Integration is understood as the unification of information signals, various processes, responses necessary for the implementation of physiological functions and the achievement of the final useful result.

As a rule, the result is the adaptation of a living organism to changing conditions of existence.

The integration of functions can be observed at various levels of organization of living systems:

Ch. Sherrington identified 4 levels of integration:

1. Neural ensemble (module)

   Nerve center

First level integration is a neuron whose cell membrane integrates synaptically influences.

Integration at the level of a neuron is carried out by the interaction of excitatory (EPSP) and inhibitory (IPSP) postsynaptic potentials that are generated upon activation of neuron synaptic inputs.

Second level integrations are elementary neural networks.

What happens in neural networks:

divergence,

irradiation,

convergence,

summation,

reverberation,

occlusion and relief

spread of excitement.

Third level of coordination is carried out in the process of activity of the nerve centers and their interaction.

Nerve centers are formed by the union of several local networks and represent a complex of elements capable of carrying out a certain reflex or behavioral act.

The dynamics of changes in excitation and inhibition in the centers of the cerebral cortex, their distribution from one area of ​​the cortex to another underlie the mechanisms of functioning of the cerebral cortex called analytical-synthetic activity

Fourth level- Supreme

The highest level unites all centers of regulation into a single regulatory system, and individual organs and systems into a single physiological system - the body. This is achieved by the interaction of the main systems of the CNS: the limbic, reticular formation, subcortical formations and the neocortex - as the highest department of the CNS, which organizes behavioral reactions and their vegetative support.

2. Unconditional reflexes and instincts.

The first theoretical ideas about the reflex nature of the activity of the cortex and other higher parts of the brain were given by I.M. SECHENOV. He substantiated the nature of unconscious activity. He discovered the phenomena of central inhibitionin 1863 his book Reflexes of the Brain was published.

Ivan Mikhailovich is the founder of the doctrine of GNA. He believed that all human mental activity is based on reflexes.

Higher nervous activity - the activity of the higher departments of the central nervous system, which ensure the adaptability of animals and humans to environmental conditions.

Even I. M. Sechenov singled out two types of reflexes:

Persistent, congenital

Changeable, acquired in individual life.

IP Pavlov developed such a division of reflexes into two fundamentally different types.

I.P. Pavlov experimentally confirmed the validity of the views of I.M. Sechenov and created the doctrine of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.

An example of an unconditioned reflex is salivation in a dog with a salivary gland fistula. When food enters the oral cavity, the receptors of the tongue are excited, through the processes of sensory neurons, the excitation is transmitted to the medulla oblongata, where the salivary center is located, then the excitation is transmitted through the motor neurons to the salivary gland and salivation begins.

Principles of the reflex theory of I.P. Pavlov

1. The principle of determinism - any nervous process is triggered as a result of some impact

2. The principle of structure - any function of the body is provided by a strictly defined structure

3. Principle of analysis and synthesis - the response to the stimulus begins with its division into elements, and then these elements are synthesized and the response to the stimulus is carried out

4. Signaling - transformation of an indifferent stimulus into a signal

5. Reinforcement - preservation of a reflex when reinforcing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one

The set of neurophysiological processes that ensure the formation of acquired behavioral responses and learning

The term "unconditioned reflex" was introduced by I. P. Pavlov to designate reflexes that unconditionally arise under the action of adequate biologically significant stimuli on a certain receptive field.

Unconditioned reflex - a relatively constant, species-specific, stereotyped, genetically fixed response of the body to internal or external stimuli, carried out through the central nervous system.

They have a ready-made genetically determined reflex arc. Ripen gradually

They underlie congenital complexes - INSTINCTs

According to the anatomical structure - the degree of complexity :

Simple (spinal)

Complicated (involving the medulla oblongata)

Complex (involving the midbrain)

The hardest (with the participation of subcortical structures and the cerebral cortex) -(instincts)

individual (food activity, passive-defensive, aggressive, freedom reflex, exploratory, game reflex).

specific (sexual instinct and parental instinct )

Levels of closure of unconditioned reflexes: - spinal cord and - subcortical nuclei of the brain. In formation unconditioned reflex the cerebral cortex is not directly involved, but exercises its highest control over these reflexes, which allowed I.P. Pavlov to assert the presence "cortical representation" each unconditioned reflex.

As academician Pavel Vasilyevich Simonov notes, the definition of an unconditioned reflex as hereditary, unchanging, the implementation of which is machine-like, is usually exaggerated. Its implementation depends on the present functional state of the organism, correlates with the currently dominant need. It may fade or intensify. The neural circuits of subcortical structures that "trigger" unconditioned reflexes are under a fairly strong inhibitory influence from the cortex, our consciousness, i.e., using Freud's terminology, "forbidden". Under the influence of early individual experience, innate reflexes undergo significant changes. An example of this is the disappearance in ontogenesis of certain reflexes inherent in a newborn child and their appearance in an adult under conditions when the controlling function of the cerebral cortex is inhibited.

grasp reflex It is expressed in the fact that when an object (for example, a mother's finger) enters the hand, the baby bends the fingers and grasps the object, while the arm muscles are extended. In some cases, the baby grasps the fingers put into his palm so tightly that he can be lifted (Robinson's reflex). A similar grasping reflex is inherent in the toes: if you press your finger on the pad of the baby's foot at the base of the fingers, they bend, as if trying to grab the adult's finger. This reflex loses strength by 2-3 months, when conscious grasping begins to develop. (Robinson reflex - you can lift the child.)

John Watson - the father of American behavioral psychology (behaviorism)

Babinski's reflex up to 2-2.5 years. Detected in 90% of newborns.

The extinction of the river Babinskiy in a newborn with age is due to the completion of myelination of the nerve fibers of the corticospinal tracts and, accordingly, the establishment of inhibitory control of the extensors from the CNS.

The neural circuits of subcortical structures that "trigger" unconditioned reflexes are under a fairly strong inhibitory influence from the cortex, our consciousness, i.e., using Freud's terminology, "forbidden". Under the influence of early individual experience, innate reflexes undergo significant changes. An example of this is the disappearance in ontogenesis of certain reflexes inherent in a newborn child.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes

According to the nature of the acting stimulus

food (swallowing, sucking, etc.);

genital (“tournament fights”, erection, ejaculation, etc..);

protective (coughing, sneezing, blinking, etc.);

indicative (alertness, listening, turning the head to the sound source, etc.), etc.

according to the nature of the response:

1-engine or motor

(to muscles)

2-secretory (to the glands),

3-vasomotor (to vessels).

Innate Behaviors

INSTINCT– more perfect congenital unconditional reflex acts

(this is a genetically formed form of behavior carried out under the influence of basic biological needs - transitional form )

Factors initiating instinctive behavior, not only external, but also internal, influences, metabolic and hormonal, fluctuations in homeostasis indicators associated with the occurrence biological needs

Types of instincts Classification of instincts (according to P.V. Simonov)

vital (failure to satisfy the need leads to the death of the individual, the implementation does not require the participation of another individual)

Role or zoosocial (aimed at the survival of the species, the effective existence of the group - "what is good for the species is good for you"

Instincts of self-development (facing the future, aimed at improving mental activity)

However, the biological significance of unconditioned reflexes is not limited solely to individual and species self-preservation. P.V. Simonov proposed an original classification of instincts as the most complex unconditioned reflexes that make up the need-emotional basis of behavior.

The first independent group of reflexes are vital reflexes that ensure the preservation of the individual and the species. These include food, drink, sleep regulation, defensive (including the “biological caution” reflex), the reflex of saving strength, and many others. Two features are decisive for assigning reflexes to this group:

Failure to satisfy the corresponding need leads to the death of the individual;

The satisfaction of a need does not require the participation of another individual of the same species.

The second group of behavioral reactions are role-playing (zoosocial) unconditioned reflexes that arise when interacting with individuals of their own species. These reflexes underlie sexual, parental, territorial behavior, the basis of the phenomenon of empathy and the formation of a group hierarchy. With these forms of behavior, an individual acts as a mating partner, parent or cub, owner of the territory or alien, leader or follower, i.e. “trying on” various zoosocial roles.

The third group of behavioral acts is called self-development reflexes. This includes various forms of orienting-exploratory behavior, resistance reflexes (freedom reflex, according to Pavlov) and reflexes of "preventive armament" - imitation and play. Self-development reflexes are characterized by two points:

They are not associated with individual or species adaptation to the current situation, these reflexes are directed to the future;

These reflexes are independent and cannot be derived from other needs of the living organism.

Plays an important role at birth imprinting - imprinting .

Imprinting - temporal selectivity in relation to

to some external stimulus (eg parent, calf, sexual partner).

In animals, it manifests itself in the reaction of newborns following the first moving object. For example, K Lorenz and geese….

Classification of forms of education

. stimulus-dependent behavior Imprinting - Konrad Lorenz.

effect dependent learning

cognitive

Let us now consider the patterns of formation of individual experience, i.e. formation of acquired forms of behavior. Let us trace the various stages in the development of various forms of learning in the ontogeny of animals and humans. Starting from the first days of postnatal development, the so-called . stimulus-dependent behavior. The response of the organism occurs in response to some stimulus that is in no way connected with the integral activity of the organism at a given moment in time. Stimulus-dependent learning in humans includes, in particular, imitation / imitative / learning. As a result of imitation / imitation / an animal or a person performs typical actions, learning by direct observation of the behavior of other, adult representatives of his species. Imitation is based on the principle of "do as I do". Imitation behavior does not give the trainee any tangible result - encouragement or punishment, i.e. This form of learning is not associated with any effect from its application. Imprinting - Konrad Lorenz.

Later, as they mature nervous system, more complex forms of education are developing - the so-called. effect dependent learning. Effect-dependent learning includes the development of classical / Pavlovian / conditioned reflexes and instrumental / operant / conditioned reflexes. The term "effect-dependent" shows that as a result of learning such experience is acquired, such responses that bring an individual some benefit /encouragement/, or allow avoiding harmful effects /punishment/. Conditioned reflexes, therefore, are signal, adaptive in nature, allow you to change your behavior depending on the specific situation.

And, finally, the highest forms of education have received the greatest development in man - cognitive/cognitive/ training. Cognitive forms of learning include, in particular, psycho-nervous activity, which integrates elements of the external environment into one whole experience that forms a holistic image and directs the behavior of animals. Cognitive forms of behavior also include rational activity, which makes it possible to understand various empirical laws that connect objects and phenomena of the environment and operate with these laws to develop a program of behavior in specific conditions, i.e. build a strategy for future behavior; Insight learning / intuition, conjecture / is also of great importance, when a decision comes without prior training in a situation that is new for a person: if such a decision is correct, it is fixed. One of the most important forms of cognitive learning is probabilistic forecasting. A person is able to predict the development of events beyond his control, the results of his activities, the most likely actions of his partners, etc. Forecasts of a living organism are designed to optimize the results of its action, taking into account the probability of development of events independent of the subject, the relevance of the results of activities, the behavior of its active partners and its own energy costs. Teaching probabilistic forecasting is the most difficult task that requires the student to high degree development of integrative systems of the brain.

insight(from English. insight -insight, insight ). Indicates a sudden insight into the essence of a problem situation.

In experiments with great apes, when they were presented with tasks that could only be solved indirectly, it was shown that after a series of unsuccessful trials, the monkeys stopped active actions and simply looked at the objects around, after which they could quickly come to the correct solution.

When it comes to the innate forms of animal behavior, first of all, associations arise with reflex responses to the action of stimuli and instinctive (without visible external provocation) actions of animals.

In addition, with a closer study of genetically determined behavioral manifestations, one can find those that do not belong either to the category of reflexes or to the category of instincts. This kinesis And taxis.

For a long time, even human behavior was interpreted as a combination of instincts and rational thought. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. 3. Freud substantiated all human behavior by two groups of instincts (energies): creative instincts (self-preservation + procreation) and destructive instincts (aggression, destruction and death). However, these ideas did not have scientific justification, since at that time there was still no rigorous experimental base both in psychology and in the emerging ethology.

The scientific definition of instinct, perhaps, was first attempted by Ch. Darwin. He defined instinct as a set of complex reflexes (behavioral acts) that can be inherited and therefore evolve. Prior to this, approximately the same definition of instinct was given by Rene Descartes (XVII century). But according to Descartes, the unifying principle of reflexes was God, that is, his interpretation of instinct was not scientifically substantiated.

In the XX century. in relation to instinct, the ideas of the classics of ethology K. Lorentz and N. Tinbergen dominated. K. Lorentz defined instinct as a set of fixed actions motivated by a single biological task (drive). N. Tinbergen showed that these fixed actions (reflexes) are organized according to a hierarchical principle. According to these ideas, one type of activity (for example, reproduction) will cause a number of subordinate behavioral acts (ritual courtship + parental behavior).

This view of the nature of the instinctive behavior of animals was shared by many scientists - supporters of the school of K. Lorentz. However, the classic has always had staunch opponents. At present, the ideas of the classics of ethology on the nature of instinct are disputed for two reasons: firstly, a large amount of factual material has been accumulated to prove the strong influence of the environment on the development of instinct in early ontogenesis, and secondly, it has been experimentally proven that there is no "drive" as energy. specific property. At present, the theory of motivational state has become widespread. The motivational state is understood as the physiological and perceptual state of certain structures of the central nervous system, arising under the influence of external and internal stimuli.

Experiments show that the motivational state (say, the feeding activity of an animal) is determined not only by the physiological state of the animal due to changes in homeostasis constants, but also by environmental factors. Thus, fish actively eat food during severe hunger and with a weak external stimulus. But they are also active in mild hunger, but in the presence of a strong food irritant.

The same applies to the reproductive instinct. In guppies, the brightness of the color of the male ( high level sex hormones in the blood) and the size of the female's abdomen (the presence of mature eggs) are the decisive factors that determine the sexual activity of the male. A brightly colored male actively pursues a female with a small abdomen. However, the pale male also pursues the female, but only with a large belly.

Today it is clear that instinct is a specific feature and is formed on the basis of a set of fixed actions (reflexes). However, the instinct is triggered by a certain stimulus, the influence of which may have the character of a delayed reaction. To designate the mechanism that triggers instinct, K. Lorentz and N. Tinbergen proposed a special term - an innate trigger mechanism. Thus, researchers insist that reflex and instinct are different phenomena both from the point of view of the external manifestation of the animal's responses and from the point of view of the triggers of behavioral acts. Instinctive behavior is adaptive, since natural selection affects it like any other hereditarily determined trait.

Innate Trigger. The instinctive reaction of the animal to external factors is selective. Sometimes only one specific stimulus can trigger an instinct. The central nervous system filters a huge number of afferent signals and finds exactly the one that has the greatest biological significance in a particular situation. This complex mechanism for filtering and recognizing a signal stimulus is called the innate trigger. For example, during the mating season, the abdomen of a male three-spined stickleback acquires a bright red color. The red belly serves as a signal to attack another male on its territory, i.e., it performs the function of a “releaser” of instinct.

On the other hand, there are many examples in the literature in which instinctive behavior is provoked by several stimuli of different modalities (for example, the sexual behavior of a male frog in spring).

Among representatives of the class of birds, the ritualization of behavior is brought to the grotesque. And the most striking examples of the symbolization of behavior can be seen precisely in birds. They have many morphological and behavioral manifestations that act as triggers for innate behavior. Thus, the female great tit is prompted to instinctively feed the chicks by the open mouth cavity of the chick with white dots on the palate.

In other species, the innate trigger mechanism involves the recognition of two or more external stimuli.

So, gull chicks recognize their parents by two signs: a long beak and a red spot on it. Moreover, the level of information content of these two factors (releasers) is not the same. The red color for the chick is more significant than the shape of the beak.

N. Tinbergen discovered that for chicks, the color of the object is of paramount importance, and secondly, its shape. The reactions of chicks to the beak model with different color spots on it are shown. The most significant in this experiment was the natural pattern of the beak: a red spot on a yellow background. The beak was of the least interest. yellow color without stain. However, the greatest reactivity on the part of the chicks was observed in the case when the entire beak was colored red.

Lactating female rats recognize their young by appearance, voice and smell. Rats deprived of one of the three senses in the experiment experience great difficulty in recognizing their own young.

K. Lorenz, working on the problem of innate triggering and individual recognition, described one interesting observation in the tree heron night heron. When the female approaches the nest with chicks, she bows, as a result of which the chicks see white feathers that are part of the aigret against a black background of the upper part of the head and recognize their parents.

Quite by accident, K. Lorenz made an interesting discovery. In order to better see the scene of the meeting between the mother and heron chicks, the scientist climbed a tree. An adult night heron noticed him and was frightened. Approaching the nest with caution, she did not bow and show the white feathers of the egrets. The consequences discouraged K. Lorenz: the chicks aggressively attacked the mother approaching them as an enemy. It turned out that the night-crown chicks recognize their parents only after the latter perform certain ritual actions (bows) and present innately recognizable plumage details - white feathers in the composition of aigrettes.

The name "innate" in relation to this phenomenon does not quite accurately reflect its essence. The fact is that the selection and recognition of a biologically significant stimulus is often influenced by the environment. In other words, recognition can be the result of learning. Therefore, the term "congenital" in this case should not be understood directly. Selectivity in the search for stimuli can be both congenital and acquired. So, a hungry toad, which for a long time was fed only with earthworms, for some time will pounce on all sorts of objects that have an external resemblance to an earthworm (knot, wire), although the recognition of food objects has an innate basis. If the toad was previously fed with spiders, then it will react to all objects resembling a spider (a bunch of moss, an ant) ​​and remains hungry for a long time surrounded by earthworms, but in the absence of spiders.

Nevertheless, the term "innate trigger" is convenient to use in the study of instinctive behavior and reflexes, because it allows you to distance these concepts.

What then are the fundamental differences between instinct and reflex?

1. The instinct is triggered by stimuli of various modalities (chemical, mechanical, thermal, biological). The reflex manifests itself in response to the action of one stimulus of a certain modality of an adequate nature.

2. An instinct is triggered by a stimulus only if the animal has a motivation for this type of behavior, that is, against the background of an emotionally colored need.

3. Instinctive behavior can occur without the impact on the animal's organism of momentarily visible external stimuli (young animals' games, idle actions, search for a sexual partner, migration). The reflex occurs only in response to the presentation of an adequate stimulus of threshold strength.

In relation to instinctive behavior, the signal stimulus acts as a guiding action of the stimulus, while in the case of a reflex response, the stimulus has a triggering releasing effect. In addition, the implementation of the genetically programmed instinctive behavior of animals is significantly influenced by the environment. For example, such a purely instinctive phenomenon as imprinting can have a different end result in different conditions of incubation of eggs and rearing of chicks. If a duckling imprints on a mother hen, and a chick on a duck, then the subsequent instincts of the young will be changed to such an extent that they lose all biological meaning. At puberty, drakes and bettas will not recognize females of their own species. Young drakes will court and try to mate with hens, and cockerels with ducks.

In a generalized form, instinct can be given the following definition.

Instinct- this is a complex of hierarchically subordinated fixed motor acts inherent in the organism of a given species of animals, the implementation of which depends on the functional state of the animal (the presence of a need) and on the state of the habitat.

Reflex- a simple fixed response to the action of an adequate stimulus of threshold strength, mediated through the central nervous system.

Instinct and reflex can have the same external manifestation: in both the first and second cases, the animal performs the same species-typical movements. The differences lie in part of the biological task pursued by this behavioral act, as well as in terms of signal stimuli and motivation (or lack thereof) of behavior.

As an example, we will give two cases of outwardly identical behavior of a dog. The male after 12 hours of confinement in an apartment on the street is immediately freed from urine. The same dog, but after a long walk, again performs fixed actions in the form of urination - raises the hind leg and lets out (trying to let out) urine. However, there is a big difference between these two acts of urination. In the first case, a reflex act takes place. The unconditioned stimulus here is the overflowing bladder fluid. Irritation of the baro- and tensoreceptors of the bladder excites the center of urination of the sacro-lumbar zone of the spinal cord, which sends signals along the efferent pathways to the smooth muscle structures of the bladder, as a result of which urine is removed.

In the second case, the act of urination is an instinct, not a reflex. After a walk, the dog's bladder is empty. The unconditioned stimulus of the bladder (the pressure of urine on its walls) is absent. The signal stimulus that triggers the act of urination is an odorous mark on a visible object left by another dog. She can be left as a male (marking the territory) or as a female (information about her breeding system). Therefore, an attempt to urinate in our dog with an empty bladder has a complex internal motivation and, with an external identity to the act of urination, solves a completely different biological problem.

The behavior of an animal, along with its physiology, is part of the overall function of the animal organism. For convenience of study, physiologists and ethologists classify various manifestations of animal life into several groups (functional systems, instincts), into which elements of behavior also fall. With this view of the functions of the animal organism, the following groups of functional systems or instincts are visible:

• metabolic instincts (oxygen supply, thermoregulation, osmoregulation);
• food instincts (obtaining and consuming food and water);
• reproductive instincts (sexual and parental behavior);
• self-preservation instincts (avoidance of physical and chemical danger, predators).

However, behavior quite often goes beyond the limits of one functional system, which once again emphasizes the conventionality of dividing the vital manifestations of the animal organism into separate categories. For example, exploratory behavior and clarification of social relationships in a group may affect all of the above functional systems. In fact, the organism functions as a whole, and in this example, to solve an important biological problem, it combines a number of stereotypical (reflex or instinctive) actions and acquired life experience.

Innate forms of behavior (kinesis, taxises, reflexes and instincts) change both in the process of ontogenesis and in the course of the evolutionary development of species.

W. Craig (1918) drew attention to the fact that many animals are looking for situations necessary for the manifestation of instinct (search for nesting sites, migration to a watering place, search for food). Craig called these manifestations of the search behavior of animals appetizing behavior, and the state of the animal - state of appetite. Later, A. A. Ukhtomsky developed Craig's idea and replaced the term "appetence" with the term "dominant". The dominant develops as a result of changes in the constants of the internal environment. The relative stability of the internal environment of the body is a prerequisite for the flow of all biochemical processes in the cells, tissues and organs of the animal. A change in the constants of the internal environment (temperature, pressure, chemical composition) leads to the fact that a focus of increased excitation arises in the central nervous system, which acquires the status of a priority nerve center, that is, a dominant focus that subjugates other nerve centers. The emergence of a dominant is subjectively assessed by the body as a state of increased discomfort, from which the animal seeks to get rid of by any means. The elimination of discomfort is most often possible only through a certain behavioral act (search for food and saturation, search for water and satisfaction of thirst).

In a number of situations, the dominant develops not as a metabolic phenomenon, but as discomfort due to overexcitation of the nerve centers under the influence of a strong afferent flow or a high concentration of hormones in the body. So, against the background of a high concentration in the blood of animal sex hormones, a sexual dominant develops. With prolonged visual and acoustic perception of one rooster by another, their hatred for each other increases and the dominant of aggression is formed. The proximity of the wolf leads to the formation of a fear dominant in the sheep. In all these cases, the dominant is extinguished only as a result of certain behavioral reactions (sexual intercourse, cockfighting, elimination of the source of fear).

The spinal cord of lower vertebrates and the brain stem of higher vertebrates are characterized by spontaneous electrical activity of certain cells or groups of cells. An example of such spontaneous activity is the Mauthner cells in the medulla oblongata. Their axons go to motoneurons serving certain muscle groups, the contractions of which lead to certain fixed actions.

Arbitrarily arising electrical impulses are synchronized with cosmic rhythms (of the Sun, Moon, Earth). It regulates the rhythm of vegetative processes, that is, it performs the function of an internal biological clock. This mechanism is also involved in the regulation of cyclic behavior. Self-starting internal oscillatory processes provide circadian, monthly and seasonal cyclical manifestations of innate behavioral acts.

The functional specificity of different groups of neurons in the central nervous system explains the diversity of "self-triggering" instincts. In a pigeon, due to artificial electrical stimulation of certain groups of neurons in the diencephalon, a wide range of fixed behavioral actions can be obtained - from nest building to fear.

In a chicken, a number of zones have been identified in the brainstem, the electrical activation of which releases strictly fixed actions of the bird. Moreover, by changing the characteristics of the current (strength, frequency) when irritating the same zone, they achieve a change in behavior from mild anxiety to panic fear, flight and takeoff.

Researchers of the instinctive behavior of animals distinguish two phases in its development. The orienting response and exploratory behavior constitute the plastic phase. In this phase, the instinct is modified by the personal experience of the individual. The orienting-exploratory activity of an animal is a "laboratory for the development of conditioned reflexes."

The final part of the behavioral act represents the rigid phase of the instinct. This part is stereotypical (the same for all representatives of a species or population) and consists of fixed and subordinate actions of the animal. Acquired components in this phase are rare. Their appearance is determined only by the emerging morphological and functional changes under the influence of the environment. The final phase of instinct is indeed genetically determined.

The most valuable behavioral acts for the species are stored in the genetic memory. Genetics, as it were, protects useful stereotypes from the accidents of the external environment, on the presence of which biological life depends.

Dogs often try to "dig in" their food on concrete or wood floors. Such actions of higher vertebrates cannot be attributed to innate reflexes. They are called taxis. Taxis are triggered by key stimuli against the background of a certain physiological state of the animal.

Taxis as simple stereotypical movements are more often observed in low-organized animals. They provide spatial orientation motor activity towards favorable environmental conditions (positive taxises) or opposite from dangerous or insignificant factors (negative taxises). Taxis are divided according to the nature of external factors into thermo-, chemo-, hydro-, oxy-, geotaxis.

In highly organized animals, the role of taxises as independent units of behavior is not as significant as, say, in protozoa or juvenile fish. However, they enter as subordinate elements in the chains of complex instinctive acts. So, in a newborn puppy, positive thermotaxis is the initial link in a complex feeding behavior. In ungulates (lambs, kids) in the first 3 days of life, negative light taxis is observed, i.e., newborns tend to hide in a dark place.

Taxis are part of the search phase of a behavioral act. However, the final phase of a behavioral act may include taxis along with instinctive actions.

Kineses represent the simplest movements that occur without the orientation of the animal's body relative to the direction of the stimulus. In the case of kinesis, the stimulus causes a change in either the speed of movement or the frequency of rotations during movement. Thus, the activity of the larvae of the lamprey (Ginger) decreases as the illumination increases. The activity of wood lice also decreases with increasing humidity. A change in the speed of movement of an animal under the influence of a change in the strength of the stimulus is called orthokinesis.

If external stimulation leads to a change in the frequency of turns during movement, then they speak of klinokinesis. The classic object of study of kinesis and taxis is planaria. This aquatic worm has negative phototaxis, i.e., it tends to leave the illuminated area. But his movements are not straightforward. They appear to be chaotic big amount turns, that is, they are an example of kinesis. But, since the light stimulates a change in the direction of movement of the planaria, then in darker areas its activity decreases, i.e., getting into the dark section of the reservoir in planaria is purely probabilistic. However, such a simple locomotion provides these primitive animals with the opportunity to get away from the unfavorable factor - light.

Kineses underlie orientation and the human louse. Her movements consist of a series of kinesis triggered by thermal and chemical stimuli, as well as the humidity of the environment. The weaker the stimuli, the more active clinokinesis the louse demonstrates. With an increase in the strength of at least one of the three stimuli, the louse makes fewer turns. In the end, her locomotion becomes rectilinear. In the zone of maximum strength of stimuli of all three modalities, negative orthokinesis is triggered, i.e. the louse stops when it gets to the most favorable place for it.

Thus, even such primitive locomotions as kinesis allow animals to solve biologically important tasks.

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Reflex- this is the body's response to irritation of receptors, carried out by the nervous system. The path along which the nerve impulse passes during the implementation of the reflex is called.

The concept of "reflex" introduced Sechenov, he believed that "reflexes form the basis of the nervous activity of man and animals." Pavlov divided reflexes into conditioned and unconditioned.

Comparison of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes

unconditional	conditional
present from birth	acquired over a lifetime
do not change or disappear during life	may change or disappear over the course of a lifetime
the same in all organisms of the same species	each organism has its own individual
adapt the body to constant conditions	adapt the body to changing conditions
reflex arc passes through the spinal cord or brainstem	temporary connection is formed in the cortex hemispheres
Examples
salivation when lemon is in the mouth	salivation at the sight of a lemon
sucking reflex of the newborn	reaction of a 6 month old baby to a bottle of milk
sneezing, coughing, withdrawing hand from a hot kettle	reaction of a cat / dog to a nickname

Development of a conditioned reflex

Conditional (indifferent) stimulus must precede unconditional(causing an unconditioned reflex). For example: a lamp is lit, after 10 seconds the dog is given meat.

Inhibition of conditioned reflexes

Conditional (non-reinforcement): the lamp is lit, but no meat is given to the dog. Gradually, salivation to the switched on lamp stops (there is a fading of the conditioned reflex).

Unconditional: during the action of a conditioned stimulus, a powerful unconditioned stimulus arises. For example, when the lamp is turned on, the bell rings loudly. Saliva is not secreted.

Conditioned reflexes

But the behavior of higher animals is characterized not only by innate, i.e., unconditioned reactions, but also by such reactions that are acquired by a given organism in the process of individual life activity, i.e., conditioned reflexes. The biological meaning of the conditioned reflex lies in the fact that numerous external stimuli surrounding the animal in natural conditions and in themselves not of vital importance, preceding food or danger in the experience of the animal, satisfaction of other biological needs, begin to act as signals, according to which the animal orients its behavior (Fig. 15).

So, the mechanism of hereditary adaptation is an unconditioned reflex, and the mechanism of individual changeable adaptation is conditional a reflex produced by a combination of vital phenomena with accompanying signals.

Rice. 15. Scheme of the formation of a conditioned reflex

• a - salivation is caused by an unconditioned stimulus - food;
• b - excitation from a food stimulus is associated with the previous indifferent stimulus (light bulb);
• c - the light of the light bulb became a signal of the possible appearance of food: a conditioned reflex developed on it

A conditioned reflex is developed on the basis of any of the unconditioned reactions. Reflexes to unusual signals that do not occur in a natural setting are called artificial conditioned. In laboratory conditions, you can develop many conditioned reflexes to any artificial stimulus.

With the concept of a conditioned reflex, I. P. Pavlov associated signaling principle of higher nervous activity, the principle of synthesis of external influences and internal states.

The discovery by Pavlov of the main mechanism of higher nervous activity - the conditioned reflex - became one of the revolutionary achievements of natural science, a historical turning point in understanding the connection between the physiological and the mental.

With the knowledge of the dynamics of education and changes in conditioned reflexes, the discovery of the complex mechanisms of the activity of the human brain, the identification of patterns of higher nervous activity began.

Reflexes play a big role in the life of any creature. Their great importance is not accidental, because it is the nervous system that plays a leading role in the perception of the world around us. With its help, the individual can both admire and defend himself from the external environment. Human reflexes become indispensable precisely for the implementation of such protection. As an example, we can recall pulling the hand away from hot surfaces.

What is a reflex?

The reflex is the main reaction of the body to the environment. Its implementation is impossible without the participation of the nervous system. Thus, there is a behavioral response in response to any type of stimulus that affects the nerve endings.

The path along which impulses from irritation pass and the response to it is called reflex arc. The simplest such formation should consist of at least two such paths. One of them is sensitive, and the second is motor. Thus, withdrawal of the hand from the hot is realized: first, the stimulus is felt, and then movement occurs. These morphological interconnected formations ensure the perception, transmission and processing of signals by the body.

Any impact on the body will be carefully analyzed by the latter and transformed into a nerve impulse. After that, it will be sent to the central nervous system and will transmit the necessary information about all the changes to the entire body. It is worth noting that this whole complex process takes only a fraction of a second.

Why do humans need reflexes?

Thanks to reflexes, the exact orientation of any organism in time and space, finding food and avoiding danger is ensured.

Thus, the value of the reflex comes down to ensuring the following tasks:

• Interaction of all internal organs and systems as a whole;
• Coordinated work of organs different in function;
• Ensuring the body's response to the action of the external environment;
• Functioning of the cerebral cortex.

What are reflexes

There are so many reactions of the body that it became necessary to classify them. Consider what kind of reflexes a person has.

First of all, they can be divided according to their importance for the conservation of a biological species into:

• Defensive;
• Sexual;
• Approximate.

Also, reflexes can enhance or, conversely, inhibit the activity of the effector. As a striking example, we can mention that the sympathetic nervous system speeds up the heartbeat, and the vagus nerve slows it down.

Kinds

Any living organism reacts to stimuli in many ways. In this regard, in science, it became necessary to distinguish the types of human reflexes. Basically, it is customary to divide them into two large groups according to the type of education: conditional and unconditional.

Unconditioned reflexes are inherent in all living organisms from birth, that is, they do not need to be studied or made efforts to apply. Most often, when the unconditioned reflex is triggered, it seems that the action happened by itself. Sucking, protective, sexual and other reflexes can be distinguished as an example of such reactions. Their goal is to ensure the survival of the organism for procreation and adapt to environmental conditions.

The appearance of such stereotyped reactions is associated with the evolutionary development of species of living beings. The reaction of the body with an unconditional response is carried out at the level of the spinal and lower structures of the brain.

Usually, unconditioned reflexes are so stable that they do not change and do not disappear in a person throughout life. In addition, they are specific to one biological species.

Conditioned reflexes are developed by a living organism for some time. In other words, this adaptive behavior in order to adapt to the repeated influence of the stimulus. Naturally, this type of reflex reaction will be absent in a newborn.

Also, conditioned reflexes are able to fade away if they have not been reinforced by the action of a stimulus for some time. There are such types of conditioned reflex reactions:

• Natural. They are developed to stimuli on the basis of an unconditioned reflex. Thus, a person knows how this or that product smells. Even if the food is odorless, the reflex will create a false sense of it;
• Artificial. A kind of conditioned reflex, which consists in a response to a stimulus, which in normal conditions incompatible with the unconditioned reflex. It may be light at the time of feeding;
• Exteroceptive. Provide adaptation of the body to stimuli from the external environment;
• Interoceptive. Provide adaptation to chemical and physical stimuli to ensure the functioning of internal organs.

How are conditioned reflexes formed?

In order to form a conditioned reflex response, you need to go through several steps:

1. The presence of two types of stimuli and the appearance of the conditional before the unconditional;
2. Multiple alternation of stimuli among themselves;
3. At the same time, the unconditional stimulus must always remain stronger;
4. At the time of the development of a new reaction of the body, there should be no third-party stimuli;
5. All this is realized under the condition that the nervous system has no pathologies and functions normally.

What is the difference between an unconditioned reflex and an instinct

The concepts of instinct and unconditioned reflex are very similar. They are embedded in every living being and do not require special study. However, their fundamental difference is that instinct is a sensual manifestation of a living being. This can be expressed in the commission of more or less meaningful actions. For example, mating games of a male to attract a female. Thus, there is no unambiguous guarantee that the instinct will manifest itself.

It is impossible to avoid the appearance of an unconditioned response of the body to a stimulus. Such examples of human reflexes can be taken from physiology: it is impossible to resist the twitching of the leg when hitting the knee or not pulling the hand away from a hot object.

What pathologies and disorders can be

Despite the fact that unconditioned reflexes are reliable and stable, they can be disturbed in the direction of a decrease or loss, increase, change in response to a stimulus.

The loss of the reflex response of the body can occur due to damage to the path along which the signal passes. Most often this is due to some kind of injury to the nervous system.

Violation of the central nervous system can lead to the formation of a perverted reaction of the body, or to the appearance of pathological reflexes. With the normal functioning of the body, it is impossible to provoke their appearance.

Each person, as well as all living organisms, has a number of vital needs: food, water, comfortable conditions. Everyone has the instincts of self-preservation and continuation of their kind. All mechanisms aimed at satisfying these needs are laid down at the genetic level and appear simultaneously with the birth of the organism. These are innate reflexes that help to survive.

The concept of an unconditioned reflex

The very word reflex for each of us is not something new and unfamiliar. Everyone has heard it in their life, and enough times. This term was introduced into biology by IP Pavlov, who devoted much time to the study of the nervous system.

According to the scientist, unconditioned reflexes arise under the influence of irritating factors on the receptors (for example, pulling the hand away from a hot object). They contribute to the adaptation of the organism to those conditions that remain practically unchanged.

This is the so-called product of the historical experience of previous generations, which is why it is also called the species reflex.

We live in a changing environment, it requires constant adaptations that cannot be foreseen by genetic experience. The unconditioned reflexes of a person are constantly inhibited, then modified or reappeared, under the influence of those stimuli that surround us everywhere.

Thus, already familiar stimuli acquire the qualities of biologically significant signals, and the formation of conditioned reflexes occurs, which form the basis of our individual experience. This is what Pavlov called higher nervous activity.

Properties of unconditioned reflexes

The characteristic of unconditioned reflexes includes several mandatory points:

1. Congenital reflexes are inherited.
2. They are the same in all individuals of this species.
3. For a response to occur, it is necessary to influence a certain factor, for example, for a sucking reflex, this is irritation of the lips of a newborn.
4. The zone of perception of the stimulus always remains constant.
5. Unconditioned reflexes have a constant reflex arc.
6. They persist throughout life, with some exceptions in newborns.

The meaning of reflexes

All our interaction with the environment is built on the level of reflex responses. Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes play an important role in the existence of the organism.

In the process of evolution, there was a division between those that are aimed at the survival of the species, and those responsible for adaptability to constantly changing conditions.

Congenital reflexes begin to appear already in utero, and their role is as follows:

• Maintaining the indicators of the internal environment at a constant level.
• Maintaining the integrity of the body.
• Preservation of the species through reproduction.

The role of innate reactions immediately after birth is great; it is they that ensure the survival of the infant in completely new conditions for him.

The body lives in an environment of external factors, which are constantly changing, and it is necessary to adapt to them. This is where higher nervous activity comes to the fore in the form of conditioned reflexes.

For the body, they have the following meaning:

• Improve the mechanisms of its interaction with environment.
• They clarify and complicate the processes of contacting the body with the external environment.
• Conditioned reflexes are an indispensable basis for the processes of learning, education and behavior.

Thus, unconditioned and conditioned reflexes are aimed at maintaining the integrity of a living organism and the constancy of the internal environment, as well as effective interaction with the outside world. Between themselves, they can be combined into complex reflex acts that have a certain biological orientation.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes

The hereditary reactions of the body, despite their innate nature, can be very different from each other. It is not at all surprising that the classification can be different, depending on the approach.

Pavlov also divided all unconditioned reflexes into:

• Simple (the scientist attributed the sucking reflex to them).
• Difficult (sweating).
• The most complex unconditioned reflexes. A variety of examples can be given: food reactions, defensive, sexual.

Currently, many adhere to a classification based on the meaning of reflexes. Depending on this, they are divided into several groups:

The first group of reactions has two features:

1. If they are not satisfied, then this will lead to the death of the body.
2. For satisfaction, there is no need for the presence of another individual of the same species.

The third group also has its own characteristic features:

1. Reflexes of self-development are in no way connected with the adaptation of the organism to a given situation. They are directed towards the future.
2. They are completely independent and do not follow from other needs.

You can also divide by the level of their complexity, then the following groups will appear before us:

1. simple reflexes. These are the body's normal responses to external stimuli. For example, pulling your hand away from a hot object or blinking when a mote gets into your eye.
2. reflex acts.
3. behavioral reactions.
4. instincts.
5. Imprinting.

Each group has its own characteristics and differences.

Reflex acts

Almost all reflex acts are aimed at ensuring the vital activity of the organism, therefore they are always reliable in their manifestation and cannot be corrected.

These include:

• Breath.
• swallowing.
• Vomit.

In order to stop the reflex act, you just need to remove the stimulus that causes it. This can be practiced in animal training. If you want natural needs not to distract from training, then before that you need to walk the dog, this will eliminate the irritant that can provoke a reflex act.

Behavior reactions

This variety of unconditioned reflexes can be well demonstrated in animals. Behavioral responses include:

• The desire of the dog to carry and pick up objects. Aportation reaction.
• The manifestation of aggression at the sight of a stranger. Active defensive reaction.
• Search for items by smell. Olfactory-search reaction.

It is worth noting that the reaction of behavior does not yet mean that the animal will certainly behave this way. What is meant? For example, a dog that has a strong active-defensive reaction from birth, but is physically weak, most likely will not show such aggression.

These reflexes can determine the actions of the animal, but it is quite possible to control them. They should also be taken into account when training: if an animal has no olfactory-search reaction at all, then it is unlikely that it will be possible to raise a search dog out of it.

instincts

There are also more complex forms in which unconditioned reflexes appear. Instincts are just here. This is a whole chain of reflex acts that follow each other and are inextricably linked.

All instincts are connected with changing inner needs.

When a baby is just born, his lungs practically do not function. The connection between him and his mother is interrupted by cutting the umbilical cord, and the blood accumulates carbon dioxide. It begins its humoral action on the respiratory center, and an instinctive inhalation takes place. The child begins to breathe independently, and the first cry of the baby is a sign of this.

Instincts are a powerful stimulant in human life. They may well motivate for success in a certain field of activity. When we cease to control ourselves, then instincts begin to lead us. As you can imagine, there are several of them.

Most scientists are of the opinion that there are three basic instincts:

1. Self-preservation and survival.
2. Procreation.
3. Leader instinct.

All of them can give rise to new needs:

• In safety.
• In material abundance.
• Looking for a sexual partner.
• In caring for children.
• Influencing others.

You can still list the varieties of human instincts for a long time, but, unlike animals, we can control them. To do this, nature has endowed us with reason. Animals survive only due to instincts, but we are also given knowledge for this.

Don't let your instincts get the best of you, learn to control them and become the master of your life.

imprinting

This form of unconditioned reflex is also called imprinting. In the life of every individual there are periods when the whole environment is imprinted in the brain. For each species, this time period can be different: for some it lasts several hours, and for some it can take several years.

Remember how easy it is for young children to master the skills of foreign speech. While students put a lot of effort into this.

It is thanks to imprinting that all babies recognize their parents, distinguish individuals of their own species. For example, a zebra, after the birth of a cub, spends several hours alone with him in a secluded place. This is just the time it takes for the cub to learn to recognize its mother and not confuse her with other females in the herd.

This phenomenon was discovered by Konrad Lorenz. He conducted an experiment with newborn ducklings. Immediately after the hatching of the latter, he presented them with various objects, which they followed like a mother. Even they perceived him as a mother, and pursued him on his heels.

Everyone knows the example of hatchery chickens. Compared to their relatives, they are practically tame and are not afraid of a person, because from birth they see him in front of them.

Congenital reflexes of an infant

After his birth, the baby goes through a complex path of development, which consists of several stages. The degree and speed of mastering various skills will directly depend on the state of the nervous system. The main indicator of its maturity are the unconditioned reflexes of the newborn.

Their presence in the baby is checked immediately after birth, and the doctor makes a conclusion about the degree of development of the nervous system.

Of the huge number of hereditary reactions, the following can be distinguished:

1. Kussmaul search reflex. When the area around the mouth is irritated, the child turns the head towards the irritant. Usually the reflex fades by 3 months.
2. Sucking. If you put your finger in the baby's mouth, then he begins to perform sucking movements. Immediately after feeding, this reflex fades away and is activated after a while.
3. Palmar-oral. If the child presses on the palm, then he opens his mouth.
4. Grasping reflex. If you put your finger in the palm of the baby and lightly press it, then there is a reflex squeezing and holding it.
5. The lower grasp reflex is elicited by light pressure on the front of the sole. There is flexion of the toes.
6. crawling reflex. In the prone position, pressure on the soles of the feet causes a forward crawling motion.
7. Protective. If you put the newborn on his stomach, he tries to raise his head and turns it to the side.
8. Support reflex. If you take the baby under the armpits and put it on something, then it reflexively unbends the legs and rests on the whole foot.

The unconditioned reflexes of a newborn can be listed for a long time. Each of them symbolizes the degree of development of certain parts of the nervous system. Already after examination by a neurologist in the maternity hospital, it is possible to make a preliminary diagnosis of some diseases.

From the point of view of their significance for the baby, the mentioned reflexes can be divided into two groups:

1. Segmental motor automatisms. They are provided by segments of the brain stem and spinal cord.
2. Posotonic automatisms. Provides regulation of muscle tone. The centers are located in the middle and medulla oblongata.

Oral segmental reflexes

These types of reflexes include:

• Sucking. It appears during the first year of life.
• Search. Fading occurs at 3-4 months.
• Proboscis reflex. If you hit the baby with a finger on the lips, then he pulls them into the proboscis. After 3 months, fading occurs.
• The palmar-mouth reflex well shows the development of the nervous system. If it does not manifest itself or is very weak, then we can talk about the defeat of the central nervous system.

Spinal motor automatisms

Many unconditioned reflexes belong to this group. Examples include the following:

• Moro reflex. When a reaction is evoked, for example, by hitting the table not far from the baby's head, the latter's arms are spread to the sides. Appears up to 4-5 months.
• Automatic gait reflex. With support and a slight tilt forward, the baby makes stepping movements. After 1.5 months it starts to fade.
• Reflex Galant. If you run your finger along the paravertebral line from the shoulder to the buttocks, then the torso flexes towards the stimulus.

Unconditioned reflexes are evaluated on a scale: satisfactory, increased, decreased, absent.

Differences between conditioned and unconditioned reflexes

Sechenov also argued that under the conditions in which the organism lives, it is completely insufficient for the survival of innate reactions, the development of new reflexes is required. They will contribute to the adaptation of the body to changing conditions.

How do unconditioned reflexes differ from conditioned ones? The table shows this well.

Despite the obvious difference between conditioned reflexes and unconditioned ones, together these reactions ensure the survival and preservation of the species in nature.

with which he is born. They do not require development and training and change slightly with age, being dominant in everything that a particular individual does or behaves. At the same time, a complex set of unconditioned reflexes is called instinct - a form of human life activity that ensures the preservation of the species, the implementation of self-preservation and eating behavior.

The classification of unconditioned reflexes subdivides them into specific types, grouped into groups. Among them are simple tendon and visceral reflexes. The complex ones include defensive, food, sexual. Therefore, the concept of "unconditional" includes sexual, eating behavior and self-preservation, as well as a grasping reflex, reflexes of the propriosensitivity system, as well as a cough reflex. Among the simple ones, there are many reflexes realized due to the segmental apparatus of the spinal cord, the significance of which relates to vegetative reactions and unconscious behavior.

The birth of a child is accompanied by a number of whole specific conditions, thanks to which the birth and stay in the world are partially protected from external conditions, provided that the mother is present, since this ensures close contact with her. At the same time, the most remarkable unconditioned reflexes are search, food, grasping. During life, they, in addition to food, fade somewhat, and they are replaced by conditional ones, that is, those that require a stimulus for their development. For example, if a child is placed immediately after birth on the mother’s stomach, then he instinctively begins to look for the nipple, although during this period he is not hungry, and feeding is not a priority for both the woman in labor and the baby. At the same time, this technique is used in obstetrics to establish a mother-child relationship, which later promotes feeding and lactation. Also, the child tries to catch the smell of the mother, after which almost none of the other women will be able to breastfeed him.

Another remarkable reflex that a person is born with is the ability to independently hold their breath at the moment the head comes into contact with water. In the womb, the fetus is constantly surrounded by fluid, and independent breathing due to the development of the lungs in the very last trimester is impossible. In addition, the child does not experience hypoxic and hypercapnic stimuli, and there is no surfactant present in the alveoli to open them. Therefore, in the aquatic environment, these unconditioned reflexes, despite their presence, do not appear, and after birth, babies are able to hold their breath while swimming.

Despite the fact that the sexual instinct and self-preservation are innate human reflexes, their manifestation is impossible at an early age. Here the situation is directly opposite to eating behavior, because in the period from 1 to 4 years, although this interval is strictly individual, it gives way to the desire to explore the environment, and the sexual reflex does not develop, since there is no data in the central nervous system about the opposite sex.

Grasping unconditioned human reflexes are manifested even in the fetus, as evidenced by its presence in experiments that appeared due to caesarean section. This reflex behavioral response is probably a phylogenetic trace, a remnant from previous species of organisms. It manifests itself in the form of bending the fingers and squeezing an object that irritates the palmar surface. In conditions when a person did not live in a civilized world, these unconditioned reflexes helped fix the child to the mother's neck and hold on to her arms. The force of compression of the hand, even at the time of the newborn, is sufficient to withstand its own weight: by placing a finger in the palm of a child, you can simply lift it.

Reflexes and instincts

Know yourself and you will know the universe and the gods.

ancient greek proverb

A person is born and begins his physical development, which is no different from the development of any other living organism. leading physiological system his body is the nervous system, formed in higher animals and humans in the process of evolution of living beings. The development of the central nervous system was caused by the need to adapt to the effects of the external environment. Thanks to the activity of the nervous system, we are connected with the surrounding world, we are able to admire its perfection, to learn the secrets of its material phenomena. At the highest stage of its development, the central nervous system acquires another function - it becomes an organ of mental activity, in which sensations, perceptions and thinking appear on the basis of physiological processes. The human brain is an organ that enables social life, communication of people with each other, knowledge of the laws of nature and society. The activity of the nervous system allows a person to actively influence surrounding nature, transform it in the desired direction.

Academician Ivan Pavlov determined that the nervous activity of the body proceeds at three levels. On the first - basic - a general constant direction of human activity is set throughout life, nervous activity proceeds at the level of instincts given to him by nature and which are the general guidance for the life of the organism. At the second level, the action of the organism is controlled by unconditioned reflexes acquired as a result of evolution. The third level is determined by the action of conditioned reflexes, which were formed as a result of the acquired knowledge and life experience.

All animals have two basic instincts - the instinct of self-preservation and the instinct of reproduction. In man, as a bisexual species of the animal world, the instinct of reproduction becomes a sexual instinct, since it has a difference in form and content relative to the female and male individuals. Instincts, being a general guide to action, do not say anything about how to act in different situations. For example, the instinct of self-preservation gives a signal about the threat to life and mobilizes the forces of the body, but it does not tell you how to overcome the threat, unconditional reflexes of instincts come into play here.

Unconditioned reflexes are congenital, hereditarily transmitted reactions of the body. Unconditioned reflexes are a general guide to action. Their purpose is to suggest possible solutions in specific conditions. The action is performed by the body, or rather, by the brain, without considering and analyzing the conditions, since the conditions themselves in this case do not provide either time or opportunity. A classic example of an unconditioned reflex action is pulling your hand away from a hot kettle. It should be emphasized that not all unconditioned reflexes appear immediately at the time of birth. Many unconditioned reflexes, for example, those associated with sexual intercourse, occur in animals and humans a long time after birth, but they necessarily appear under the condition of normal development of the nervous system.

Conditioned reflexes are reactions acquired by the body in the process individual development based on life experience. They are habitual actions developed in training and in practical experience in familiar or similar conditions. We do not think about most of our actions, because they have become habitual. Turning on the TV, we do not look for a button on the remote control, because we know where it is located. Without thinking, we know what to do, even if it is a complex sequence of actions, such as driving a car. Conditioned reflexes are developed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes are relatively constant, while conditioned reflexes are unstable, and depending on certain conditions, they can be developed, fixed or disappear, this property of them is reflected in their very name.

The primary task of the newborn organism, the fulfillment of which is required by instincts, is its physical and mental development. After birth and up to a certain age, the sexual instinct and its reflexes are inhibited, but they quickly wake up. Human psychology is inextricably linked with human physiology. But there is no need to talk about any psychology of the newborn, therefore, at first, all types of expression of nervous activity are instincts and their unconditioned reflexes. Since the newborn has no ideas and concepts about the world around him, but only instincts, then further life is formed in the clash of instincts and living conditions in society. Thus, certain restrictions are developed on the forms and methods of satisfying instincts, taking into account the interests of other people. These restrictions in the process of development are stored in the mind and become conditioned reflexes. The content of these reflexes reflects the requirements of morality, traditions, rights that exist in society. Therefore, it can be reasonably argued that all sexual relations between men and women are based on innate unconditioned reflexes, instincts and conditioned reflexes formed in the process of education in the family and society.

Man was formed in the process of evolution, therefore he has the same instincts as animals. Sechenov and Pavlov proved that human physiology and psychology can be studied to a large extent by the behavior of animals. The study of animals provides more objective data, because their behavior and manifestation of instincts are not influenced by the traditions and norms of social and religious morality. Observations of animals made it possible to reveal the influence of gender characteristics in the distribution of roles in the entire sphere of their life.

With the end of the process of puberty, the male seeks to establish himself as the leader in the pack or in the family. The male tries to attract the attention of females with bold behavior in order to prove his ability to protect them and his high potential in the extraction of livelihoods. The formation of pairs in gray geese occurs in almost the same way as in humans, Konrad Lorenz wrote in his book. A young gander is suddenly carried away by some young goose and begins to court her violently, in which her angry father sometimes interferes with him. The young gander shows his courage in every possible way - he rushes to drive away other ganders, and even those that he is usually afraid of. But he does this only when the chosen one can see him. In her presence, he flaunts physical strength in every possible way - soars into the air to fly a short distance, which any goose not blinded by passion will prudently walk. In a word, he behaves like a young man in love. If the goose responds to courtship, they together perform a ritual marriage ceremony, called by ornithologists a triumphant cry. The geese follow this oath of allegiance for the rest of their lives.

Animals lack morality and law, so the decisive factor in establishing the status of a leader is physical strength. If a young male cannot establish a dominant position in his native family, then he leaves it. He takes away or beats off females from other families and creates his own. In the hierarchy of the pack, each male occupies a position corresponding to his strength. This feature of the behavior of males is visible in all species of bisexual animals, whose life activity takes place in a herd, herd or family form, so we can talk about the existence of an unconditioned leader reflex.

The female also strives for a dominant position in the family or pack. But since females are inferior to males in their physical qualities, they can take a dominant position only next to the leader, that is, becoming his favorite and first female. Observations show that the female guards her position next to the leader from attempts by other females, not stopping even before using force. In order to become a leader, a male needs only strength, a female, in order to become a dominant in a family or pack, needs the protection of a leader, the male must bring her closer to him, and for this it is necessary to attract his attention. Female animals do not know how to do makeup, do not wear jewelry and do not dress in exclusive outfits from famous couturiers, instead they simply constantly offer themselves to the leader. Scientists note such behavior in all females whose life activity takes place in a family or pack, which means that it is necessary to talk about the presence of an unconditioned attraction reflex. But attraction itself is not the goal - it is a way to gain status, and therefore we can talk about the presence of an unconditioned dominant reflex in females.

Scientists who study human behavior argue that there is the same subordination of female reflexes in relation to male ones, which is noted in a pack or family of animals. This is contrary to the moral principles of the emancipated part of the beautiful half of humanity, but it is obvious to those who are familiar with the basics of the evolution of life. Nature cannot allow the struggle for the place of the leader between the male and the female, this is tantamount to the self-destruction of the species. Women fell into a position dependent on men for economic reasons. Men by force became the owners of the means of production and extended these relations to women. And then religion sanctified respect for the owners of property and neglect for women - part of this property.

During puberty, a person begins to act in full force sexual instinct, which requires the implementation of the leader's reflex and dominance. The desire of a teenager to be the first everywhere, if not in everything, then at least in something, is an external manifestation of the leader's reflex. Girls look at their image in the mirror for a long time, dress up in their mother's evening dresses, put on her jewelry, put on makeup, trying to find their own style that attracts the attention of boys - they try on the status of a dominant. In adolescence, it is difficult to ensure the implementation of unconditioned leader and dominance reflexes. All places and heights that are attractive for leader status are occupied by adults, so the guys try to realize the leader's reflex in communicating with their peers. They try to stand out with their physical strength, the presence of the most sophisticated mobile phone, computer, lots of pocket money. Girls strive to stand out with their clothes, unconsciously trying to come through the attraction reflex to dominance. But the main opportunity for all guys to realize their leader reflexes is the possession of a girl. Possession does not have to be physical, moral is enough. There are two types of implementation of the leader's reflex - in the possession of a large number of girls or in the possession of one girl, but the one who recognizes you as the leader, for whom you are the best and irreplaceable. This is the reason why some men cannot calm down until old age, changing wives and mistresses, while others have lived happily all their lives in the same family with one woman. You can also consider two options for the implementation of the dominance reflex in girls, when one needs to shine in society, surrounded by the attention of many admirers, to satisfy the reflex, and the other needs the attention of her boyfriend, for whom she is the only and best in the world. Excessive coquetry, characteristic of some ladies, is associated with the manifestation of this particular reflex.

In childhood, conditioned reflexes of the sexual instinct are fixed with all individual features, they are determined by the specific external and internal conditions in which they were formed. Between the two extreme forms of conditioned reflexes, such as the reflex of complete disregard for social norms of morality and law and the reflex of a complete ban on sexuality, there are countless transitional forms. Conditioned reflexes of each person are developed in different conditions, depend on a large number of factors and therefore are strictly individual. Acquired conditioned reflexes of the brain are weaker than innate instincts and their unconditioned reflexes.

Men and women are not always typical in the manifestation of their unconditioned reflexes of sexual instincts. There are women with a predominance of masculine traits or reflexes, women who are trying to take on the role of leader in the social circle, at work, in the family. Some men, on the contrary, consciously refuse the role of the leader and claim the status of the dominant. As a rule, everything depends on the relative predominance of female and male hormones, but it can also be caused by serious genetic abnormalities that cast doubt on a person's belonging to a certain sex, despite the presence of pronounced sexual characteristics. Often in men, the unwillingness to take responsibility is explained by conditioned reflexes acquired in childhood as a result of improper upbringing in the family. But it happens that this is just a sober calculation that allows you to get away from everyday difficulties.

Unfortunately, at a young age, many receive a deep mental trauma that haunts them for the rest of their lives. Trauma appears from excessive suppression of the unconditioned reflexes of the leader and the dominant by parents or peers, self-hypnosis of a teenager associated with experienced failures, as well as from incorrectly formed conditioned reflexes. In the animal world and primitive society there were no restrictions on the manifestation of reflexes and, therefore, there were no negative consequences caused by contradictions between human physiology and social norms of morality and law. In our civilized society, families collapse from these restrictions and contradictions, people go crazy and become maniacs, but the sexual instinct and its leader and dominant reflexes will not disappear from genetic code never a person. We are still only one of the species of the animal world.

Most people find it difficult to think of themselves as part of the animal kingdom. The only thing that sets us apart from other animals is our ability to think and plan. Other animals only react to the situation in accordance with the genetic program embedded in the brain and the learned stereotypes of behavior. They cannot think, they can only react. Most people know and agree that animals are guided by instincts, which largely determine the nature of their behavior. But it is difficult for us to draw a parallel between their behavior and ours. Whatever the behavioral characteristics of a person, positive or negative, they are most likely to be genetically passed on to his children. In this respect, humans are no different from other animals. If we recognize that we are not far from animals whose instincts have been honed by millions of years of evolution, it will be easier for us to understand our basic motives, easier to come to terms with ourselves and others. Perhaps this is where the path to happiness lies.

Emotions and feelings

Life is a comedy for those who think and a tragedy for those who feel.

Marty Larney

In a person's life, in the formation and development of his personality, emotions and feelings play a huge role. Emotions arose in the course of evolution as ways of behaving organisms in typical situations - these are the most ancient mental states and processes in origin. Emotions are such states as fear, anger, joy, tenderness. Life without emotions would be impossible, as well as without sensations. Emotions, argued Charles Darwin, arose as a means by which living beings established the significance of certain conditions for satisfying their needs.

Thanks to emotions, the body is well adapted to environmental conditions, since it does not even

By setting the parameters of the impact, he can respond with saving speed to them with a certain emotional state, that is, determine whether this particular impact is useful or harmful. According to the mechanism of origin, emotions are genetically related to instincts. So, in a state of anger, a person has reactions of his distant ancestors - the movement of the cheekbones, the narrowing of the eyelids, the rush of blood to the face, the adoption of threatening postures, the clenching of fists, ready to strike.

Emotions serve as a means of mobilizing the body to overcome unexpected situations. Some smoothing of emotions in a person occurs due to volitional regulation, but in critical situations, emotions invariably take precedence over reasonable behavior person. It is easy to see that the higher we climb the evolutionary ladder, the more the simple emotional reactions inherent in animals give way to complex and diverse forms of behavior. Emotional manifestations have countless shades, while their diversity increases and enriches with age and acquired life experience. Emotional reactions also depend on the mental development of a person. Obviously, the higher this level, the easier a person can understand the reason for the discrepancy between what he encountered and what he expected, and thereby reduce his emotional reaction. However, this control, which depends on mental development and allows you to influence the manifestation of your own emotions, is not always permanent. Only a few are able to maintain equanimity and calm under any circumstances.

Emotional states not only depend on the nature of the ongoing mental activity, but they themselves have a huge impact on it. A good mood activates the cognitive and volitional activity of a person. The emotional state may depend on the activity performed, the act performed, on the state of health, on the song listened to. All emotional states are transitory. But for each person, typical conditions are characteristic, accompanied by manifestations characteristic of his personality type. All manifestations of emotions are causally determined, although a person is not always clearly aware of what brought him into a particular state of mind.

Emotions are closely related to the information we receive from the world around us. Usually, emotion arises due to the unexpectedness of an event for which we are not ready, we do not have the information necessary for an adequate reaction: a pedestrian who suddenly jumped out right in front of the car; unexpected sharp sound; an unexpected meeting with a loved one. All these cases cause the mobilization of the body, necessary for the rapid reception of further signals. But emotion will not arise if we meet a given situation with a sufficient supply of necessary information. A repetitive already familiar sharp sound, a pedestrian noticed in advance, a familiar meeting with a loved one does not force the body to come into a state of increased activity.

The dependence of emotion on the amount of information a person has is described by the following expression:

EMOTION = NECESSARY INFORMATION - AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Consider an example of the manifestation of emotions associated with the satisfaction of a need. Hunger pushes us to the refrigerator, where you can find the pizza that we put there yesterday, it is clear that no emotions will arise from such a “find”. But if suddenly, contrary to expectations, it turns out that there is nothing in the refrigerator, a surge of emotions is guaranteed.

positive and negative emotions can occur as an unconditioned reflex - due to pleasant or, conversely, unpleasant bodily sensations and smells. Emotions can also arise without any impact on the psyche, under the influence of drunk alcohol or a narcotic substance introduced into the body. By how difficult it is to fight these addictions, you can imagine the power of emotions and their necessity for the body. The strength of emotions is also evidenced by the fact that when rescuers arrived in time for the Titanic, which was wrecked as a result of a collision with an iceberg, they found many dead and crazy people in the boats. An explosion of emotions of fear suppressed their vital activity, the extreme emotional stress caused heart attacks and strokes in many.

It is very difficult to identify hidden emotions. But, given that emotions are manifested not only in feelings and behavior, but in the complex physiological processes occurring in the body, a device was designed that measures the values a large number physical parameters associated with the physiological activity of a person. This device is a polygraph, it is currently widely used by the special services of many countries under the name of a lie detector. IN Ancient China the polygraph was replaced with a handful of rice. During the trial, the suspect kept the rice in his mouth, and if, after listening to the accusation, he took out the rice dry, he was considered guilty, since strong emotional stress causes the cessation of the activity of the salivary glands.

From the point of view of physiology, emotions and feelings are associated with the excitation of the brain. Impulses from external influences enter the brain in two streams. One of them is sent to the corresponding areas of the cerebral cortex, where the meaning and significance of these impulses are realized, and they are decoded in the form of sensations and perceptions. Another flow enters the subcortical formations, where the ratio of these influences to basic needs organism, subjectively experienced in the form of emotions.

Brain researchers have discovered special neural structures in the hypothalamus that are centers of pain and pleasure, aggression and calm. The scientist J. Olds, in experiments with rats, implanted an electrode into the pleasure center, at first the rat accidentally pressed the lever that closed the electrical circuit, which caused the center to be excited, and after that she did not leave the lever for hours, making several thousand clicks, refusing to sleep and food.

In the socio-historical development of man, higher emotions were formed - feelings, basic emotional components of the personality. They, unlike emotions, are characterized by awareness and are conditioned by the social essence of a person, social norms, needs and attitudes. When we watch the sunrise, read a book, listen to music, look for an answer to a question that has arisen, or dream about the future, along with various forms of cognitive activity, we show our attitude to the world around us. Reading book The work performed can make us happy or sad, cause pleasure or disappointment. The world of feelings and emotions is very complex and diverse. A person cannot always realize the subtlety of his organization and the versatility of expression. Everyone knows how difficult it is to talk about your feelings, to express feelings in speech. The chosen words seem insufficiently bright and incorrectly reflect the depth of the emotional state.

Since everything that a person does ultimately serves the purpose of satisfying his various needs, one can agree with those scientists who believe that emotions are most closely related to the satisfaction of three basic human needs: food, protective and sexual. But if lower emotions are associated with the satisfaction of biological needs, then higher emotions - feelings - are associated with personal, socially significant values. They are caused by compliance or deviation from certain circumstances, rules, parameters of the life of a given person as a person. Human feelings are hierarchically organized. Each of us has dominant feelings that are characteristic of his personality. They regulate various areas interaction with the outside world. The hierarchy of feelings determines the motivation of human actions. Emotions and feelings, like other mental phenomena, reflect objective reality in experiences. They express the attitude of a person to objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Some objects, phenomena delight a person and delight him, others upset or cause disgust, others leave him indifferent.

Long lasting emotions are called moods. Mood is a more or less long-term and stable emotional state that colors all other experiences and human activities. The mood is different varying degrees duration, severity, awareness. At different people mood is expressed differently in behavior. There are people who are always cheerful, in a good mood, others are prone to depression, longing or always irritated. You can learn to manage your mood, but for this you need to monitor it and evaluate it correctly.

In the process of life, on the basis of external conditions and genetic prerequisites, stable emotional qualities are formed in a person - emotional characteristics and personality traits. The emotional characteristics of the personality include: excitability, the strength of reactions and their external severity - expressiveness. These properties are largely determined by the type of higher nervous activity of a person. However, in the process social development emotional characteristics undergo significant changes. A person learns to restrain his emotional manifestations, resorts to their disguise and imitation, develops emotional stability, but not everyone succeeds to the same extent. For some, even great emotional excitability can be compensated by emotional stability, for others, emotional excitability often leads to emotional breakdowns, loss of self-control. Emotional qualities determine the mental appearance of a person, form an emotional type of personality. There are emotional, sentimental, passionate and frigid (cold) natures.

Emotions and feelings as the basic phenomena of the psyche are of great importance in human life. Serving as a means of mobilizing the body, they help prepare it for the resolution of emerging life situations. Emotions are manifested not only in experiences, they have a significant impact on the physiology of the body, the course of all intellectual processes, on the actions and deeds of a person. People are aware of only a part of their emotions, hiding the rest even from themselves through a subconscious mechanism called suppression. Suppressed emotions, forced into the subconscious, have a devastating effect on a person. We hide the source of our pain in the darkness of the subconscious, but, unfortunately, repressed emotions do not die. They influence the personality and behavior of a person from within. Sigmund Freud, who discovered the subconscious, argued that all repressed emotions tend to penetrate back into the realm of consciousness, and we are constantly forced to resort to some form of further suppression. A person who has suppressed feelings of guilt will always seek to punish himself subconsciously. He will never allow himself to experience a feeling of boundless joy or success. Suppressed fears and anger can manifest as physical disturbances in the functioning of the body, but if they are perceived consciously and the person tells someone in detail about it, then it is likely that the body will no longer need to respond to them with insomnia or constant headaches. I will tell you more about the role of the unconscious in the formation of the human psyche in a separate chapter.

The peculiarity of emotions and feelings is determined by the needs, motives, aspirations, intentions of a person, the characteristics of his will, character. In the process of communication, it is extremely important for both men and women to pay attention to any, the most imperceptible manifestations of emotions. This will allow you to correctly assess the feelings, moods of your partner and perform actions that are adequate to the circumstances. The psychological analysis of the emotions and feelings of a partner is a complex process that requires knowledge of the characteristics inherent in his personality type, taking into account volitional training, attitude to events and people. You need to learn to control your emotions, but this does not mean that they must always be restrained, on the contrary, in some situations it is necessary to emphasize emotions with all the expressive means at your disposal. In certain circumstances this the only way achieve the desired result. Emotional control is one of the most important virtues of a person. Owning your emotions does not mean being insensitive. A brave person is not devoid of a sense of fear, he is gifted with power over fear. Ownership of one's feelings is not suppression, but their inclusion in the system of emotional-volitional regulation, giving them an expedient direction.

1.2. The biology of instinct. Differences between instinct and reflex

The science of mental activity has come a long historical way in its development. The very primitive ideas of the ancients were replaced by the reflex theory of Descartes, who made the first statements about the nervous nature of the body's reactions in response to external influences. The earliest psychophysiological theories of the behaviorists and Gestalt psychologists were replaced by the doctrine of higher nervous activity, which arose thanks to the works of Sechenov and especially the works of Pavlov. The development of human higher nervous activity is naturally associated with the formation of the central nervous system in ontogenesis, and, in particular, the cerebral cortex, in which not only the arcs of conditioned reflexes are closed, but also all unconditioned reflexes are reflected.

Reflexes (from Latin reflexus - reflection) is a stereotyped reaction of the body to the influence of the external environment with the participation of the central nervous system. The implementation of reflexes is provided by nerve elements that form a reflex arc - the path along which nerve impulses pass from the receptor along the sensory path, connecting the site of irritation with the center in the spinal cord or brain, and from the central nervous system to the working organ along the motor path. A simple reflex arc consists of two neurons: sensory and motor (for example, knee jerk). A complex reflex arc consists of sensory, several intercalary and motor neurons. The time of the reflex depends on the strength of the stimulus and on the excitability of the central nervous system. With strong irritation, it is shorter; with a decrease in excitability caused, for example, by fatigue, the time of the reflex increases; with an increase in excitability, it decreases significantly.

Each reflex has its own localization in the central nervous system, that is, that part of it that is necessary for its implementation. For example, the center of pupil dilation is in the upper thoracic segment of the spinal cord. When the corresponding section is destroyed, the reflex is absent. Usually the reflex is biologically expedient in nature: tears wash away annoying specks from the eye, and bending the leg removes the foot from the source of pain. Many complex responses, such as vomiting, coughing, or sneezing, are a combination or sequence of several simpler reflexes that are related to each other in various ways. An initial stimulus, even if limited to a small area, may set off one or more reflexes, which in turn initiate other responses so that the entire organism can be set in motion. Walking and maintaining a certain posture are examples of a complex combination of reflexes. I.P. Pavlov developed a classification of reflexes and subdivided them according to the biological principle (protective, digestive, sexual, indicative), according to the modality of the stimulus (visual, auditory, olfactory) and according to the nature of the response (motor, secretory and vascular). I.P. Pavlov in his writings introduced the division of reflexes into unconditioned, which are carried out by congenital, hereditarily fixed nerve pathways, and conditional, which are carried out through nervous connections that are formed in the process of an individual life of a person or animal.

In the higher levels of the brain, by summing up nerve impulses, a stable focus of excitation is created while other centers are inhibited. The dominant focus of excitation is characterized by increased excitability, persistence of excitation, the ability to sum up excitations, and inertia. Diffuse waves from stimuli of different modality excite all centers that are sufficiently excitable at a given moment, but the dominant is formed only in one of them that is able to attract and summarize excitations. The process of strengthening the dominant coincides in many respects with the process of developing a conditioned reflex.

Unlike simple reflexes, instincts are complex long-term purposeful actions, consisting of a series of reflexes following one after another. Instincts are not preceded by any prior experience. L.S. Vygotsky wrote, “Speaks a lot in favor of the assumption that the instinct in the genetic sense is the precursor of the reflex. The reflexes are only residual parts, separated out from more or less differentiated instincts. Instinct - this genetically primary form of behavior, is considered as a complex structure, the individual parts of which are composed like elements that form a rhythm, figure or melody, "that is, it is also characterized by a certain form that has a certain signal value and which can be recognized."

“Instinct (from Latin instinctus - motivation) is an evolutionarily developed innate adaptive form of behavior characteristic of a given animal species, which is a set of inherited complex reactions that occur in response to external and internal stimuli”, this is how the domestic biologist N.F. Reimers.

Instincts, having innate programs of behavior, are formed, manifested and disappear, being replaced by one another in the process of development of the organism, against the background of certain level development of neurohumoral regulation. So, for example, in the course of the maturation of enzymatic systems, food excitability changes, which ensures the transition from milk feeding to other forms of nutrition. The maturation of the hormonal background contributes to the development of instinctive forms of sexual behavior. And the formation and differentiation of the muscular apparatus provides the possibility of activating defensive behavior (both passive-avoidant and active-aggressive). The formation of instinctive forms of behavior in the process of ontogenesis proceeds in parallel with the maturation of the corresponding biological motivations. And all this, of course, takes place against the background of the maturation and differentiation of the structures of the central nervous system, which ensure rapid adjustment and switching of instinctive behavior.

"For the emergence (first manifestation) of instincts, the presence of appropriate hormones is necessary, but once manifested in action, the instinct is renewed and lives on in the order of a purely nervous reflex factor."

The structure of instinctive behavior includes well-coordinated movements, expressive postures, psycho-physiological reactions, reproduced in strict sequence. The formation of instinctive and motivational behavior in early human ontogenesis goes through several stages controlled by genetic and situational factors. At the same time, the transition from automated simple reactions (separate unconditioned reflexes) to complex instinctive-motivational behavior occurs gradually and is largely determined by the maturation of the corresponding structures in the central nervous system, as well as by the hormonal-enzymatic background. The definitive features of motivation are acquired in connection with the formation of higher brain structures, when it becomes possible to complicate innate behavior, due to its “accumulation” with conditioned reflex components in the learning process and throughout life.

The stability of the internal environment is an absolutely necessary condition for the life of the organism. Any, insignificant, deviations from the norm are perceived by the system of interoreceptors and put into action the physiological mechanisms of self-regulation, as a result of which these violations are eliminated. The rhythms that have arisen in the body determine the primary motivation for behavior. Instinctive movements are blocked by a special system of "innate trigger mechanisms" that ensure the confinement of behavioral acts to biologically adequate environmental conditions (to the "starting situation"). Instincts operate in such a situation and the appropriate innate trigger provides recognition, evaluation and integration of stimuli specific to this instinctive reaction. If the internal state of the animal corresponds to a certain external triggering situation, then it willy-nilly is forced to behave as dictated by the genetically fixed code of species-typical behavior for the given conditions.

In physiology, it is customary to represent the final phase of instinctive behavior as a set of unconditioned reflexes. Instinctive behavior acquires conditioned reflex behavioral components throughout life and in this form participates in the formation of motivational behavior aimed at satisfaction. biological need. Instinctive-motivational behavior is often emotionally colored, because the emotional and instinctive areas of the brain lie side by side. This emotional coloring activates the motivational search, which leads to the most adequate satisfaction of needs.

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Unconditioned reflexes and instincts

Various forms of behavior are usually divided into innate and acquired in the process of individual development. Both are aimed at preserving the individual and the species. In the process of phylogenesis, mechanisms have been formed that ensure the functional unity of individual systems of the body and support its interaction with the external environment. At a certain stage of evolution, reflex activity arose - responses to the effects of the environment or internal environment, mediated through the central nervous system. Hereditarily fixed reflexes underlie adaptive behavioral acts that manifest themselves without prior learning. They are species specific, i.e.

are unchanged in all representatives of a given species in response to the action of the environmental stimuli corresponding to them under a certain state of the organism.

Unconditioned reflexes were singled out in a special category to designate the species reactions of the organism to internal and external stimuli, carried out on the basis of innate neural connections, that is, reflecting the phylogenetic experience of adaptation to the conditions of existence. Unconditioned reflexes are relatively constant, stereotyped in response to adequate stimulation of a certain receptive field, and serve as the basis for the formation of numerous conditioned reflexes associated with individual experience. Unconditioned reflexes provide coordinated activity aimed at maintaining the constancy of many parameters of the internal environment, the interaction of the organism with the external environment, the coordinated activity of somatic, visceral and vegetative reactions. Unconditioned reflexes are innate, genetically determined reactions due to rigid neural connections in the receptor-effector chain. characteristic feature unconditioned reflexes is that their implementation is determined by both internal determinants and external stimulus program.

Spinal reflexes can serve as an example of simple unconditioned reflexes. monosynaptic reflexes. The tendon reflex is a stretch reflex caused by stretching a muscle. A short-term stretching of the muscle caused by a light blow of the hammer on the tendon leads, after a latent period, to a contraction of the muscle or even part of the muscle that is irritated.

Polysynaptic reflexes can occur through the mediation of muscle, skin and visceral receptors. They are called motor if their effectors are skeletal muscles, autonomic if their reflex arcs end on the effectors of the autonomic nervous system. Such reflexes play a significant role in movement (locomotor reflexes), nutrition (digestive reflexes), and protection of the body from dangerous external influences (defensive reflexes).

Instincts are an innate species-specific form of behavior, the formation of which is completed in postnatal ontogenesis under the influence of conditioned reflexes and in interaction with them. Instincts are a holistic behavioral complex, a systemic morphophysiological formation that includes motivating and reinforcing components. They arise at their first need, with the appearance of a "specific" stimulus for each of them, thereby ensuring the steady performance of the most vital functions of the body, regardless of random transient environmental conditions. Intensive reactions are innate and have a high species specificity.

Features of the organization of instinct. In the implementation of instinctive reactions, the triggering function is performed by external stimuli. External stimuli, which in their totality make up the starting situation, are called key stimuli, or releasers. Each key stimulus triggers a set of stereotypical actions corresponding to it. Key stimuli are such signs of the environment to which animals can respond, regardless of individual experience, with an innate behavioral act. Trigger stimuli, as it were, forcibly compel the animal to perform certain sets of actions, regardless of the general situation perceived by the animal.

An important role is played by command neurons - cells, the activation of which triggers the corresponding behavioral act, but they themselves are not motor neurons.

There are several groups of instincts.

1. Vital - provide individual and species preservation of the body. These include food, drink, sleep regulation, defensive and orienting reflexes.

2. Role (zoosocial) - can be realized only through interaction with other individuals of their species. These reflexes underlie sexual, parental, territorial behavior and the formation of group hierarchy.

3. Instincts of self-development - focused on the development of new environments, facing the future. This group of reflexes includes exploratory behavior, the unconditioned reflex of resistance (freedom), imitation and play.

A feature of the group of unconditional self-development reflexes is their independence; it is not derived from other needs of the organism and is not reduced to other motivations. So the reaction to overcome the barrier is carried out regardless of what need initially initiated the behavior and what is the goal on which the barrier arose. It doesn't matter in this case.

Summing up, it should be noted that instincts are a complex of unconditioned reflexes that turn on in a certain sequence (i.e., the chain nature of the reaction, when the completion of one reflex serves as a signal for the next reflex), with a rigid association of the nervous structures involved in their implementation, and a direct signal to its inclusion is a specific stimulus. An important characteristic is that they depend on hormonal and metabolic factors, in addition, they are characterized by many properties of the dominant.

dynamic stereotype.

Of the many conditioned reflexes that are formed during life, a complete system conditioned reflex activity. If, for example, a number of conditioned reflexes are reproduced in a strictly defined sequence with clear time intervals and the entire complex of combinations is repeated many times, then a single system with a characteristic sequence of reflex reactions will form in the brain. So, consider three reflexes evoked in the following sequence:

1) light + food -> salivation

2) metronome sound + electric current -> limb flexion

3) sound + food -> salivation

With repeated repetition, the animals, as it were, connect these previously disparate reflexes into a single complex. If now, instead of various stimuli to which reflexes were developed, the same signal is given each time, then it acquires the features of the action of the signal in whose "place" it fell. In our case, we will use only light. At the first application - increased salivation, at the second - flexion of the limb, at the third - salivation again. This phenomenon is called the dynamic stereotype. Each previous reflex becomes an afferent part for the next one. All our skills (for example, playing the piano, gymnastic exercises), the automatic chain of actions that accompany behavior after waking up or going to bed, etc., are dynamic stereotypes. The biological meaning of the synthesis of a series of reactions and their automation comes down to freeing the cortical centers for solving challenging tasks requiring heuristic thinking (guess, think).

When it is required to explain any actions of a person or animal, it is necessary to recall the concepts of "instinct" and "reflex". What do these words mean? What is the difference between instinct and reflex? Let's try to figure this out.

Definition

instincts- natural urges that generally control human behavior. Instincts are inherited by people from their ancestors and manifest themselves regardless of environmental conditions and upbringing. Their value is inestimable. For example, thanks to the action of the instincts of self-preservation and procreation, life on Earth does not cease to exist.

reflexes- automatic reactions of the body to exciting factors.

There are reflexes that a person has from birth, called unconditioned. So, a newborn, being in a position on his stomach, reflexively turns his head to the side, which allows him to breathe freely. In parallel with the development and acquisition of experience, a person “acquires” conditioned reflexes. For example, a small child, not knowing that the nettle burns, can calmly touch it with his hands. But, having experienced discomfort, the next time he will withdraw his hand without even touching the plant.

Comparison

Researchers have determined that the life activity of a person (or animal) is based on instincts at a deep level. They are the guide for all actions taken. The second level consists of unconditioned reflexes with which a person is already born. At the third level, behavior involves conditioned reflexes that are formed at different stages of life.

The difference between instinct and reflex lies in the very essence of these concepts. Instinct itself is not action. It only gives the body a certain signal. For example, when danger appears, the instinct of self-preservation is activated. This is expressed in the fact that a person is internally tense (fear), the forces of his body are mobilized. But reflexes are responsible for actions in this situation. They suggest exactly how to overcome the threat: run away, fight, etc. Moreover, actions are performed automatically, without any analysis of the situation - there is simply no time for this.

What is the difference between instinct and reflex? The fact that a single reflex is a simple reaction. The instinct is expressed in a whole series of reflex actions. In addition, the manifestation of instinct can be controlled to some extent by consciousness. For example, obeying the instinct of research, a person performs certain actions, but at will, he is able to suspend activity in this direction for a while. Meanwhile, the knee jerk will certainly make itself felt in the event of a blow to the corresponding part of the leg, whether we like it or not.

Instinct - a set of behavioral reactions aimed at normal life. The instinct of self-preservation, procreation, These are, in fact, two main, and, accordingly, sub-instincts - nutrition, and others. and the unconditioned reflex is the reaction of the body to the corresponding stimulus. That is, there is a feeding instinct - a newborn baby takes the breast and sucks it. This unconditioned sucking reflex is, as it were, a consequence of the existing sub-instinct of nutrition, arising from the instinct of self-preservation.

There is an instinct for procreation. And there are corresponding reflexes - an erection in men, for example. Well, I think it's understandable.

"Instinct (from Latin instinctus - motivation), a set of innate complex reactions (acts of behavior) of the body, arising, as a rule, almost unchanged in response to external or internal stimuli. The mechanism of instincts, according to I. P. Pavlov, is an unconditioned reflex , therefore, he considered the concepts of instinct and unconditioned reflex identical.Usually, only complex unconditioned reflexes (food, defensive, sexual, etc.) are called instinct, in contrast to simple unconditioned reflexes (blinking, sneezing, coughing, etc.).

Unconditioned reflexes are relatively constant, hereditarily fixed reactions of the body to certain influences. outside world carried out by the nervous system.

instinct (from lat. instinctus - motivation), a set of complex innate reactions (acts of behavior) of the body that occur in response to external or internal stimuli; complex unconditioned reflex (food, defensive, sexual, etc.) It follows that instinct is the unconditioned reflex

Everything is simple. The unconditioned reflex is triggered by a stimulus, the instinct is triggered by a hormone.

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