental operations, including comparison, distinction, analysis, synthesis, etc.

However, in the process of our operating with various judgments using certain mental operations, another form of thinking may arise - inference. Inference is the highest form of thinking and is a

The main types of mental operations

The main types of mental operations include: comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, induction and deduction.

Comparison. The operation of establishing similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of the real world is called comparison. When we look at two objects, we always notice how they are similar or how they differ.

Recognition of the similarity or difference between objects depends on what properties of the compared objects are essential for us. It should be noted that it is precisely because of this that we consider the same objects in one case to be similar to each other, and in the other case we do not see any similarity between them. For example, if you lay out wardrobe items according to color and purpose, then in each of these cases the set of things on one shelf will be different.

We can always carry out the comparison operation in two ways; directly or indirectly. When we can compare two objects or phenomena, perceiving them simultaneously, we use direct comparison. In cases where we compare by inference, we use an indirect comparison. In indirect comparison, we use indirect signs to build our conclusion. For example, a child, in order to determine how much he has grown, compares his height with the marks on the door jamb.

Abstraction and concretization. Abstraction - this is a mental distraction from any parts or properties of an object in order to highlight its essential features. The essence of abstraction as a mental operation is that, perceiving an object and highlighting a certain part in it, we must consider the selected part or property independently of other parts and properties.

Induction and deduction. In mental operations, it is customary to distinguish between two main types of inference: inductive, or induction, and deductive, or deduction.

Induction- this is the transition from special cases to a general provision that covers special cases. that in the process of induction we can make certain mistakes and the conclusion we have made may not be reliable enough. The reliability of inductive reasoning is achieved not only by increasing the number of cases on which it is based, but also by using a variety of examples in which insignificant features of objects and phenomena vary.

Deduction- this is a conclusion made in relation to a particular case on the basis of a general position. For example, knowing that all numbers whose sum of digits is a multiple of three are divisible by three, we can say that the number 412815 is divisible by three. At the same time, knowing that all birches shed their leaves for the winter, we can be sure that any individual birch will also be without leaves in winter. . Through deduction, we can use our knowledge of general patterns to predict specific facts. For example, based on the knowledge of the causes that cause a particular disease, medicine builds its preventive measures to prevent this disease.

The teacher seeks not to understand the meaning of the task by the student and the formation of search paths independent decision, but teaches him how to use the existing solutions in practice. As a result, the student develops skills practical thinking.

However, there are cases when a person with highly developed thinking tries to solve problems that are not similar to any of the known ones, that do not have a ready-made solution. To solve such problems, we must turn to the capabilities of our creative thinking.

thought processes

The mental activity of a person is a solution to various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. A mental operation is one of the ways of mental activity through which a person solves mental problems.

Thinking operations are varied. This is analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, classification. Which of the logical operations a person will use will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he subjects to mental processing.

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis- this is a mental decomposition of the whole into parts or a mental separation from the whole of its sides, actions, relations.

Synthesis- the reverse process of thought to analysis, it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relations into one whole.

Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental.

Analysis and synthesis were formed in practical activities person. In labor activity, people constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Practical development of them led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.

Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena.

The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to select one or more of their features, according to which the comparison will be made.

The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be different levels superficial and deeper. In this case, a person's thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from the visible to the hidden, from the phenomenon to the essence.

abstraction- this is a process of mental abstraction from some signs, aspects of the concrete in order to better know it.

A person mentally highlights some feature of an object and considers it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracted from them. An isolated study of individual features of an object, while simultaneously abstracting from all the others, helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking.

Specification- a process that is inverse to abstraction and is inextricably linked with it.

Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content.

Thinking activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to reveal what is common in them, in order to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.

Generalization, thus, there is a selection in objects and phenomena of the general, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.

Mental processes and personality traits: language and speech

1. Speech and language. Stages of development and physiological basis speech.

The word and speech are the most important content and structural components of the psyche. Studies by psychologists and physiologists have shown that the word is associated with all manifestations of the human psyche. At the level of sensations, speech affects the thresholds of sensitivity, that is, it determines the conditions for the passage of the stimulus. The structure of language leaves an imprint on the structure of perception. The selection of an object from the background, the formation of a holistic image depends on the task of perception, set verbally. Representation is evoked by the word and is closely connected with it. Human feelings are caused not only by objects of the material world: a word can encourage a person and hurt, humiliate and elevate. Intentions as a component of personality and will are expressed in the word. A particularly close connection exists between thinking and speech. The thought exists in the word.

The concept of language and speech.

Language is a system of signs functioning as a means of communication and a tool of thought.

The language includes words with their meanings and syntax (a set of rules by which sentences are built). The means from which a linguistic message is built are phonemes (oral speech) and graphemes ( written language). Words and sentences are built from them, fixing the experience of mankind.

IN vocabulary language, knowledge about the world of a given community of people who use them is preserved.

A language that is not used for living speech communication, but which has been preserved in written sources, is called dead.

A language can survive the society that created it and act as the most valuable cultural monument of a lost civilization.

Speech- the process of communication through language. The subject of psychological study is speech.

The difference between language and speech is as follows:

Language- an objective phenomenon of the life of society, it is one for the whole people and covers all the diversity of phenomena known to people.

There are normative rules for pronunciation and grammar, stylistics of a given language.

(By the way, in communication a person uses an insignificant part of the language wealth. Even in the language of great writers, there are from 10,000 to 20,000 words, while the language contains several hundred thousand words. The speech of an individual has features of pronunciation, vocabulary, sentence structure. According to these features speech can identify a person).

Stages of speech development

The development of speech went along the line:

Complex kinetic speech (about 0.5 million years ago) - the transfer of information using body movement; at the same time, the movements of communication and the movements associated with labor are not differentiated from each other;

Manual kinetic speech (sign language) is more differentiated (and is now actively used by the deaf and dumb);

Sound speech (more than 100,000 years ago) - in the form of individual words;

Creation of writing.

In turn, the stages of development of writing are as follows:

Picturesque pictographic writing (c. 4000 BC)

Story in pictures;

Ideagraphic writing (by means of hieroglyphs) (for example, the Chinese hieroglyph meaning "crisis" consists of two characters: one means "danger", the other - "opportunity";

Actually letter writing (It was invented by the ancient Phoenicians and was called alphabetic writing and is closely related to oral speech: a phoneme (sound of speech) is indicated by a grapheme (letter).

A small number of graphemes can express any idea in writing.

Physiological bases of speech.

Speech support systems are divided into peripheral and central.

The structures of g.m. belong to the central ones, and the peripheral ones

The irritant of this signaling system is not objects and their properties, but words. As a stimulus, the word exists in three forms: the audible, the visible, and the spoken word.

The second signaling system works in unity with the first. Violation of interaction leads to the fact that speech turns into a meaningless stream of words.

In the cerebral cortex, the auditory speech center (Wernicke's center) is isolated (left hemisphere, temporal lobe). With its defeat, the patient hears words, but does not understand their meaning (sensory aphasia).

There is also a motor center (Broca's center) (left hemisphere, frontal lobe). With its defeat, the patient understands speech, but cannot speak with the complete preservation of the peripheral speech production apparatus (motor aphasia). Understanding the meaning of speech is associated with the functioning of the associative zones of the cortex, the defeat of which leads to a misunderstanding of the meaning of speech when understanding its individual words.

2. Classification of types of speech.

In psychology, there are two forms of speech: external and internal. External speech is divided into oral (dialogical and monologue) and written.

Dialogic speech. Dialogue is a direct communication between two or more people.

Features of the dialogue.

First, dialogue-speech is supported.

Secondly, the dialogue is conducted with the direct contact of the speakers. (The speakers influence each other with gestures, facial expressions, timbre and intonation of the voice, often jointly observe the subject under discussion).

Thirdly, the current situation is discussed in the dialogue. (The subject being discussed is often given in perception or exists in joint activity).

Thematically directed dialogue is called conversation.

The purpose of the conversation may be to determine the level of knowledge, the impact on the listeners: persuasion, inspiring impact.

monologue speech. One person's conversation. Its features:

It is continuous (therefore, active expressive-mimic and gestural influence is carried out by the speaker);

It must be consistent and conclusive;

It must use correct grammar.

In dialogic speech, slips of the tongue, unfinished phrases, and inaccurate use of words are not so noticeable. The situation of mutual communication smooths out the listed shortcomings.

Types of monologue:

Oral story (The most ancient, original form of a monologue is an oral story. In a story, the speaker conveys in a descriptive form what he saw, heard or learned, unknown to listeners).

Lecture. (it gives not only a description of the phenomena, but also provides proof of certain scientific provisions).

Report and speech (speech). (A report is a thoughtful oral report on a specific issue, based on the presentation of factual material and its generalization. For example, a report by the school principal on the "results school year, a report on the results of the scientific experiment etc. The task of speech is different - it must awaken a certain thought and reach the heart of the listeners. The speech explains, explains something about an event, occasion, celebration. This, for example, is the speech of the principal of the school in connection with the beginning of the school year, the speech at the opening of the monument).

The development of such mass media as radio and television has created the most difficult form of monologue speech.

Performing in front of a microphone and television camera.

Monologue speech in all its forms requires preparation.

Written speech.

Written speech appeared later than oral speech and was associated with the need to fix for a longer period, to convey to posterity information about certain events.

Written speech does not have any additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the word itself and the punctuation marks that organize the sentence.

Written speech is addressed to the widest range of readers.

Written speech allows you to join the world culture.

Inner speech.

Inner speech is not aimed at communicating with other people. Inner speech is a person's conversation with himself. In inner speech, thinking flows, intentions arise and plans are made.

actions.

The main feature of inner speech is its unpronounceability, it is soundless. Inner speech is divided into inner speakers and inner speech proper.

Inner speech differs in structure from outer speech in that it is folded, most of the minor members of the sentence are omitted in it.

Inner speech, like outer speech, exists as a kinesthetic, auditory or visual image.

In contrast to internal speech proper, internal utterance coincides in structure with external speech. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.

Functions of speech.

Expression (relation to what is being said);

Impact (inciting other people to a certain action (order, appeal, persuasion));

Messages (exchange of thoughts and information using words)

Designation (name of an object, action, state) - this function distinguishes human speech from animals;

Generalization (the word denotes not only a given subject, but also a group of similar objects and the common thing that is inherent in them). If the function of designation establishes the connection of the word with all images of consciousness, then generalization expresses the close connection of speech with thinking. Speech is a form of the existence of thought, the most adequate for abstract-logical thinking.

(The result of the speech depends on how it was said. Thus, in ancient times, one ruler had a dream: one by one his teeth fell out. He called for an interpreter of dreams. He said, "I have to tell you bad news. You will lose one by one all his loved ones. "The ruler was angry and invited another interpreter. He said," I have good news for you. You will live longer, longer than all the other members of your family. You will outlive them all. The ruler rewarded the interpreter. to understand and say, but also to present the content in a convenient way).

3. Speech properties of personality.

Orientation of personality and style of speech.

The speech reveals the orientation of the personality: its interests, needs, beliefs. Firstly, the orientation of the personality determines the content, the subject of a person's conversations. Secondly, a person returns to the subject of his interests many times both in thoughts and in communication.

To characterize the cultural level of a person, the concept of speech style is used.

The lowest style is the disorganized colloquial style of speech, in which the speaker uses imprecise words and expressions, many interjections and weed words.

On the basis of colloquial dialogic speech, a figurative-emotional style arises. It is characterized by the purity of the language, the figurativeness of expressions, the exact transmission of thoughts and words without the use of scientific terminology.

The scientific and business style of speech has developed in the process of scientific communication. This style of speech is more dry, less rich in figurative expressions. It is characterized by the inclusion of a large amount of scientific terminology.

All three speech styles express the professional activity of a person. This affects the choice of words (lexicon), the nature of comparisons, images.

Speech is not only communication, but also the process of mutual influence of people participating in the communication process.

Moral-volitional qualities of personality, temperament and speech.

In speech, the moral and volitional qualities of the individual are manifested. It also shows confidence, conviction, timidity,

reverence, arrogance, respect. Character traits are manifested in the content of a person's statements.

An important point is the volitional self-regulation of speech. Speech is influenced by human feelings.

Even in the "Book of Entertaining Stories", written by Abul-Faraj in the 13th century, advice is given on how to recognize a person by speech:

“He who speaks in a gradually lowering voice is undoubtedly deeply saddened by something; who always speaks in a weak voice is timid like a lamb; he who speaks piercingly and incoherently is stupid like a goat.”

T temperament And character

1. THE CONCEPT OF TEMPERAMENT. Temperament means natural features behaviors typical for a given person and manifested in the dynamics, tone and balance of reactions to life influences.

T. (from Lat. temperamentum - the proper ratio of features) - the x-ka of the individual from the side of the dynamic features of his psyche (tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity).

The leading components of t. are:

The general mental activity of the individual (the desire of the individual for self-expression, effective development and transformation of external reality; it ranges from lethargy, inertia, contemplation - to energy, swiftness of action, constant upsurge);

Motor (motor component (speed, sharpness, rhythm, strength, amplitude of muscle movements and speech features);

Emotionality (x-Xia features of the emergence, flow and cessation of various emotions); it primarily includes impressionability (emotional sensitivity), impulsivity (the speed of the emergence and manifestation of emotions without weighing their consequences) and emotional lability (the speed of switching from one type of experience to another).

T. Features:

Due to the biological organization of the individual;

Affects x-r mental manifestations of the individual (emotional manifestations, thought processes, pace and rhythm of speech);

Socially conditioned traits of a person (interests, attitudes, hobbies) do not depend on t.

Teaching about temperament.

humoral theory The ancestor of the doctrine of temperament is an ancient Greek physician Hippocrates(V century BC). He believed that there are four fluids in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. One of the fluids predominates, which determines the temperament of a person. The names of temperaments given by the name of liquids have survived to this day. So, choleric temperament comes from the word chole (bile), sanguine - from sanguis (blood), phlegmatic - from phlegma (mucus), melancholic - from melan chole (black bile).

Constitutional typologies (dependence of temperament on body type):

- E. Kretschmer (his teachings gained particular popularity in Europe)

rope).

Neurodynamic theory

Temperament theory I.P. Pavlova(depending on the ratio of the main nervous processes- strength, balance and mobility singled out the following types:

Sanguine (strong, balanced, mobile);

Choleric (strong, unbalanced, mobile);

Phlegmatic (strong, balanced, sedentary);

Melancholic (weak, unbalanced, slow-moving)

But besides them, there are many more intermediate types.

The strength of nervous processes is an indicator of performance nerve cells And nervous system generally. A strong nervous system can withstand a large and prolonged load.

Balance is the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. These processes can be balanced with each other in strength, or they can be unbalanced - one of them can be stronger than the other.

Mobility is the rate of change from one process to another. It provides adaptation to unexpected and abrupt changes in circumstances.

Temperament does not determine the ability and talent of a person.

So, A.S. Pushkin had a choleric temperament, A.I. Herzen - sanguine, I.V. Gogol and V.A. Zhukovsky - melancholic, I.A. Krylov and I.A. Goncharov - phlegmatic . A.V. Suvorov - choleric, M.I. Kutuzov - phlegmatic.

2. Brief x-ka temperaments (according to I.P. Pavlov):

Pavlov identified the type of nervous activity and temperament. However, the type of nervous activity does not always coincide with the type of temperament. The type of nervous activity should be considered as the deposit of temperament. Thus, it has been established that, other things being equal, passive-defensive behavior is predominantly observed in animals with a weak type of nervous system, and aggressive behavior is observed in strong, unbalanced individuals.

Temperament is manifested in emotional, mental and volitional processes. When people talk about the temperament of a person, they do not mean the dynamics of isolated psychological processes, but the whole syndrome (system) of dynamic features of the holistic behavior of the individual.

choleric temperament. Representatives of this type are characterized by increased excitability, unbalanced behavior, irascibility, aggressiveness, and energy in activity. They are characterized by cyclical work. They are able to devote themselves to the cause with all their passion, to get carried away by it. At this time, they are ready to overcome any difficulties and obstacles on the way to the goal. But now their strength has been exhausted, faith in their capabilities has fallen, and they do nothing. Such cyclicity is one of the consequences of the imbalance of their nervous activity.

Sanguine temperament. Hot, productive, but only when he has an interesting job. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring, lethargic.

The sanguine person is characterized by great mobility, easy adaptability to changing living conditions. He quickly finds contact with people, is sociable, does not feel constrained in a new environment. In a team, a sanguine person is cheerful, cheerful, willingly takes up a living business, capable of passion. However, developing vigorous activity, he can cool off just as quickly as he can quickly get carried away if the business ceases to interest him, if it requires painstaking and patience, if it has an everyday character.

In a sanguine person, emotions easily arise, easily change. The sanguine person is prone to wit, quickly grasps new things, easily

shifts attention. Productive in dynamic and varied work. Work that requires a quick reaction, and at the same time balance, is most suitable for him.

Phlegmatic temperament.

Phlegmatic - calm, balanced, always even; persevering and stubborn worker of life. Balance and some inertia of nervous processes allow the phlegmatic to easily remain calm in any conditions.

The phlegmatic person is solid, he does not waste his strength in vain: having calculated them, he brings the matter to the end. He is even in relationships, moderately sociable, does not like to chat in vain.

The disadvantage of the phlegmatic is its inertia, inactivity. He needs time to build up, he is not flexible enough. Phlegmatic people are especially suitable for work that requires methodicalness, composure and long-term performance.

Melancholy temperament. Representatives of this type are distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, increased vulnerability. Melancholic people are closed, especially if they meet new people, are indecisive in difficult circumstances, experience strong fear in dangerous situations.

The weakness of the nervous processes leads to the fact that any strong impact slows down the activity of the melancholic, and he has an outrageous inhibition. And a weak irritation is subjectively experienced by him as a strong influence, and therefore the melancholic is inclined to give himself up to experience for an insignificant reason.

In a familiar environment, and especially in a good, friendly team, a melancholic person can be quite a contact person, successfully carry out assigned work, persevere and overcome difficulties.

3. The relationship of temperament with other personality characteristics.

Calm, even phlegmatic person under certain circumstances, shows an emotional outburst and behaves like a choleric, and choleric under certain conditions, he manifests himself as a melancholic: he experiences a feeling of depression, insecurity, etc. Such observations have led some psychologists to conclude that there are intermediate types.

For a choleric, a state of elation or affectivity is typical, for a phlegmatic - calm restraint, for a melancholic - uncertainty, etc.

Temperament and activity.

In some cases, the activity requires strong and fast reactions, in others, smooth and slow actions. Each type of activity has its own pace and dynamics, and a person, engaging in this or that activity, inevitably develops the qualities required by it.

The formation of individual styles of activity allows a person with any type of temperament to work in any profession that is not related to extreme activity.

temperament and relationships.

The picture of a person's behavior is often determined by the relationship of a person to a task or to another person making demands, depending on the interests, needs and orientation of the individual.

With a positive attitude to work, the pace and rhythm of work accelerate, a person works with more energy, and does not get tired for a long time. Conversely, with a negative attitude, a slow pace of work is observed, a feeling of fatigue quickly sets in, and the tone of activity decreases. The dependence of the dynamics and tone of emotional life on the relationship of the individual to various life events is especially clearly revealed.

The culture of behavior leaves an imprint on the manifestations of temperament.

So, there are people who not only do not want to restrain themselves, but deliberately cause outbursts of anger, joy, despair, etc.

Culture consists in the fact that a person builds his behavior in accordance with the morality accepted in society.

In addition to moral qualities, will is of great importance in the regulation of behavior.

Temperament leaves an imprint on the will. On the basis of a phlegmatic temperament, a methodical, intellectual form of will can rather be formed; on the basis of choleric-emotional-impulsive will. Volitional qualities of character allow you to master the properties of temperament and regulate its manifestation in the process of activity.

A strong will allows a person to restrain and even "remove" impulsiveness, to master his emotions.

Ways to identify temperament:

By the nature of activity and emotionality (external manifestations);

With the help of special questionnaires.

Character, its structure. Individual and typical in character.

THE CONCEPT OF CHARACTER.

Character(from the Greek charakter - printing, chasing) - a set of pronounced and relatively stable features of a person that leave an imprint on his behavior and actions.

In life, a person is usually characterized as an egoist or as a collectivist, kind or stingy, delicate or rude, decisive or indecisive, persistent, suggestible or independent, courageous or alarmist, modest or boastful, hot or cold, etc.

Character- this is a holistic education, including the most diverse properties of the mental make-up of the individual.

H. reflects both the conditions in which a person lives and the direction of education.

The formation of X.'s features is influenced by:

Conditions of life and activity (in the present or past);

Features of education;

The state of human health;

VND type.

H. manifests itself in:

Deeds and actions;

In speech (its features);

Mimike ( appearance, especially the features of the face);

Pantomime (posture, gait).

- in clothes, etc.

x value:

It affects the success of prof. activities;

For the life of small social groups (family, team);

For the state of health

TO main groups of character traits include:

Moral (sensitivity, attention, delicacy);

Strong-willed (decisiveness, perseverance, firmness);

Emotional (temper, passion, tenderness).

Positive properties:

Moral upbringing of character. It characterizes a person in terms of directions and forms of behavior.

Completeness of character. It testifies to the versatility of aspirations and hobbies of a person, a variety of activities.

Character definition. It is expressed in the stability of behavior.

Strength of character. This is the energy with which a person pursues his goals.

Strength of character. It manifests itself in the sequence of actions and perseverance of a person, in the conscious upholding of views and decisions.

Balance of character. This is the best for

activities and communication with people the ratio of restraint and activity.

Character is formed in the process of cognition and practical activity.

Completeness and strength of character depend on the range of impressions and variety of activities.

The character of a particular person reflects both the socio-historical conditions in which he lives and the direction of education, since both the first and second conditions determine certain personality traits.

Ways to change character:

self-education

Education (constructive criticism, stimulation of behavior by moral and material means, etc.)

INDIVIDUAL AND TYPICAL IN CHARACTER

Character- a socio-historical phenomenon. There can be no characters outside of time and space.

There are certain characters of certain historical eras, the characters of specific individuals.

Personality as a carrier of character is a member of society and is associated with it in various relationships. Being a member of society, and in a class society a member of a class, a person is in certain economic, political and cultural conditions that are common both to him and to many other people - members of this society, class. These conditions form common typical character traits.

Thus, people of one nation to a certain extent share the national conditions of life that have developed over generations, experience the specific features of national life, develop under the influence of the prevailing national culture, language. Therefore, people of one nation differ in their way of life, habits, customs and character from people of another nation.

individuality in human nature.

Along with the general conditions, there are peculiarly individual conditions for the life and upbringing of each individual.

There are differences in the life of the family, the interests of different families, professional and labor differences are important. All this can not but be reflected in the character of a person.

Differences in everyday life, and thus differences in needs, tastes determine individual characteristics among people of the same society, the same stratum of the population.

Typical and types of character. The totality of distinctive essential, typical features forms a type of character that reflects the typical conditions of people's lives.

Each social epoch brings into the arena social activities certain "typical character". Feudalism, for example, puts forward the character type of a knight, a merchant, a peasant; capitalism are the typical characters of the bourgeois and the worker.

Character type- a relatively stable formation, but at the same time it is plastic. Under the influence of life circumstances,

upbringing, the requirements of society and the requirements of a person to himself

the type of character develops and changes.

Capabilities. Social roles of the individual. subject and situation.

THE CONCEPT OF ABILITIES. When they talk about human abilities, they mean his ability to do something.

Other things being equal (level of preparedness, knowledge, skills, abilities, time spent, mental and physical efforts) capable person obtains maximum results compared to less able people.

IN domestic psychology the third approach is used.

So BM Teplov identified the following three main features of the concept of "ability".

First, abilities are understood as an individual psychologist. features that distinguish one person. from the other (no one will speak of abilities where we are talking about properties in respect of which all people are equal);

Secondly, abilities include only those individual psychological characteristics that ensure the success of the activity;

Thirdly, abilities are not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that a given person has already developed.

Abilities exist only in development.

The successful performance of an activity depends, as a rule, on a complex of abilities (compensation of weakly expressed abilities by others is possible).

Ability classification

Natural (those that are common to humans and animals) - perception, memory, the ability to elementary communication;

Specifically human (having a socio-historical origin). They are divided into general and special.

Under general abilities is understood as such a system of individual volitional properties of a person, which provides relative ease and productivity in mastering knowledge and implementing various kinds activities.

Under special abilities understand such a system of personality traits that helps to achieve high results in any special field of activity, for example, literary, visual, musical, stage, etc.

Special abilities should also include abilities for practical activities, namely: constructive-technical, organizational, pedagogical and other abilities.

Special abilities are organically connected with general ones. The higher the general abilities are developed, the more internal conditions are created for the development of special abilities. In turn, the development of special abilities, under certain conditions, has a positive effect on the development of intelligence.

In addition, there are divisions of specific abilities into practical and theoretical, educational and creative, subject and interpersonal.

Four approaches to the definition of reproductive and creative abilities.

1. Everything depends on motivation, values, personality traits (A. Maslow and others). The main features of a creative personality are:

Cognitive endowment;

sensitivity to problems;

Independence of judgment.

2. Creativity is an independent factor, independent of intelligence (Gilford, Taylor, Ya.A. Ponomarev).

3. E.Torrance's theory of intellectual threshold: the relationship between the level of intelligence and creative abilities is as follows:

if IC is below 115-120, then intelligence and creativity form one factor,

if more than 120 - then creativity is a separate factor. i.e. no creative people with low intelligence, but there are intellectuals with low creativity.

4. A high level of development of intelligence implies a high level of development of creative abilities and vice versa ((D. Wexler, G. Eysenck, A. Termen).

The most commonly accepted is the third point of view.

Ability Development Levels:

Makings(anatomical and physiological prerequisites for activity);

giftedness(a peculiar combination of abilities that ensures quick and successful mastery of activities);

Talent(the activity of a talented person is distinguished by novelty and originality; talent is always associated with a group of abilities);

Genius. People talk about it when the creative achievements of a person make up an entire era in the life of society, in the development of culture. It is believed that for 5000 years of civilization there were no more than 400 people of genius (Aristotle, M.V. Lomonosov. R. Descartes. Leonardo da Vinci. G. V. Leibniz).

Creativity and insanity.

The first works in the field of the ratio of genius and insanity belong to the Italian psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso. He collected numerous information about the psychopathological manifestations of prominent people. His lists of geniuses included many epileptics, melancholics, eccentric personalities, suicides, drug addicts and alcoholics.

So, 3 of the greatest commanders of the past - Al. Macedonian, Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonnaparte suffered from epilepsy.

Among the great writers, Dostoevsky, Petrarch, Moliere, Flaubert were epileptics.

D. Carson believes that a genius is a carrier of a recessive gene for schizophrenia. One gene does not cause pathology, but in some cases it can lead to the development of outstanding abilities. Proof of this is the presence of schizophrenics among the relatives of prominent

of people. So, the son of Einstein, relatives of Descartes, Pascal, Newton, Faraday, Darwin, Plato, Kant, Nietzsche suffered from schizophrenia. They were mostly men of science.

People who have reached heights in art are more likely to suffer from manic-depressive psychosis. Among representatives of creative professions, poets are more likely to suffer from it, then musicians, artists, sculptors and architects.

However, the connection between genius and insanity should be discussed with caution. Genius can be associated with insanity, although not always.

A person who is at the first level of development of abilities reveals a high ability to assimilate knowledge, master activities and carry them out according to the proposed model. At the second level of development of abilities, a person creates a new, original.

The highest level of development and manifestation of abilities is denoted by the terms talent and genius. . Talented and brilliant people achieve new results in practice, art, and science that are of great social importance. A man of genius creates something original, opening up new paths in the field of scientific research, production, art, and literature. A talented person also creates, contributes his own, but within the already defined ideas, directions, methods of research.

2. The nature of abilities and their development

Three points of view:

C - congenital, biologically determined (phrenology);

C - acquired (socially conditioned - through training, education - Helvetius);

C - biosocial (the level of their development is affected by both - B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, A.N. Leontiev, etc.).

(CONCEPT OF ABILITIES The theory of heredity of abilities. There are three concepts of ability in psychology. One of

them claims that abilities are biologically determined

personality traits, their manifestation and development are entirely dependent on

inherited fund.

So, for example, Galton in the 19th century tried to substantiate the heredity of talent by analyzing the biographical data of prominent figures. Continuing the line of Galton in the 20th century, Kote determined the degree of giftedness by the amount of space allotted in encyclopedic dictionaries famous people. Galton and Cote concluded that talent is inherited.

Life refutes the views on the hereditary predetermination of abilities. In addition, an objective analysis of the biographies of prominent people says otherwise: in the vast majority of cases, prominent people came from families that did not show special talents, on the other hand, the children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren of famous people did not show outstanding talents. The exceptions are several families of musicians and scientists,

The theory of acquired abilities.

In contrast to the first concept of abilities, the second finds that abilities are entirely determined by environment and upbringing. So, in the 18th century, Helvetius proclaimed that genius can be formed through education.

IN modern times the prominent American scientist W. Ashby argues that abilities and even genius are determined by acquired properties and, in particular, by what program of intellectual activity a person spontaneously and consciously formed in the process of learning in childhood and later in life. For one, the program allows you to solve creative problems, while for the other

Only reproductive. Ashby considers efficiency to be the second factor of ability. A capable one who, after a thousand unsuccessful attempts, makes the first thousand and comes to a discovery; the incapable one who, after the second attempt, leaves the problem unsolved.

The dialectic of the acquired and the natural in abilities.

A more correct position is taken by representatives of the third concept of abilities.

This concept of ability establishes that a person has the inherent capabilities of human development inherent in all people. At the same time, the presence of individual natural inclinations that favor the formation and development of certain abilities is recognized. Abilities are formed in activities under favorable social conditions of life).

Development of human abilities in the process individual development(in ontogeny).

CNS maturation;

Development of general and special abilities in the process of education, training, the influence of micro and macro environment;

Promotional events.

Inclinations and inclinations

The concept of assignments.

Under the inclinations one should consider not so much anatomical and physiological as psychophysiological properties, primarily those that a child discovers in the very early phase of mastering an activity, and sometimes an adult who is not yet systematically engaged in a specific activity.

Under the inclinations is understood the primary natural basis of the ability, not yet developed, but making itself felt at the first try of activity.

Inclinations carry opportunities for the development of abilities in the process of training, education and work. That is why it is so important to identify the inclinations of children as early as possible in order to purposefully shape their abilities.

Inclinations.

Makings manifested in inclinations to a certain type of activity (special abilities) or in increased curiosity about everything (general ability).

inclinations- this is the first and earliest sign of a nascent ability. The propensity is manifested in the desire, attraction of the child (or adult) to a certain activity (drawing, playing music). This desire is often seen quite early, passion for activity occurs even in adverse conditions of life. Obviously, the propensity indicates the presence of certain natural prerequisites for the development of abilities.

Along with the true inclination, there is also a false or imaginary one.

With a true inclination, one can observe not only an irresistible attraction to activity, but also a rapid progress towards mastery, the achievement of significant results. With a false, or imaginary, inclination, this is not noted.

The inclinations are manifested in the easy receptivity and impressibility of the material that attracts, and, most importantly, in the ability to construct something new, which is especially characteristic of a great talent.

The development of abilities is influenced by the conditions of life and activity, the mental characteristics of a person.

Thus, significant social motives activate the personality. The manifestation and development of abilities are influenced by

Love for the cause, passionate enthusiasm for it;

Positive attitude towards the chosen activity Such personality traits contribute to the development of abilities,

as diligence, will, determination, purposefulness, high

performance.

So Vauvenargues said "Diligence and mediocrity achieve more than talent without diligence."

The development of abilities is significantly influenced by training and education.

Capabilities can develop spontaneously in the process of activity, but this requires more time and more effort. Training and education accelerate this process, as they eliminate the formation of unnecessary links in the mechanism of activity.

Abilities develop unevenly: some - earlier, others - later, as knowledge and experience accumulate. Musical abilities begin to develop first of all (for example, in Mozart, talent began to appear at 3 years old, in Haydn - at 4), then visual abilities (Raphael - at 8 years old, Van Dyck - at 10 years old). Poetic talent develops rapidly in adolescence, of the abilities for the sciences, mathematical abilities develop the earliest. For great mathematicians, mathematical maturity occurs at the age of 20.

Unfavorable effect on the development of abilities is excessive mental or physical overload, leading to overwork and a decrease in the level of working capacity.

Critical thinking Critical thinking is independent thinking, is of an individual nature. Information is the starting point, and by no means the final point of critical thinking. Critical thinking begins with asking questions and clarifying the problems that need to be solved. Critical thinking strives for convincing argument. Critical thinking is social thinking. David Kluster, Professor of American Literature, Hope College, Holland, Michigan, USA.

Teacher: inside view Any teacher has three basic feelings: - a sense of hierarchy - a sense of stage - a sense of self-influence Each of these feelings can be expressed in a weak, medium and strong degree. But they are necessarily inherent in the psychology of the teacher.

Ways to Success Remember that too high scores on the three basic pedagogical senses not only reduce the effectiveness of the learning process, but can also harm your health There are no unambiguously right and wrong thoughts When we are given positive attention, we think better. Pause. Silence is also a powerful form of work Plan "islands" of uncertainty in your lessons. They guarantee creativity

Technique INSERT V - check this box if what you are reading matches what you know or thought you knew; - - check this box if what you are reading contradicts what you know or thought you knew; + - put this mark in the margins if what you are reading is new to you; ? - check this box if what you are reading is not clear or you would like more information on the subject.
19 Recommended literature I.O. Zagashev, S.I. Zair-Bek, I.V. Mushtavinskaya Teaching children to think critically "Alliance-Delta", St. Petersburg, 2003 See: Petrov Yu. N. On the technology of developing critical thinking / / Chemistry at school C; Petrov Yu. P., Tsareva V. V. On the application of technology "Reading and writing for the development of critical thinking" // Chemistry at school S; Petrov Yu. N. On the application of the strategy "Parallel texts" // Chemistry at school C

In general, with regard to the concept of “thinking”, several views should be noted.
First, as indicated Dictionary S.I. Ozhegova, thinking is "a person's ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts."
Let's dissect this concept. A person would know very little about the surrounding world if his knowledge was limited only to the testimony of his analyzers. The possibility of a deep and broad knowledge of the world opens up human thinking. There is no need to prove that the figure has four corners, since we see it with the help of the analyzer (vision). But that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs, we can neither see, nor hear, nor feel. This kind of concept is indirect.
Thus, thinking is mediated cognition. Likewise, thinking is the knowledge of relationships and regular connections between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. In order to identify these connections, a person resorts to mental operations - compares, compares facts, analyzes them, generalizes, draws conclusions, conclusions.
And, finally, thinking is a generalized cognition of reality, the process of cognizing the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.
And this process is quite accessible to children. As the studies of V.V. Davydov show, children of primary school age can quite master the elements of algebra, for example, to establish relationships between quantities. To reveal the relationships between quantities, it turned out to be necessary to model these relationships - their expression in a different material form, in which they appear, as it were, in a purified form and become an orienting basis for actions.
In psychological science, there are such forms of thinking as:
concepts;
judgments;
inferences.
A concept is a reflection in the human mind of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the general and, moreover, essential properties of objects and phenomena. Each object, each phenomenon has many different properties, signs. These properties, features can be divided into two categories - essential and non-essential. For example, each individual triangle has three angles, certain dimensions - the length of the sides and area, a certain amount of angles, a shape. But only the first sign makes the figure a triangle, allows you to distinguish it from other shapes: a rectangle, a circle, a trapezoid. Other signs distinguish one triangle from another; when they change, the triangle will not cease to be a triangle. Equally, each individual tree also has such features that make it possible to distinguish it from a shrub, grass (i.e., essential features), for example, the presence of a trunk, and those that distinguish one tree from another, for example, age, number of branches, preservation of the bark, the presence of a hollow, etc.
The concept acts both as a form of thinking and as a special mental action. Behind each concept is hidden a special objective action. Concepts can be:
common and singular;
concrete and abstract;
empirical and theoretical.
The general concept is a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive (specific) features of objects and phenomena of reality. A single concept is a thought that reflects the attributes inherent only in a separate object and phenomenon. Depending on the type of abstraction and underlying generalizations, concepts are either empirical or theoretical. The empirical concept fixes the same items in each separate class of items on the basis of comparison. The specific content of the theoretical concept is the objective connection between the universal and the individual (integral and different). Concepts are formed in socio-historical experience. A person assimilates a system of concepts in the process of life and activity.
Each new generation of people learns scientific, technical, moral, aesthetic and other concepts developed by society in the process historical development. To assimilate a concept means to realize its content, to be able to identify essential features, to know exactly its boundaries (volume), its place among other concepts in order not to be confused with similar concepts; be able to use this concept in cognitive and practical activities.
The concept exists in the form of the meaning of the word, denoted by the word. Each word generalizes (except, of course, words denoting proper names). In concepts, our knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality crystallizes in a generalized and abstract form. In this regard, the concept differs significantly from the perception and representation of memory: perception and representation are concrete, figurative, visual; the concept has a generalized, abstract, not visual character.
The content of concepts is revealed in judgments, which are always expressed in verbal form - orally or in writing, aloud or to oneself. Judgment is the main form of thinking, in the process of which connections between objects and phenomena of reality are affirmed or denied. A judgment is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and features. A judgment is a form of thinking that contains the assertion or denial of a position regarding objects, phenomena or their properties. Examples of an affirmative judgment would be such judgments as "The student knows the lesson" or "The psyche is a function of the brain." Negative judgments include such judgments in which the absence of certain features of the object is noted. For example: "This word is not a verb" or "This river is not navigable."
For example, the judgment: "Metals expand when heated" - expresses the relationship between changes in temperature and the volume of metals.

Perception is a holistic reflection in the cerebral cortex of objects and phenomena. This reflection is denoted by a word, the name of what a person perceives.

There are three types of perception of reality:

• · Visual, visual. A person of the visual type perceives and organizes his experience and thinking mainly with the help of visual images. It is better for him to "see once than hear a hundred times." In his vocabulary are the words of the visual range, these are nouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives, which, as it were, describe the picture of what he saw.
• Auditory, auditory. He represents and describes the world in auditory, auditory images. In the lexicon, this is represented by the corresponding row of words. For example, a dumb question, a flashy idea, a dumb hint.
• · Kinesthetic, that is, perceiving and evaluating the world primarily with the help of sensations and feelings. It has its own vocabulary: heavy or easy question, a powerful idea, a hard hint.

Attempts to use all three types of perception are increasingly common in advertising. Perception is carried out most often meaningfully.

Ways of meaningful perception:

• 1. Recognition. People often use not the product, but the image created by advertising this product, that is, people first recognize the image, and then the product. Primary image, image, individual perception.
• 2. Habit. People are often loyal to their type of chocolate or brand of perfume, although the range of these products is extremely high.
• 3. Visual images are better perceived. They do not require huge mental effort on the part of the viewer.
• 4. The effect of brevity. To perceive new information, the human brain breaks it down into a mass of simple images and forms. That is, the simpler and brighter a separate image in a complete picture, the easier and with great pleasure it will be perceived by a person.

Attention is one of the forms of perception. To begin to perceive, a person must direct his attention to something and hold it (attention) for a sufficient time. Attracting attention is the first step in the impact of advertising on the consumer. It is attention that determines what you need to spend time on, and what should be abandoned, because “the concentration of a person’s mental activity on one object entails turning off attention from other objects” (5; 33).

Attention factors:

• 1. Associations. The more pleasant associations arise with a given subject, the longer a person will pay attention to it.
• 2. Images of familiar people, feelings, emotions. A person more often feels sympathy for those new people who remind him of old acquaintances, friends, buddies.
• 3. Impact on the senses. The more intense the stimulus affects the human senses (vision, hearing, smell), the higher the degree of attention to it.
• 4. Unusualness, uniqueness, novelty of the image also helps to keep attention on it.

To hold attention for a certain time, it is necessary to involve not one factor, but several; they should complement or replace each other.

Memory is the process of remembering, preserving and then reproducing what a person previously perceived, experienced or did. Memorization can be both conscious, when a person memorizes through effort (teaching), and unconscious, when information is deposited in the cerebral cortex without special efforts. The task of advertising is to influence a person in such a way that memorization goes on an unconscious level. There are a number of techniques that have led to unconscious memorization:

• 1. Communication with daily and professional activities. A person will remember what worries him, what, in his own opinion, will be useful to him in further work or everyday life.
• 2. Repetition. No wonder they say that "repetition is the mother of learning." What is repeated more than once is remembered better and longer. It is necessary to observe a fine line, after which repetition begins to cause not only irritation, but also active resistance and rejection of the repeated material.
• 3. Edge effect. It is better to remember those information and facts that are located at the end.

Thinking is an important mental process that is directly related to the perception of advertising. Thinking is a person's ability to reason, which is a process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts (11; 358)

The object (in our case, advertising) in the process of thinking is included in ever new connections and, because of this, appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts; Thus, from the object, as it were, all new content is singled out: it seems to turn every time with its other side, all new properties are revealed in it.

In the process of thinking human brain performs a number of operations:

Analysis - method scientific research by considering individual aspects, properties, components of something, a comprehensive analysis, consideration (11; 26).

When analyzing, a person, considering separate parts of something, is able to make a projection on the “invisible” qualities and properties of this object for himself, to think it out.

• Synthesis - a method of scientific study of a phenomenon in its unity and interconnection of parts, generalization, bringing together data obtained by analysis (11; 661). Having examined the parts of the object, a person makes a conclusion about its properties and qualities as a whole, predicts its (object) future.
• Induction - reasoning from the particular to the general. On the example of a particular case, a person can draw global conclusions.
• · Deduction - reasoning from the general to the particular. Knowing the basic laws and patterns, a person can predict a particular case.

We said that an important factor in the persuasiveness of speech is the culture of thinking of the speaker. Thinking is the ability of a person to reason, to think, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in representations, judgments, concepts. To think means to reason, comparing thoughts and drawing conclusions from them.

The culture of thinking, the logic of reasoning and the ability to draw correct, true conclusions from true premises are taught by the basic laws of thinking formulated by logic - the law of identity, the law of contradiction, the law of the excluded middle and the law of sufficient reason. Any act of thinking must comply with the laws of logic. It has great importance to increase the efficiency of the speaker's mental activity, to prevent possible errors. It is impossible to construct a meaningful statement contrary to logical rules or ignoring them.

The law of identity expresses the main property of thinking - its certainty; it says: each thought in the process of a given reasoning must have the same definite, stable content, no matter how many times it is repeated. The law of contradiction teaches consistency in thinking and speech, consistency of thoughts, since two opposite thoughts about the same subject, taken at the same time, in the same respect, cannot be true at the same time. Knowledge of the law of contradiction is important in order to arrive at the correct conclusion in the process of reasoning. Its use helps to detect and eliminate contradictions in the testimony of the defendants, witnesses, in the arguments of the plaintiff or the defendant, in the arguments of the prosecutor and the defense. According to the law of the excluded middle, of two contradictory propositions, one must be true, the other false, and the third is not given. This law, like the law of contradiction, does not allow contradictions in thoughts; it requires clear, specific answers, especially where a categorical solution of the issue is necessary, and is the basis for circumstantial evidence and refutation. The law of sufficient reason requires that the truth of every proposition put forward in speech be proved by facts: every correct thought must be justified by other thoughts, the truth of which has been proven. Judgments and conclusions cannot be unfounded. This is the most important requirement for the speech of the participants in judicial debates. So, a lawyer, putting forward the thesis about the innocence of his client, is forced to provide the necessary evidence, to substantiate the truth of his statement. The guilty verdict must contain evidence sufficient for its issuance. Thus, the laws of formal logic teach that thought must be expressed clearly and accurately, reasoning must be consistent, consistent and justified. Deviation from the laws of logic, inability to conduct evidence-based reasoning significantly reduce the persuasiveness of speech, lead to logical errors, make it difficult to clarify the case, and sometimes lead to false conclusions and an unfair judicial decision.

Logical proof operation

The word proof is ambiguous: 1. Argument or fact, confirming, proving something. Argument. 2. A system of inferences by which a new position is derived. This is a logical operation of substantiating the truth of a proposition with the help of other true and related propositions.

In civil and criminal proceedings, proof is the activity of the court and judicial orators, aimed at establishing, with the help of judicial evidence, the facts on which the resolution of the dispute depends on the merits.

The logical operation of proof (i.e. substantiation of the truth of any position) includes three interrelated elements: thesis, arguments, demonstration.

To ensure the logic of reasoning, it should be remembered that the central point of each proof is the thesis - the position, the truth of which should be proved. Its substantiation is subject to the entire content of the speech. However, the thesis must be reliable, otherwise it will not be possible to substantiate it. Demonstrative reasoning requires compliance with two rules in relation to the thesis: 1) logical certainty, clarity and accuracy of the thesis; lack of logical contradiction; 2) the immutability of the thesis, the prohibition to change it in the process of this reasoning.

The speeches of V.D. Spasovich: “I put as a thesis, which I must prove and which I hope to prove, the thesis, in the full truth of which I am deeply convinced and which is clearer to me than broad daylight, namely: that N. Andreevskaya, while swimming, drowned and that, consequently, no one is to blame for her death. IN AND. Tsarev formulated the main thesis of the accusatory speech in the case of the Kondrakov brothers as follows: ... I declare that the objective truth in the case we are examining has been established specifically and accurately: the robbery attack on Krivosheeva A.S. and Krivosheev A.R., their rape and murder were committed by the Kondrakov brothers.

How to prove the correctness of your thought? Logical arguments, the use of persuasive arguments, competent opinions aimed at inducing persuasion.

An argument is one or more interconnected statements (judgments) intended to confirm the truth of the thesis. In civil and criminal proceedings, arguments are understood as forensic evidence: these are any factual data about the circumstances that are important for the correct trial of a criminal, civil, arbitration, constitutional case. Evidence is contained in testimonies, physical evidence, expert opinions, protocols, etc. There are direct and indirect evidence. Direct evidence - those from which it is possible to draw an unambiguous conclusion (subject to their reliability) about the existence (or non-existence) of the fact being proved. Indirect evidence is that evidence from which, subject to their reliability, it is possible to draw a presumptive conclusion about the existence of the fact being proved. All evidence is subject to the requirements of relevance and admissibility.

None of the evidence takes precedence. Yu.V. said this well. Andrianova-Strepetova: “... the vast majority of the evidence examined is the so-called circumstantial evidence. In this regard, it must be remembered that direct evidence does not have an advantage over indirect evidence, and accordingly, indirect evidence is not second-class evidence that loses over direct evidence. N.P. Karabchevsky once wrote about the difficulties of using indirect evidence and formulated the requirements for them: “Indirect evidence, unlike direct evidence, can be very thin, very lightweight in itself, but one inner quality must necessarily be inherent in them: they are mathematically must be accurate. Accurate in the sense of their own authenticity, quality and size. Another indispensable condition: that these small quantities in themselves give nevertheless some real result, that they constitute one continuous chain of individual links. In order for circumstantial evidence to become sufficient for a guilty verdict or dismissal of a claim, the following conditions must be met: 1) the fact of circumstantial evidence must be in a causal relationship with the fact under investigation; 2) substantiation of the thesis by indirect evidence always requires the establishment of several pieces of evidence in the case that are consistent with each other, in a certain connection. convincing circumstantial evidence proved the guilt of the defendant YU.V. Andrianova-Strepetova. An excellent defense of Berdnikov with the help of circumstantial evidence was built by Ya.S. Kiselev.

The persuasiveness of a judicial speech largely depends on the quality of the arguments. Judges evaluate the correctness of the prosecutor's and lawyer's thoughts primarily by the degree of significance and value of the factual material. Only the strength of the arguments, their persuasiveness matter for the complete inner conviction of the judges.

What are the requirements for arguments? What qualities should they possess in order to convince listeners? Arguments must be true, reliable and must not contradict each other. Their truth has been verified by practice. They must be sufficient for proof. The sufficiency of arguments is not their number, but their weightiness, when a thesis necessarily follows from them. “There is little evidence. But the evidence is not considered, but evaluated, and evaluated in aggregate and in comparison. And as a result of such an assessment, the right decision is made. Rhetoric teaches: evidence should not be multiplied so much as weighed; discard arguments that can be refuted. The speaker is not entitled to refer in support of his position a) to evidence that was not considered in the court session; b) evidence declared inadmissible by the court; c) on evidence that is not relevant to the case under consideration.

Strong arguments can be found in the speech of S.A. Andreevsky in the case of Mironovich. The lawyer proves Mironovich's innocence by analyzing in detail: 1) expert examination data; 2) the accidental posture of Sarah Becker: “The main position that the whole drama of the murder took place on an armchair collapsed. It turned out that Sarah was brought to the chair from another place, laid on it almost dead; there was no struggle here, because the cover remained motionless and blood stains quietly seeped from the cover onto the fabric of the chair”; 3) the calm, natural behavior of Mironovich, who left in the morning after the murder to collect money from debtors: “After all, if he had killed, he would have known that the cash desk was open all night, that it is now open, that maybe everything is already out of it torn apart and he is now a beggar, that there are traces of his terrible deed ... Where is it to Porkhovnikov? Where would the former energy come from to pursue debtors?

N.I. Kholev, defending Maksimenko, who is accused of poisoning her husband with arsenic, logically and convincingly analyzes the circumstances of the case: The main question is: did N. Maksimenko recover by October 18 (by the day of death. - N.I.)? After analyzing the symptoms of typhoid fever, the timing of the course of the disease, the testimony of witnesses, the speaker comes to the conclusion: on October 18, the disease was in the period of its full development (this was also confirmed by the autopsy). Further. Having examined in detail the intravital symptoms of arsenic poisoning and post-mortem phenomena, citing scientific data and the opinions of scientists, he concludes: there were no signs of arsenic poisoning.

You will find weighty, convincing arguments in the speeches of A.F. Koni, P.A. Alexandrov, in the speech of N.P. Karabchevsky in defense of Kriun, the former captain of the Vladimir steamship, in I.M. Kisenishsky in the case of the disaster of the ship "Admiral Nakhimov".

Strong arguments are especially needed in favor of the application of this or that article of the criminal law.

How to arrange arguments in a speech? They should be ordered in such a way that they correspond to the way of thinking. But do not forget about the principle of amplification.

The process of persuasion includes, in addition to the thesis and arguments, a demonstration. Demonstration, or method of proof, is a form of logical connection between arguments and thesis. This is logical reasoning, a set of conclusions when deriving a thesis from arguments. To demonstrate means to show that the thesis is logically justified by the arguments and therefore is true. You can complete the demonstration with constructions: From all that has been said, it follows ...; that's why I think (better - affirm, convinced); Thus; From what has been said, we can conclude that other similar

Direct and indirect evidence

Justification of the thesis can be carried out by direct or indirect evidence. Direct proof is carried out directly with the help of arguments, without involving any assumptions that contradict the thesis: a direct reference is made to arguments, facts confirming something, a reference to the generally accepted norm. In the speech of a judicial orator, direct evidence is used when the role of arguments is played by the testimony of witnesses, written documents, and material evidence. Informational evidence (testimonies of witnesses, written documents) must be checked, and their reliability must be proven.

Direct justification may take the form of deductive reasoning, induction, or analogy.

deductive method consists in the fact that particular propositions are logically deduced from general provisions, rules, laws.

Deduction (from Latin deductio - inference) is a conclusion representing the transition from premises to a conclusion, based on a logical law, whereby the conclusion follows with logical necessity from the premises accepted. A premise can be an axiom, a postulate, or simply a hypothesis that has the character of general statements. This may be one or another well-known scientific position, the truth of which is not in doubt, or the rule of law and other evaluative standards. If the premises are true, then their consequences are also true. Deduction is the main method of proof.

The inductive method involves a presentation from particular facts to the establishment of general provisions, this is a logical transition from arguments to a thesis. It is especially important that the speaker cite impressive concrete facts. The inductive method is often used in the analysis of experimental data, when operating with statistical materials. Arguments here are, as a rule, actual data.

The method is chosen by the judicial orator depending on the materials of the case.

Indirect evidence is a type of deductive evidence in which the thesis is proved by refuting the antithesis. Indirect evidence is called proof by contradiction, since the antithesis is formulated and its inconsistency is proved. Thus, indirect evidence consists of the following stages: an antithesis is put forward (If ...; Suppose that), consequences are derived from it with the intention of finding the false among them (then ...;); it is concluded that the antithesis is incorrect (however...).

Then, based on the law of the excluded middle, a conclusion is drawn: since the thesis and antithesis exclude each other, then the falsity of the antithesis means the truth of the thesis. As an example of an indirect method of proof, one can cite the speech of A.F. Horses in the case of the drowning of a peasant woman Emelyanova by her husband, speech by A.I. Urusov in the case of Volokhova, speech by Ya.S. Kiselev in the case of Berdnikov.

The art of argument also implies the ability to refute.

Refutation

Refutation is a logical operation that justifies the falsity of a statement or several statements; destroying the earlier process of argumentation; this is criticism of the thesis of the opponent, establishing the falsity, inconsistency or fallacy of the thesis of the procedural opponent, the investigating authorities, the defendant, etc.

A direct refutation of the thesis is built in the form of reasoning, called "reduction to the absurd". They conditionally admit the truth of the position put forward by the opponent and deduce the consequences logically arising from it: Let us assume that the opponent is right and his thesis is true, but in this case it follows from it ... If it turns out that this consequence contradicts objective data, then it is recognized as untenable. Further, a conclusion is made about the inconsistency of the thesis.

The evidence given by the opponent in support of his thesis is subjected to verification and criticism. An inaccurate presentation of facts, doubts about the correctness of the arguments are transferred to the thesis. If the arguments are found to be false, the thesis is unconditionally considered unfounded.

The refutation of the demonstration consists in the fact that they show that in the opponent's reasoning there is no logical connection between the arguments and the thesis. For the final refutation, it is necessary to prove the inconsistency of the content of the thesis itself. Let's take an example of a rebuttal.

The masters of refuting the arguments of the procedural opponent were N.P. Karabchevsky, A.I. Urusov, V.D. Spasovich.

The difference between proof and refutation lies in the fact that in proof the truth of thought is substantiated, and in refutation - falsity. At the same time, the proof of the falsity of any thesis is the proof of the truth of the statement that contradicts it.

As a rule, refutation and evidence are regularly and consistently present in every judicial speech, which is determined by its persuasive nature. For example, M.G. Kazarinov logically and convincingly defended the lawyer L.A. Bazunov. He puts forward the antithesis: Three lawyers, the prosecution alleges, convinced their client Olga Stein to flee the court. What motives could lead lawyers! - and refutes it, proves its inconsistency. Then he puts forward the thesis: Who should have conceived the idea of ​​escaping from the court? Of course, the one who trial threatened with grave consequences - at Olga Stein herself. Analyzing in detail her life, her behavior, habits, fear of punishment, the lawyer concludes: Here are the motives that could have prompted Olga Stein to flee. And he argues the conclusion: And that it was of her own free will that she fled, is confirmed by her sincere, friendly letters to Parchment from America. Here is what we are reading... I revealed to you, gentlemen of the jury, the feelings that prompted Stein to leave Russia. These feelings spoke so powerfully and eloquently that no speeches and convictions of lawyers could influence her decision in the slightest.

A court orator who is convinced of the correctness of his position on the case and who owns the rules of thinking will be able to make his speech convincing.

Logical errors in speech

In the process of reasoning, it is necessary to follow the rules formulated by logic. Unintentional violation of them due to logical negligence, insufficient logical culture is perceived as a logical error.

Errors in the logic of reasoning

There may be the following logical errors in judicial speech. If the speaker, having formulated a thought, forgets about it and involuntarily moves to a fundamentally different position, then the thesis is lost. As a result, the speaker may lose the original thought. This is where self-control is needed. Partial or complete substitution of the thesis also happens. This happens when the speaker, having put forward a certain position, substantiates in fact another. Often this happens when the main idea was not formulated clearly and definitely at the beginning of the speech, and then it is corrected or clarified throughout the speech.

Logical errors can result from inept reasoning. If the arguments are unreliable, have only a probability, then with their help it is impossible to substantiate a reliable conclusion. This error is called the main fallacy, when a deliberately false position, a non-existent fact, and the like is used as an argument in the hope that no one will notice it. An experienced speaker, having found at least one unverified or dubious argument in an opponent's speech, can easily refute the entire system of his reasoning. Remember how Y.S. Kiselev did this in his speech on the Berdnikov case: “The half-truth is interspersed with a fact, another, or even a third, each of them is confirmed by something ... Some of the facts are true, which means that the other is true. And that's not the case at all."

Unproven assumptions made by someone, for example, false testimony of the defendant, witnesses, cannot be used as arguments. The argument in the following example is not true: The investigating authorities established / that Solenkov / was stabbed / stabbed / in the lumbar region of the victim // My client denies / that he had a knife / and explains / no one / of those who are with him / there / Podkuiko and Nogotkov / did not see a knife / / I think / that this episode / is completely unproven //.

The proof is also untenable in the case when the arguments are insufficient to substantiate the thesis: He admits his guilt in part / I think / that it has been partially proven //. The arguments are also insufficient in this example: The guilt of the defendant / is also confirmed / by the conclusion of the forensic medical examination / and other materials of the case //, since there is no specificity due to the word by others. The vicious circle error lies in the fact that the thesis is justified by arguments, and the arguments are derived from the same thesis.

Errors in the demonstration are caused by the lack of a logical connection between the arguments and the thesis. This is the so-called imaginary following.

Errors in the choice of language means

The logic of reasoning finds expression in specific linguistic means, and this makes it possible to identify typical logical errors that lead to an inaccurate choice of linguistic means.

One of the reasons for the illogicality of the statement is the use of words without taking into account their meaning, for example: Two photographs were found in the breast pocket of his trousers (it should be in the front pocket). The fuzzy differentiation of concepts, the substitution of concepts also violates the logic of presentation: Marriage of products - cowhide boots in the amount of 19 pieces - to be assigned to the defendants. Or: Returning from the flight, Korotkoe dozed off, which was the result of his collision with a pole standing near the curb (it is necessary: ​​reimbursement for the cost of defective boots, in the amount of 19 pairs; ... which was the reason for his collision with a standing one ...). The combination of words should not be contradictory. Breaking the logical connections between words can create an unintentional comedy: The court cannot satisfy the request of the deceased to recover money for burial. Or: Defendant Mirov continued to abuse alcohol together with the deceased Mirova (it should be: the Court cannot satisfy the request of the relatives of the deceased; the defendant Mirov continued together with Mirova, now deceased ...).

An inattentive attitude to the choice of words leads to the emergence of alogism in speech - a comparison of disparate concepts: "Bosniatsky's actions differ from other defendants not only in volume, but also in consequences." Or: "Among the nine heads presented to me, I recognized the bull." Or: “The cause of the electrical injury was that the victim did not check the absence of electric welding” (necessary: ​​different from actions; I identified the head of a bull; did not check the absence of electric welding).

One of the logical errors is the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept resulting from the mixing of generic and specific concepts, as well as the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts: “A vacuum cleaner and other medical equipment were stolen from a store.” Or: "When my client was returning from the dance, precipitation fell out." Or: "The suspect Shevtsov testified that on February 13, 1991 he was on duty at the event." Or: “Vojvodin is charged with stealing a vehicle” (it is necessary: ​​theft of a vacuum cleaner and medical equipment; it was snowing (or raining); he was on duty at the evening; stealing a vehicle).

The illogicality of the statement, the distortion of its meaning appears as a result of the discrepancy between the premise and the consequence: The growth of crime depends on how stubbornly and effectively the fight against offenders is carried out. Or: In order to protect them from hooligan actions, Petukhov's neighbors ask to isolate them from Petukhov (it is necessary: ​​to reduce crime; to isolate Petukhov from society). Another example: “Based on the foregoing, Solonin is accused of being detained for driving a motor vehicle while intoxicated” (it is necessary: ​​he is accused of driving a motor vehicle while intoxicated). Such errors reduce the quality of a speech that is good in content, besides, they indicate the unwillingness of the court speaker to think about the meaning of the words used, about disrespect for the language and people who have to listen to this speaker.

We have considered unintentional logical errors that arise due to the speaker's lack of logical culture. Intentional mistakes are deliberately made. These are logical tricks, deliberately erroneous reasoning presented as true. They are called sophisms. Sophism (from the Greek sophisma, I cunningly invent) is a reasoning that seems correct, but contains a hidden logical error and gives a false statement the appearance of truth. This is reasoning based on a deliberate violation of the laws of logic.

Sophists have existed since Ancient Greece(from the Greek sophistes - an expert, a sage) and constituted a sophist direction in oratory, the purpose of which was to convince listeners of anything at all costs. To do this, they used inferences based on a deliberately incorrect selection of starting points and arguments. Examples of sophisms: “All people are rational beings. The inhabitants of the planets are not people. Therefore, they are not rational beings”; “The Law of Moses forbade theft. The Law of Moses has lost its power. Therefore, theft is not prohibited”; “All metals are simple bodies. Bronze - metal. Therefore, bronze is a simple body."

A systematic analysis of sophisms was given for the first time by Aristotle in his final part of the Organon. Sophism is a false conclusion, the incorrectness of which is due to three kinds of reasons: 1) logical, 2) grammatical and 3) psychological.

Sophisms are a special method of intellectual fraud, an attempt to pass off a lie as the truth and thereby mislead the enemy. Their use for the purpose of deception is an incorrect method of argumentation.