The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of psychological traits and characteristics that form its individuality, constituting the originality of a person, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), in abilities, individual style of activity, etc.
61. Nomothetic / Idiographic
Classifications of personality by types and traits
Nomothetic approach (features)- a certain set of traits is inherent in all people, but in varying degrees expressiveness.
You can build a profile of personality traits.
Idiographic approach (types)- each person has a unique (only inherent) set of traits.
You can determine whether a person belongs to one type or another.
62. Personality types/traits
Knowing the characteristics of a person's personality, we can predict his most likely behavior in a given situation.
general level-types, at the next level - traits, below - the level of habitual reactions, below - specific reactions, i.e. actual observable behavior.
At the level of types, Eysenck analyzes personality in three areas: neuroticism, extraversion-introversion and psychotism. Most deeply, he explores neuroticism and extraversion-introversion.
At the heart of his theory is the idea that people differ on the basis of heredity - by reactivity nervous system, speed and strength of conditioned reactions. These individual differences correlate with personality dimensions of neuroticism and extraversion-introversion. In studies of the structure of personality, Eysenck distinguishes two main types of personality measurement:
introversion - extraversion
neuroticism (instability) - stability
Personality traits (compendium according to Zaitseva):
Features due to natural conditions common to all people.
Traits that change over the course of history are common to a group of people.
Features that develop in the course of an individual history of personality development - individual characteristics personality.
Trait Analysis:
Analysis of biography facts
Questioning and interviewing experts - people who have regular business and personal contacts with the object of study
Questionnaires (the subject acts as an expert of his life)
Personality tests (in the process of research, the subject shows the trait being studied).
Multifactorial questionnaires (revealing the profile of personality traits).
The mental properties of a person in her behavior, in the actions and deeds that she performs, are both manifested and formed at the same time. Therefore, the static point of view, which proceeds from the properties of the personality as something originally given and considers its actions and deeds only as a manifestation of an independent, unchanging essence, is equally wrong, as well as the dynamic point of view, which completely dissolves the personality in the situation and, trying to completely explain the behavior from dynamic relationships that develop in it, turns all the properties of the personality only into changeable states, devoid of any, even relative, stability
Lecture 12
Many, it would seem, the most diverse personality traits are associated with relatively stable dependencies in certain dynamic structures. This is especially evident in the character of a person.
Character is a core mental property of a person that leaves an imprint on all his actions and deeds, a property on which, first of all, a person’s activity in various life situations depends.
In other words, giving a definition of character, we can say that this is a set of personality traits that determines the typical ways of responding to life circumstances.
Character should be understood not as any individual psychological features person, but only a set of the most pronounced and relatively stable personality traits that are typical for a given person and systematically manifested in his actions and deeds.
According to B. G. Ananyev, character "expresses the main life orientation and manifests itself in a mode of action that is peculiar for a given person." The word "character" in Greek means "sign", "feature".
Very often, character is understood as something that almost coincides with personality or differs from personality by the criterion that everything individual belongs to character, and personality is only general. We had such views in the 40s, 50s and 60s. In reality, of course, this is not the case. There is such a comic typology, which B.S. Bratus cites in one of his books: "A good person with a good character, good man with a bad temper bad person with a good character and a bad person with a bad character ". From the point of view of common sense, such a typology is true, it works. This indicates, first of all, that personality and character are not the same thing, they do not coincide.
In character, a person is characterized not only by what she does, but also by how she does it.
The words "characteristic" and "character" do not accidentally have a common root. A well-composed psychological characteristic of a person, first of all and most profoundly, should reveal his character, since it is in him that personality traits are most significantly manifested. However, it is impossible, as is sometimes done, to replace all personality traits only with character traits. The concept of "personality" is broader than the concept of "character", and the concept of "individuality of a person as a personality" is not limited to his character.
In psychology, personality is distinguished in a broad and narrow sense words, and character is outside the personality in the narrow sense of the word. Character is understood as those characteristics of a person that describe the ways of his behavior in different situations. In relation to character, such concepts as "expressive characteristics" (characteristics of external manifestation, external expression of a person) or "style characteristics" are used. In general, the concept of "style" is quite close in its essence to the concept of "character", but more on that later.
A wonderful illustration of this relationship between personality and character is a small fantasy story Henry Kuttner's Mechanical Ego. The hero of the story is an American writer and screenwriter of the 50s. 20th century - Concerned about sorting out relations with his employers, with his girlfriend and at the same time a literary agent protecting his interests, as well as a number of other problems. Suddenly, a robot arrives from the future, which traveled in time and filmed and recorded "character matrices" from interesting figures of different times and peoples. The hero manages to "drunk" this robot with high-frequency current and persuade him to impose some matrices on him. Further, the hero goes out several times and communicates with different people, first imposing on himself the matrix of the character of Disraeli, an English aristocrat and politician of the last century, then Tsar Ivan the Terrible, and, finally, Mamontoboy from the Stone Age. It is interesting to see what changes and what remains the same when changing matrices. The goals of the hero, his aspirations, his desires, his values remain unchanged. He strives for the same thing, but acts in different ways, showing in one case the refinement and cunning of Disraeli, in the other case - the directness and aggressiveness of Mammoth Boy, etc.
Thus, the difference between character and personality in the narrow sense of the word lies in the fact that the character includes features related to the mode of behavior, to the forms in which the same behavior can be clothed in content.
Each person differs from others by a huge, truly inexhaustible number of individual features, that is, features inherent in him as an individual. The concept of "individual characteristics" includes not only psychological, but also somatic ("soma" - in Latin "body") features of a person: eye and hair color, height and figure, development of the skeleton and muscles, etc.
An important individual feature of a person is the expression of his face. It manifests not only somatic, but also psychological characteristics of a person. When they say about a person: "he has a meaningful facial expression, or" he has cunning eyes, "or" a stubborn mouth, "they mean, of course, not an anatomical feature, but an expression in facial expressions of the psychological characteristics inherent in this individual.
Individual psychological characteristics distinguish one person from another. The branch of psychological science that studies the individual characteristics of various aspects of personality and mental processes is called differential psychology.
The most general dynamic structure of the personality is the generalization of all its possible individual psychological characteristics into four groups, forming the four main aspects of the personality:
1. Biologically determined features (temperament, inclinations, simple needs).
2. Socially determined features (orientation, moral qualities, worldview).
3. Individual characteristics of various mental processes.
4. Experience (volume and quality of existing knowledge, skills, abilities and habits).
Not all individual psychological characteristics of these aspects of the personality will be character traits. But all character traits, of course, are personality traits.
First of all, it must be said about the fundamental differences between character traits and the general traits discussed above.
Firstly, character is only one of the personality substructures, and the substructure is subordinate. A developed mature personality has a good command of its character and is able to control its manifestations. On the contrary, character breakthroughs, when a person acts directly according to the logic of what certain character traits induce him to do, are typical, say, for psychopaths. I mean adults. As for childhood and adolescence, this is a special conversation.
Thus, character occupies a subordinate position, and the actual manifestations of character depend on what motives and goals these manifestations serve in a particular case. That is, character traits are not something that acts by itself, manifests itself in all situations.
Secondly, the essence of those traits that make up the character can be clarified through the mechanisms of character formation. Before talking about these mechanisms, let's fix the main myths that exist in relation to the character:
1) character is biologically determined, and nothing can be done about it;
2) the character is fully educable, you can form any character at will with a specially organized system of influences;
3) there is such a very serious thing as national character, that is, there are very different character structures inherent in different nations, which significantly affect the individual character of all representatives of a given nation.
In every myth there is some truth, but only a fraction. There are really certain things in character that are related to biological factors. The biological basis of character is temperament, which we really get from birth, and we have to live with it.
The character also has, so to speak, a macro-social basis. In the myth of national character there is also some truth. There is a lot of controversy in the literature about the national character. The main problem was posed as follows: does a national character exist or not? It turned out very clearly that there are at least very strong stereotypes regarding the national character, that is, that representatives of some nations demonstrate fairly strong beliefs in the existence of certain complexes of traits in other nations. Moreover, these stereotypes in the perception of another nation directly depend on how this nation "behaves." For example, several years ago, studies were conducted in West Germany on the attitude towards the French. 2 surveys were conducted with an interval of 2 years, but over these 2 years, relations between Germany and France deteriorated markedly. In the second survey, the number of people who named among characteristic features French frivolity and nationalism, and the number of those who attributed to the French such positive qualities as charm and courtesy has sharply decreased.
Are there real differences between nations? Yes, I have. But it turned out that, firstly, the differences are always distinguished by a small number of features in comparison with those features in which the similarity prevails, and, secondly, that the differences between different people within the same nation are much greater than stable differences. between nations. Therefore, the verdict is just American psychologist T. Shibutani: "The national character, despite the various forms of its study, is in many ways similar to a respectable ethnic stereotype acceptable primarily to those who are not intimately familiar with the people in question.
In fact, the idea of a national character is a form of manifestation of the same typological thinking that has already been mentioned. Certain minimal differences that really exist (for example, the temperament of the southern peoples) and which are less significant than similarities are taken as the basis for a certain type. Typological thinking, as already mentioned, is distinguished, first of all, by categoricalness (either one or the other), the absence of gradations, the allocation of something private and its inflating by ignoring everything else. Thus, a worldview monster appears under the sonorous name "national character".
There is also the so-called social character, that is, some invariant character traits inherent in certain social groups. In our time it was fashionable to talk about a class character, and there really is some reality behind this. It was also fashionable to talk about some characterological features of bureaucrats, managers, etc. There is also a certain reality behind this, related to the fact that character is formed in real life person, and to the extent of the generality of the conditions in which representatives of the same classes fall, social groups etc., they form some common traits of character. After all, the character plays the role of a kind of shock absorber, a kind of buffer between the personality and the environment, so it is largely determined by this environment. In many ways, but not in everything. The main thing depends on the individual. If the personality is aimed at adaptation, adaptation to the world, then the character helps to do this. If, on the contrary, a person is aimed at overcoming the environment or at transforming it, then the character helps her overcome the environment or transform it.
According to the observations of E. R. Kaliteevskaya, adaptability and the absence of roughness, difficulties in the so-called "difficult age" fixes the adaptive character and then leads to the fact that a person experiences many difficulties in life. And vice versa, outwardly violent manifestations of "difficult age" help a person to form certain elements of independence, self-determination, which will enable him to live normally in the future, actively influence reality, and not just adapt to it.
At the same time, character cannot be considered as a simple sum of individual qualities or personality traits. Some of his features will always be leading; it is by them that a person can be characterized, otherwise the task of representing a character would be impossible, since for each individual the number of individual characteristic features can be large, and the number of shades of each of these features is even greater. For example, accuracy can have shades: punctuality, pedantry, cleanliness, smartness, etc.
Individual character traits are classified much more easily and clearly than types of characters as a whole.
A character trait is understood as certain features of a person’s personality that are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions.
B. M. Teplov proposed to divide character traits into several groups.
The first group includes the most common character traits that form the main mental warehouse of the personality. These include: adherence to principles, purposefulness, honesty, courage, etc. It is clear that the opposite of these, that is, negative qualities, can appear in character traits, for example: unscrupulousness, passivity, deceit, etc.
The second group consists of character traits in which a person's attitude towards other people is expressed. This is sociability, which can be broad and superficial or selective and its opposite trait - isolation, which may be the result of an indifferent attitude towards people or distrust of them, but may be the result of deep inner concentration; frankness and its opposite - secrecy; sensitivity, tact, responsiveness, justice, caring, politeness or, conversely, rudeness.
The third group of character traits expresses a person's attitude towards himself. Such are the feeling dignity, correctly understood pride and the self-criticism associated with it, modesty and the opposite of them - vanity, arrogance, conceit, sometimes turning into arrogance, touchiness, shyness, egocentrism (the tendency to constantly be in the center of attention along with one's feelings), selfishness (concern mainly about one's own personal benefit), etc.
The fourth group of character traits expresses a person's attitude to work, to his work. This includes initiative, perseverance, diligence and its opposite - laziness; the desire to overcome difficulties and the opposite of it is the fear of difficulties; activity, conscientiousness, accuracy, etc.
In relation to labor, characters are divided into two groups: active and inactive. The first group is characterized by activity, purposefulness, perseverance; for the second - passivity, contemplation. But sometimes the inactivity of character is explained (but by no means justified) by the deep internal inconsistency of a person who has not yet “decided”, who has not found his place in life, in a team.
The brighter and stronger a person's character, the more definite his behavior and the more clearly his individuality appears in various actions. However, not all people have their actions and deeds determined by their inherent personal characteristics. The behavior of some people depends on external circumstances, on the good or bad influence of comrades on them, on the passive and lack of initiative in carrying out individual instructions from leaders and bosses. Such employees are said to be spineless.
Character cannot be considered an independent, as it were, fifth, side of the general dynamic structure of personality. Character is a combination of internally interconnected, the most important individual aspects of the personality, features that determine the activity of a person as a member of society. Character is a personality in the originality of its activity. This is his closeness to abilities (we will consider them in the next lecture), which also represent a personality, but in its productivity.
In conclusion of the conversation about the essence of such an important category in the structure of personality as character, and before proceeding to consider the classification of characters, I would like to talk about two options for disharmonious relationships between character and personality, illustrating them using the examples of two Russian autocrats taken from the works remarkable Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky.
The first of these examples - the subordination of personality to character, the uncontrollability of character - is illustrated by the description of Paul I.
"Character<…>benevolent and generous, inclined to forgive insults, ready to repent of mistakes, a lover of truth, a hater of lies and deceit, caring about justice, a persecutor of any abuse of power, especially extortion and bribery. Unfortunately, all these good qualities became completely useless both for him and for the state due to the complete lack of measure, extreme irritability and impatient demands for unconditional obedience.<…>Considering himself always right, he stubbornly held to his opinions and was so irritable at the slightest contradiction that he often seemed completely beside himself. He himself was aware of this and was deeply upset by it, but did not have enough will to defeat himself.
The second example is the absence of personality, its substitution by character, that is, the presence of developed forms of external manifestation in the absence of internal content - Empress Catherine II.
“She was capable of exertion, of intense and even overwork; therefore, to herself and others, she seemed stronger than herself. But she worked more on her manners, on the way of dealing with people, than on herself, on her thoughts and feelings; therefore her manners and dealing with people were better than her feelings and thoughts. In her mind there was more flexibility and receptivity than depth and thought, more bearing than creativity, as in her whole nature there was more nervous vivacity than spiritual strength. She loved more and knew how to manage people rather than deeds.<…>In your friendly letters<…>she seems to be playing a well-rehearsed role, and with mock playfulness, feigned wit, she tries in vain to cover up the emptiness of the content and the stiffness of the presentation. We meet the same traits in her treatment of people, as well as in her activities. No matter what society she moved in, no matter what she did, she always felt like she was on stage, so she did too much for show. She herself admitted that she loved to be in public. The situation and the impression of the case were more important to her than the case itself and its consequences; therefore her course of action was above the motives that inspired them; therefore, she cared more about popularity than about usefulness, her energy was supported not so much by the interests of the cause as by the attention of people. Whatever she conceived, she thought more about what they would say about her than about what would come out of her plan. She valued the attention of her contemporaries more than the opinion of posterity ... She had more love of glory than love for people, and in her work there was more brilliance, effect than greatness, creativity. Her very self will be remembered longer than her deeds."
Probably no one needs to be convinced of how important it is to understand the characters of the people you meet every day - whether they are your relatives or employees. Meanwhile, our idea of the types of characters is sometimes extremely abstract. We often make mistakes in assessing the person we are interested in. Sometimes you have to pay dearly for such mistakes: after all, it can be a mistake in choosing a friend, assistant, employee, spouse, etc. The thing is that we, being poorly oriented in characters, sometimes do not notice the best features of those around us. We pass by the valuable that is in a person, we are not able to help him open up.
A person as a person, of course, cannot be reduced to character. Personality is determined primarily by social activities which it performs. A person has social orientations, ideals, attitude towards others and to various aspects of life, knowledge, skills, abilities, level of their development, temperament. Personality is characterized by harmonious development as a whole, learning ability, flexibility of behavior, the ability to restructure, the ability to solve organizational issues, etc. However, characterological traits are also essential for understanding personality. The brighter the character, the more it leaves an imprint on the personality, the more it affects behavior.
Numerous attempts to classify character types as a whole (rather than individual traits) have so far been unsuccessful. In addition to the diversity and versatility of characterological qualities, the diversity of the proposed classifications is also explained by the difference in features that can be taken as their basis.
The ancient Greek philosopher and physician Theophrastus (372-287 BC) in his treatise "Ethical Characters" described 31 characters: a flatterer, a talker, a braggart, etc. He understood the character as an imprint in the personality of the moral life of society.
The French moralist writer La Bruyère (1645–1696) gave 1120 such characteristics, dividing his essay into a number of chapters: the city, about the capital, about the nobles, etc. He, like Theophrastus, in his characteristics revealed the inner essence of a person through his deeds . For example, he wrote: "Cheaters tend to consider others as cheats; they are almost impossible to deceive, but they do not deceive for long."
From Aristotle comes the identification of character with volitional personality traits, and hence the division of character into strong and weak volitional traits according to the severity of it. More correctly, a strong character should be understood as the correspondence of a person’s behavior to his worldview and beliefs. A person with a strong character is a reliable person. Knowing his beliefs, you can always foresee how he will act in a certain situation. It is about such a person that they say: "This one will not let you down." It is impossible to say in advance about a person of weak character how he will act in a given situation.
As another example of the classification of characters, one can cite an attempt to subdivide them into intellectual, emotional and strong-willed (Bahn, 1818-1903). Until now, you can hear the characteristics: "This is a man of pure reason", or: "He lives in the mood of today." Attempts were made to divide characters into only two groups: sensitive and strong-willed (Ribot, 1839-1916) or extraverted (aimed at external objects) and introverted (aimed at their own thoughts and experiences) - Jung (1875-1961). Russian psychologist A. I. Galich (1783–1848) divided characters into bad, good and great. There have been attempts to give more complex classifications of characters.
The most widespread division of characters according to their social value. This assessment is sometimes expressed by the word "good" character (and, in contrast, "bad"),
It is also widespread in everyday life to divide characters into light (characteristic of accommodating, pleasant people around and easily finding contact with them) and heavy.
Some authors (Lombroso, Kretschmer) tried to connect not only temperament, but also character with the constitution of a person, understanding the latter as the structural features of the body that are characteristic of a person in a given rather long period of time.
Behind last years V practical psychology, mainly due to the efforts of K. Leonhard (Berlin University named after Humboldt) and A. E. Lichko (Psycho-Neurological Institute named after V. M. Bekhterev), ideas about the most striking (so-called accentuated) characters were formed, which are very interesting and useful for practice, including can be taken into account in the organization of production activities. Some stable combinations of character traits were noticed, and it turned out that there were not an infinite number of such combinations, but a little more than a dozen. Currently, there is no single classification of characters. The state of affairs in this field of knowledge can be compared with the state in the description chemical elements before the creation of D. I. Mendeleev periodic system. However, it can be noted that many ideas are quite established.
Each of the bright characters with varying degrees of severity occurs on average in 5-6% of cases. Thus, at least half of all employees have bright (accentuated) characters. In some cases, there are combinations of types of characters. The rest can conditionally be classified as "medium" type.
Below we will focus on the most striking characters. Take a look at the people around you. Perhaps the proposed recommendations will help you understand them, develop the right line of communication and interaction with them. You should not, however, get involved in the formulation of psychological diagnoses. Each person in certain situations can manifest traits of almost all characters. However, the character is determined not by what happens "sometimes", but by the stability of the manifestation of traits in many situations, the degree of their severity and the ratio. So.
HYPERTHYM (OR HYPERACTIVE) CHARACTER
Optimism sometimes leads such a person to the fact that he begins to praise himself, expounding the "natural theory of generational change" and prophesying high positions for himself. A good mood helps him overcome difficulties, which he always looks at lightly, as temporary, passing. Volunteering community service, strives to confirm his high self-esteem in everything. Such is the hyperthymic character. If there is a person with a hyperthymic character in the team you lead, then the worst thing you can do is to entrust him with painstaking, monotonous work that requires perseverance, limit contacts, and deprive him of the opportunity to take the initiative. From such an employee is unlikely to be useful. He will violently resent the "boredom" of work and neglect duties. However, the discontent that arises in these cases is of a benign nature. Having escaped from unacceptable conditions for him, hyperthym, as a rule, does not hold evil on others. Create conditions for the manifestation of initiative - and you will see how brightly the personality will be revealed, the work will boil in his hands. It is better to place hypertims in areas of production where contacts with people are required: they are indispensable in the organization of labor, in creating a climate of goodwill in the team.
Violations of adaptation and health in hyperthyms are usually associated with the fact that they do not spare themselves. They take on a lot, try to do everything, run, rush, get excited, often express a high level of claims, etc. It seems to them that all problems can be solved by increasing the pace of activity.
The main recommendation for people with a hyperthymic type of character is not to hold back, as it might seem at first glance, but to try to create such living conditions that would allow expressing violent energy in work, sports, and communication. Try to avoid exciting situations, extinguish excitement by listening to music, and so on up to a light calming psychopharmacological treatment and autogenic training.
AUTISTIC CHARACTER
Most people in communication express their emotional positions and expect the same from the interlocutor. However, people of this type of character, although they perceive the situation emotionally, have their own attitude to different aspects of life, but they are very sensitive, easily injured and prefer not to reveal their inner world. Therefore, they are called autistic (Latin "auto" - turned inward, closed). In dealing with people of this type, one can encounter both hypersensitivity, timidity, and absolute, "stone" coldness and inaccessibility. The transitions from one to the other give the impression of inconsistency.
Being autistic has its positive aspects. These include the persistence of intellectual and aesthetic passions, tact, unobtrusiveness in communication, independence of behavior (sometimes even overly emphasized and defended), compliance with the rules of formal business relations. Here, autistic individuals, due to the subordination of feelings to reason, can provide role models. Difficulties for this characterological type are associated with joining a new team, with establishing informal ties. Friendships develop with difficulty and slowly, although if they develop, they turn out to be stable, sometimes for life.
If a person with an autistic character has come to your team, do not rush to establish informal relationships with him. Persistent attempts to penetrate into the inner world of such a person, "get into the soul" can lead to the fact that he will become even more isolated, withdraw into himself.
The production activity of such a person may suffer from the fact that he wants to figure everything out himself. This is the path leading to highly qualified, but often new knowledge and experience is much easier to get through communication with other people. In addition, excessive independence makes it difficult to switch from one issue to another, and can make cooperation difficult. "Without getting into the soul" of such a person, it is important to organize his activities so that he can listen to the opinions of others.
Sometimes people with autism take the easiest route - they communicate only with those who are similar to themselves. This is partly correct, but it can strengthen the existing character traits. But communication with an emotional, open, benevolent friend sometimes completely changes the character of a person.
If you yourself have such a character, then listen to good advice: do not seek to strengthen isolation, detachment, restraint of feelings in communication. Positive personality traits, brought to an extreme degree, turn into negative ones. Try to develop emotionality and the ability to express feelings. Emotional firmness, certainty, the ability to defend one's position - this is just as necessary for a person as the development of other qualities - intellectual, cultural, professional, business, etc. Human communication suffers from a lack of this - one of the most valuable aspects of life. And in the end - professional activity.
LABILE CHARACTER
Usually a person, experiencing some emotion, such as joy, cannot quickly “change” it. He still experiences it for some time, even if the circumstances have changed. This shows the usual inertia of emotional experiences. Not so with an emotionally labile character: the mood changes quickly and easily following the circumstances. Moreover, a minor event can completely change the emotional state.
A quick and strong change in mood in such persons does not allow people of the middle type (more inert) to "track" their internal state, to empathize with them completely. We often evaluate people by ourselves, and this often leads to the fact that the feelings of a person of an emotionally labile nature are perceived as light, implausible - rapidly changing and therefore, as if unreal, such that should not be given importance. And this is not true. The feelings of a person of this type are, of course, the most real, which can be seen in critical situations, as well as by the stable attachments that this person follows, by the sincerity of his behavior, and the ability to empathize.
A mistake in relation to a person with a labile character may be, for example, such a situation. The boss, who is not familiar enough with his subordinates, can call to criticize them, “sneak through”, focusing (unconsciously) on his own emotional inertia. As a result, the reaction to criticism may turn out to be unexpected: a woman will cry, a man may quit his job ... The usual “sanding” can turn into a mental trauma for life. A person with a labile character must learn to live in a “harsh” and “rough” world for his constitution, learn to protect his, in a sense, weak, nervous system from negative influences. Living conditions and good psychological health are of great importance, since the same features of emotional lability can manifest themselves not in positive, but in negative aspects: irritability, mood instability, tearfulness, etc. For people with this character, a good psychological climate in the work team is very important . If the people around are benevolent, then a person can quickly forget the bad, it is, as it were, forced out. A beneficial effect on persons of an emotionally labile nature is provided by communication with hyperthyms. The environment of benevolence, warmth not only affects such people, but also determines the productivity of their activities (psychological and even physical well-being).
DEMONSTRATIVE CHARACTER
The main feature of a demonstrative character is a great ability to displace a rational, critical view of oneself and, as a result, demonstrative, somewhat "acting" behavior.
"Repression" is widely manifested in the human psyche, especially brightly in children. When a child plays, say, an electric locomotive driver, he can get so carried away with his role that, if you address him not as a driver, but by name, he may be offended. Obviously, this repression is associated with developed emotionality, vivid imagination, weakness of logic, inability to perceive one's own behavior from the outside, and low self-criticism. All this sometimes persists in adults. A person endowed with a demonstrative character easily imitates the behavior of other people. He can pretend to be what you would like to see him. Usually such people have a wide range of contacts; as a rule, if their negative traits are not too brightly developed, they are loved.
The desire for success, the desire to look good in the eyes of others is so vividly represented in this character that one gets the impression that this is the main and almost the only feature. However, it is not. The key feature is still the inability at certain points in time to critically look at oneself from the outside. To be convinced of this, it is enough to look at what demonstrative personalities portray in other situations. For example, passionate about the role of the patient. Or, flaunting their allegedly immoral behavior, they demonstrate licentiousness, etc. In these cases, regardless of the desire to succeed in another situation, they can slander themselves that, from the standpoint of the previous role, is clearly unprofitable. However, the correlation of one with the other does not occur, there is only a switch from one role to another. With different people, such a person can behave differently, depending on how they would like to see him.
With experience and in the presence of abilities, persons of a demonstrative nature distinguish well the features of other people. They see the attitude towards themselves, adjust to it and try to manage it. It should be noted that they often succeed. They develop the attitude they want towards themselves, sometimes they actively manipulate people. The growth of traits of this kind, especially combined with a low level of intelligence and poor education, can lead to adventurism. An example of this is the well-known situation with the “getting” a shortage, say, of cars. Deceived people in such cases are let down by the fact that they are guided by the internal criteria for evaluating lies - they are trying to determine if there are any alarming details in the inner world of the adventurer: embarrassment, inconsistency of ideas, etc., which would allow them to suspect him of lying . But since the adventurer, after entering the role, does not internally feel the lie, people can easily be deceived when evaluating his behavior.
A “developed” demonstrative personality, so to speak, also forms its own worldview, deftly “pulling out” from the accepted views that which is most suitable for the type of character. For example, the thesis about false modesty, about the admissibility of praise addressed to oneself is assimilated, inertia is rejected, the rationalism of others is allowed hints at one's chosenness.
It will be difficult for such a person if he gets into a team that does not take into account his personal and psychological originality. But such originality really exists! If others are cold, formal, do not notice him, the person begins to behave defiantly: attracts attention to himself, plays scenes that are usually condemned by others. But, tell me, how else can a person who lives in images show the originality of his experiences? Is it not through images? Obviously, the game that arose in these cases should be perceived as such.
Having recognized the demonstrative nature, one should "correct" his promises: after all, this is often associated with self-promotion and entering the role of a person who "can do anything." It is necessary to feel where the convention of the game is manifested, and where it is about the real state of affairs.
Such a person can be entrusted, for example, with product advertising, if other personality traits do not contradict this. It is good if a person with a demonstrative character will receive satisfaction not only from the main work, but also participate in amateur performances: in this case, he will give vent to his natural inclinations.
Of great importance for the positive restructuring of such a personality is the desire to develop opposite traits in oneself - the ability to restrain oneself, control oneself, direct one's behavior in the right direction, etc. Abstract thinking allows you to look at yourself from the outside, critically evaluate your behavior, compare facts, trace "supra-situational" line of behavior. If demonstrativeness is sufficiently balanced by opposite features, a lot is available to a person: the ability to analyze facts, and the ability to view whole pictures in the imagination, scenarios for the possible development of the current situation, the ability to notice the details of people's behavior and accurately respond to them, etc. Under this condition demonstrative character is more manifested by its positive features.
PSYCHASTENIC CHARACTER
An employee with a psychasthenic character, as a rule, is rational, prone to analytical, “step-by-step” processing of information, comprehension of facts by crushing, highlighting individual features. At the same time, switching to other ways of reflecting the surrounding world - to the level of images, to an intuitive grasp of the situation as a whole - does not occur.
Constant rationalism impoverishes and weakens emotionality. Emotional experiences become faded, monotonous and obey the course of rational constructions. This leads to the fact that, in contrast to the previous type, there is a weakness in the process of displacement. Suppose a person comprehended the situation, weighed all the pros and cons, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to act in such and such a way, but the emotional movement organizes his inner world so poorly that doubts are not discarded and the person, as it were, refrains just in case from action.
The same desires can arise from time to time, not finding expression in behavior, becoming habitual and, in the end, even annoying. Exciting topics become the subject of repeated reflection, but this does not lead to anything. Doubts can also be habitual, and fluctuations between “for” and “against” when resolving any issue can become permanent. As a result, a person of this type is characterized by the absence of a firm position. It is replaced by the desire to explore everything, delaying conclusions and decisions. If you need to think rationally about a situation, talk to such a person, he will deeply analyze at least some of its aspects, although other aspects may be left unattended to.
But a person with such a character should not be charged with making decisions, especially responsible ones. If he has to accept them, then he needs to be assisted in this: to advise, to single out experts on this issue, to suggest solutions, helping to overcome the psychological (and not related to objective circumstances) barrier in the transition from decisions to action. Obviously, administrative work is contraindicated for a psychasthenic. Once in a complex, rapidly changing, multilateral situation, for example, a situation of communication, such a person does not have time to comprehend it, he may feel constrained, lost.
It is possible to improve the character of such a person by developing figurative memory, emotionality. Imagination allows you to reproduce different situations and compare them, drawing the right conclusions even without analyzing all aspects of each situation. As a result, the need for a lot of mental work disappears, and the conclusions may turn out to be correct. The fact is that the analytical approach is always associated with the risk of not taking into account certain features of the case that are “felt” with direct perception. Emotionality allows you to combine considerations, connect according to the principle of similarity of emotional experiences in various areas experience, that is, it acts as an integrating force that organizes the psyche. Emotional assessments, as it were, replace rational analysis, since they allow you to reflect many aspects of the situation. It is known that "no knowledge of the truth is possible without human emotions." The development of emotionality smooths out psychasthenic features.
GETTING CHARACTER
The fact is that, according to the peculiarities of emotional experiences, a stuck character is the opposite of a labile one. As A. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky writes, the law of oblivion operates in the sphere of feelings (meaning ordinary volatile feelings, and not moral attitudes). Remembering a previously inflicted insult, praise, passion, disappointment, etc., we, of course, can imagine our state, but we can no longer relive it, the sharpness of sensation is gradually lost. The faces of a stuck nature are arranged differently: when they remember what happened, feelings, in the words of M. Yu. Lermontov, "painfully hit the soul." Moreover, they can intensify, because, repeating from time to time, they stylize the idea of the situation, transforming its details. Grievances are remembered especially for a long time, as negative feelings are experienced more strongly. People with such a character are vindictive, but this is not due to intent, but to the stamina and inactivity of experiences.
Inactivity is also manifested at the level of thinking: new ideas are often assimilated with difficulty, sometimes it is necessary to spend days, months to inspire such a person with a fresh idea. But if he understands it, then he follows it with inevitable persistence. The same slowness, inertia can also manifest itself at the level of movements. Slowly, as if with narcissism, such a person steps.
Inertia and getting stuck on feelings, thoughts, deeds lead to the fact that excessive detailing, increased accuracy are often manifested in work activity, although something nearby that did not fall into the sphere of attention of a stuck person may not be paid attention at all. For example, the cleaning of the desktop is carried out extremely carefully, in detail and for a long time. On the shelves, carefully, with an understanding of the smallest details, papers and books are laid out.
As we can see from our example, working with people does not go well with a leader with a stuck character. But the arrangement of the workshop, giving it an internally organized look can be entrusted to such a person (if, by restoring order, he again does not unnecessarily terrorize those around him). It should be borne in mind that, due to inertia, he may somewhat abuse his power.
A person of this nature is negatively affected by monotonous injury by some circumstances or constant conditions that cause negative emotions. The accumulation of negative feelings, which not only persist, but also add up, can lead to an explosion.
A person expresses his anger with poor self-control. Extreme situations can lead to pronounced aggressiveness. Positive emotions associated, for example, with success, lead to the fact that a person has "dizziness from success", he is "carried", he is uncritically pleased with himself.
The life of a person with a stuck character should be quite varied. Communication with people (and the more it will be, the better) will allow him to overcome, at least in part, his own internal inertia. Of no small importance is the understanding by others of the features of this character: tolerance for expressing long-forgotten insults or accusations, a condescending attitude towards inertia. Do not contradict the most "heavy" aspirations of such a person, do not seek to re-educate him. Inertia itself does not determine which emotions, positive or negative, a person will get stuck on. It is better to perceive "stuck" on positive than on negative experiences!
CONFORMAL CHARACTER
Even a good qualification does not help an employee with a conforming character to master the skills independent work. People endowed with this character can only act if they find support from others. Without such support, they are lost, they do not know what to do, what is right in a particular situation, and what is wrong.
A feature of people of a conformal nature is the absence of contradictions with their environment. Finding a place in it, they easily feel the "average" opinion of others, are easily impressed by the most common judgments and easily follow them. They cannot resist the pressure of convincing influences, they immediately give in.
Persons of a conformal nature, as it were, cement the team. Inconspicuous, never coming to the fore, they are the natural bearers of its norms, values, and interests. One of the undoubted advantages of this type of character is softness in communication, a natural "list", the ability to "dissolve" oneself in the values and interests of another.
LECTURE No. 24. Features of personality development in adolescence The process of adolescent development is closely related to age characteristics which have a significant impact on the formation of personality. Adolescence is considered more difficult to learn and
From the book Psychology of Personality: Lecture Notes author Guseva Tamara IvanovnaLECTURE No. 26. Features of the functioning of the personality in the period of maturity. Midlife crisis Middle age differs from previous periods of personality development by the lack of specific frameworks and definitions. The concept of "mature person" covers quite a wide range of
From book Pedagogical psychology: lecture notes the author Esina E VLECTURE No. 4. Characteristics and comparative features of cognitive processes and the process of personality development in situations of learning and
From the book Workshop on Observation and Observation author Regush Lyudmila Alexandrovna3.2. Individual features of observation In the process of observing people, the phenomena of the surrounding world, the individual features of the observer appear, which give the process of observation a special color and make the observation individually peculiar.
From the book The Psychology of Individual Differences author Ilyin Evgeny PavlovichChapter 23 Individual characteristics and pathology In the English-language literature it is stated that one of the first researchers who suggested the connection of diseases with a certain mental make-up of the personality, i.e. the presence of psychosomatic diseases, was Alexander (see: Suls,
From the book Psychology. People, concepts, experiments author Kleinman PaulIndividual personality traits What makes us us? When discussing the qualities of a person, psychologists take into account the thoughts, actions, and emotions of an individual that make him unique - collectively this is called a "mental model." Every man is individual,
author Voytina Yulia Mikhailovna51. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGINATION AND ITS DEVELOPMENT Imagination is developed differently in people, and it manifests itself in different ways in their activities and social life. Individual features of the imagination are expressed in the fact that, firstly, people differ in degrees
From the book Cheat Sheet general psychology author Voytina Yulia Mikhailovna84. INDIVIDUAL FEATURES OF REPRESENTATION AND ITS DEVELOPMENT All people differ from each other in the role played in their lives by representations of one kind or another. In some, visual representations predominate, in others - auditory, and in others - motor representations.
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From the book Lectures on General Psychology author Luria Alexander RomanovichIndividual features of memory So far, we have focused on the general patterns of human memory. However, there are individual differences in which the memory of some people differs from the memory of others. These individual differences in memory can be of two types. WITH
From the book Supermemory, or how to remember to remember author Vasilyeva E. E. Vasilyev V. Yu.Individual features of memory (according to I. A. Korsakov) On the one hand, the memory of an individual person often prefers material of one modality (visual, auditory, motor). On the other hand, different people have a different level of organization of the material, although they say that
From the book Accentuated Personalities author Leonhard KarlINDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE SPHERE OF DRIVES All kinds of drives can also participate in the formation of the structure of a person's personality. So, during gluttony, a person’s thoughts are constantly directed towards the satisfaction of an insatiable appetite, accordingly, the whole
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From the book Motivation and Motives author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich6.7. Individual features of motivation The process of forming a motive can have individual features depending on the personality traits. So, K. Obukhovsky notes that psychasthenics make unusually high demands on their moral character, therefore
From the book Stop, who leads? [Biology of human behavior and other animals] author Zhukov. Dmitry AnatolyevichIn psychology, a person is called a personality as a carrier of consciousness. It is believed that a person is not born, but becomes in the process of being and working, when, communicating and interacting, a person compares himself with others, highlights his "I". The psychological properties (features) of a person are fully and vividly revealed in activities, communication, relationships, and even in the appearance of a person.
Personalities are different - harmoniously developed and reactionary, progressive and one-sided, highly moral and vile, but at the same time, each personality is unique. Sometimes this property - originality - is called individuality, as a manifestation of the individual.
However, the concepts of individual, personality and individuality are not identical in content: each of them reveals a specific aspect of the individual being of a person. Personality can only be understood in a system of stable interpersonal relationships mediated by the content, values, meaning of the joint activity of each of the participants (1).
Interpersonal connections that form a personality in a team externally appear in the form of communication or a subject-subject relationship along with a subject-object relationship characteristic of objective activity.
The personality of each person is endowed only with its inherent combination of features and characteristics that form its individuality - a combination of the psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people. Individuality is manifested in character traits, temperament, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes, in abilities, and in an individual style of activity. The way of life as a socio-philosophical concept selects in the variety of qualities and properties inherent in a given person, only socially stable, socially typical, characterizing the social content of her individuality, revealing a person, his style of behavior, needs, preferences, interests, tastes not from his psychological features that distinguish him from other people, but on the part of those properties and traits of his personality that are given by the very fact of his existence in certain society. But if by individuality is meant not singularity appearance or manners of human behavior, and unique shape existence and unique manifestation of the common in the life of the individual, then the individual is also social. Therefore, the lifestyle of the individual acts as a deeply individualized relationship of the objective position of a person in society with his inner world, that is, it represents a kind of unity of the socially typified (unified) and individual (unique) in the behavior, communication, thinking and everyday life of people (3).
In other words, the worldview of the individual acquires a socially practical and morally valuable value insofar as it has become a way of life for a person.
From a moral point of view, a sign personal development of a person is his ability to act according to his inner conviction in the most difficult everyday situations, not to shift responsibility to others, not to rely blindly on circumstances, and not even just “reckon” with circumstances, but also to resist them, to intervene in the course of events, showing his will, his character.
The significance and role of the collective in the formation and education of the individual are great. The rule of education, formulated by the remarkable Soviet teacher A.S. Makarenko: proceed from the recognition of the educated person. And this must be done with all seriousness, without denying the educatees the recognition of the possibility of accomplishing those feats that the educator speaks of as lofty images of achieving exceptional results in the field of production, science and technology, literature and art (15).
You will not become a person by copying someone else. Only miserable one-sidedness can result. The construction of one's own personality cannot be carried out according to some standard project. As a maximum, only general settings can be obtained here. One must always count on the ultimate realization of human capabilities, never saying in advance: “I won’t be able to do this,” testing one’s inclinations comprehensively.
Therefore, human development is the process of personality formation under the influence of external and internal, controlled and uncontrolled social and natural factors. Development manifests itself as a progressive complication, deepening, expansion, as a transition from simple to complex, from ignorance to knowledge, from lower forms of life and activity to higher ones.
Nature has given a lot to man, but gave birth to the weak. To make it strong, completely independent, you still need to work hard. First of all, to ensure physical development. In turn, physical and physiological development underlies psychological development as spiritual development. The processes of human reflection of reality are constantly becoming more complicated and deepening: sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, feelings, imagination, as well as more complex mental formations: needs, motives of activity, abilities, interests, value orientations. The social development of man is a continuation of mental development. It consists in the gradual entry into its society - in social, ideological, economic, industrial, legal, professional and other relations, in the assimilation of one's functions in these relations. Having mastered these relations and his functions in them, a person becomes a member of society. The crown is the spiritual development of man. It means understanding his high purpose in life, the emergence of responsibility to present and future generations, understanding the complex nature of the universe and striving for constant moral improvement. A measure of spiritual development can be the degree of responsibility of a person for his physical, physiological, mental and social development. Spiritual development more and more recognized as the core, the core of the formation of personality in man (12).
Humanity ensures the development of each of its representatives through education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.
If a person draws all his knowledge, sensations, etc. from the sensory world and the experience received from this world, but it is necessary, therefore, to arrange the world so that a person in him cognizes and assimilates truly human, so that he cognizes himself as a person. If the character of a person is created by circumstances, then it is necessary, therefore, to make the circumstances humane.
Teacher K.D. Ushinsky was deeply convinced that the upbringing of a free, independent and active human personality is necessary condition social development.
Psychologists answer the question, what is a personality, in different ways. The concept of "personality" usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a person, determining his actions that are significant for people. Personality is a person taken in the system of such psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in social connections and relations by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are essential for himself and those around him. Along with the concept of "personality" in science, the term "individual", "individuality" is often used. The concept of "individual" includes both the qualities that distinguish this person from other people, and the properties that are common to him and many other people. Individuality is the narrowest concept in terms of content. It contains only those individual and personal properties of a person, such a combination of them that distinguishes this person from other people.
A personality can be characterized by revealing its individual psychological characteristics, such as temperament, abilities, character. When we try to understand and explain why different people, circumstances of life, placed in the same or approximately the same conditions, achieve different successes, we turn to the concept of ability, believing that the difference in successes can be quite satisfactorily explained by them. The same concept is used by us when we need to realize why some people acquire knowledge, skills and abilities faster and better than others. Meanwhile, the data of psychological research and pedagogical experience indicate that sometimes a person who initially did not know how to do something and therefore did not compare favorably with others, as a result of training, acquires skills and abilities extremely quickly and soon overtakes everyone on the way to mastery. He has more abilities than others. Abilities are something that does not come down to knowledge, skills and abilities, but explains (provides) their rapid acquisition, consolidation and effective use in practice. This definition was given by our domestic scientist B.M. Teplov. In the concept of "ability", in his opinion, there are three ideas. “Firstly, abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another. Secondly, abilities are not called any individual characteristics in general, but only those that are related to the success of performing an activity or many activities. Thirdly, the concept of "ability" is not limited to the knowledge, skills or abilities that have already been developed by a given person. Abilities and knowledge, abilities and skills, abilities and skills are not identical to each other. In relation to skills, abilities and knowledge, human abilities act as some kind of opportunity. Just as a grain thrown into the soil is only a possibility in relation to an ear, which can grow from this grain only under the condition that the structure, composition and moisture of the soil, weather, etc. turn out to be favorable, human abilities are only an opportunity for acquiring knowledge and skills. Ability is opportunity required level mastery in this or that matter is a reality. The musical abilities revealed in the child are by no means a guarantee that the child will be a musician. For this to happen, special training is needed. Abilities are found only in activities that cannot be carried out without the presence of these abilities. You can't talk about a person's ability to draw if you don't see his work. An ability that does not develop, which a person ceases to use in practice, is lost over time. The success of any activity does not depend on any one, but on a combination of different abilities. The combination of various highly developed abilities is called giftedness, and this characteristic refers to a person who is capable of many things. various types activities.
It is necessary to distinguish between natural, or natural, abilities and specific human abilities that have a socio-historical origin. Many of the natural abilities are common to man and animals, especially the higher ones. Such elementary abilities are perception, memory, thinking. A person, in addition to biologically determined ones, has abilities that ensure his life and development in social environment. These are general (mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others) and special higher intellectual abilities (musical, mathematical, linguistic, technical, literary, sports and a number of others), based on the use of speech and logic. Theoretical and practical abilities differ in that the former predetermine a person's inclination to abstract-theoretical reflections, and the latter to concrete, practical actions. Abilities can be called the ability to convince others, achieve mutual understanding, influence people. As for the ability to perceive people and give them correct assessments, it has long been considered a special kind of ability in social psychology. Until now, in psychology, primary attention has been paid specifically to subject-activity abilities, although interpersonal abilities are of no less importance for the psychological development of a person. Without the ability to speak as a means of communication, for example, without the ability to adapt to people, correctly perceive and evaluate them and their actions, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, normal life and mental development human would be simply impossible. The absence of such abilities in a person would be an insurmountable obstacle just on the way of his transformation from a biological being into a social one.
Among the individual psychological characteristics of a person are the properties of temperament (they are innate), which have a significant impact on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determine his actions, his individuality. Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes and behavior. Dynamics is understood as tempo, rhythm, duration, intensity of mental processes. The idea and the doctrine of temperament in their origins date back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. IN modern psychology use the classification of temperaments belonging to the German philosopher I. Kant. I. Kant divided human temperaments into two types: temperaments of feeling and temperaments of activity. In general, “only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic.”
The sanguine temperament of activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He appears as an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker. He quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, loses interest in what only recently worried him and attracted him to himself. Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and with pleasure enters into contacts with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness, willingness to help. Intense mental or physical work quickly tires him.
The melancholic temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and intense inner life, gives great importance everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do, he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if its fulfillment does not directly depend on him.
The choleric temperament of activity characterizes a quick-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down, if they give way to him, go to a meeting. His movements are jerky, but short.
The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses rather a tendency to inactivity than to intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces the slowness of his entry into work.
The properties of temperament exist and are manifested not by themselves, but in the actions of a person in various social significant situations. Temperament definitely influences the formation of his character, but the character itself expresses a person not so much as a physical, but as a spiritual being.
It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system. Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system per se or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate: activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability. The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by the extent to which a person is able to focus, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a particular object or its aspect. One person remembers, recalls, considers, thinks about solving a problem faster than another. The productivity of all these cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained over a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where at the same time it is possible to see, hear, remember, imagine, solve more. Productivity should not be confused with efficiency. Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence, termination or switching of one or another cognitive process from one object to another, transition from one action to another. For example, some people need more time than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember or recall information faster than others. It should also be borne in mind here that these differences do not determine the abilities of people.
In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in the athlete, included in various movements than the one with whom this property of temperament is weakly expressed.
Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as common ground many other personal properties, especially character. However, it determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personal properties. Such personality traits as impressionability, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament. The combination of these properties creates an individual type of temperament. Those manifestations of temperament, which ultimately become a property of the individual, depend on training and education, on culture, customs, traditions, and much more. Temperament to some extent affects the development of human abilities, which include movements with such essential characteristics as pace, reaction speed, excitability and inhibition. First of all, these abilities, which include complex and precise movements with a difficult trajectory and uneven pace. They also include abilities associated with increased performance, resistance to interference, endurance, the need for long-term concentration.
Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of the psychological qualities of a person. However, with any temperament, it is possible to form in a person qualities that are unusual for this temperament. Psychological research and teaching practice show that temperament changes somewhat under the influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. It is known, for example, that A.P. Chekhov was a very balanced, modest and delicate person. But here interesting fact from his life. In one of his letters to his wife, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova, Anton Pavlovich makes such a valuable confession: “You write that you envy my character. used to restrain himself, because it is not befitting for a decent person to dismiss himself. In the old days, I made the devil knows what. It is interesting to note that some people, having learned the peculiarities of their temperament, deliberately develop certain methods themselves in order to master it. So did, for example, A. M. Gorky, who restrained the violent manifestations of his temperament. To do this, he deliberately switched to various side effects with objects. With people who expressed views opposite to him, A. M. Gorky tried to be impassive and calm.
Literally translated from Greek, character means an imprint. Character is a set of stable personality traits that determine a person's attitude to people, to the work performed. Character is manifested in activity and communication (as well as temperament) and includes what gives a person’s behavior a specific, characteristic shade for him (hence the name “character”). Character is interconnected with other aspects of the personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Temperament affects the form of manifestation of character, peculiarly coloring one or another of its features. So, persistence in a choleric person is expressed in vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated deliberation. Choleric works energetically, passionately, phlegmatic - methodically, slowly. On the other hand, the temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament, control its manifestations. Ability is inextricably linked with character. A high level of abilities is associated with such character traits as collectivism - a feeling of inextricable connection with the team, a desire to work for its good, faith in one's own strengths and capabilities, combined with constant dissatisfaction with one's achievements, high demands on oneself, and the ability to be critical of one's work. The flourishing of abilities is associated with the ability to persistently overcome difficulties, not to lose heart under the influence of failures, to work in an organized manner, to show initiative. The connection between character and abilities is also expressed in the fact that the formation of such character traits as diligence, initiative, determination, organization, perseverance occurs in the same activity of the child in which his abilities are formed. For example, in the process of labor as one of the main types of activity, on the one hand, the ability to work develops, and on the other, diligence as a character trait.
Behavior is understood as the external manifestations of a person's mental activity. Behavior takes place in outside world and is detected by external observation, and the processes of consciousness take place inside the subject and are detected by self-observation. Facts of behavior: firstly, all external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity, communication of people - posture, facial expressions, intonations, glances, eye shine, redness, blanching, trembling, intermittent or restrained breathing, muscle tension, etc. ; secondly, individual movements and gestures, such as bowing, nodding, pushing, clenching the hand, knocking with the fist, etc.; thirdly, actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning. Finally, these are actions - even larger acts of behavior that, as a rule, have a public, or social, sound and are associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc. d.
The psychology of behavior arose at the beginning of the 20th century after a crisis in psychology (there was a change in the subject of psychology). It was not consciousness - Wundt, but human behavior - the founder was John Watson. The direction was called - behaviorism. He believed that psychology should not study consciousness, but human behavior, i.e. external manifestations of human mental activity. He argued that consciousness is not included in the category of scientific concepts, because. there are no scientific methods for studying consciousness. scientific method must be objective (not dependent on the expert) and reproducible. Facts P: 1. All external manifestations of physiological processes - posture, facial expressions, intonations, looks, muscle tension, etc.; 2. Separate movements and gestures - nodding, pushing, squeezing hands, etc.; 3. Actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning - a request, an order, etc.; 4. deeds are even larger acts of behavior that have a social or social significance associated with norms of behavior. In Watson's scientific terms, behavior is a system of reactions. To study it, he proposed to divide behavior into the simplest behavioral districts. He offered to study St. Islands and see how more complex acts of behavior are formed on the basis of these districts. He believed that the behavioral r-tion fits the formula
S (stimulus) - R (r-tion). He declares the relationship S - R as a unit of behavior. As the general final tasks of psychology, he outlines: 1. to come to the situation (stimulus) to predict the behavior (reaction) of a person; 2. to conclude from the reaction about the stimulus that caused it, that is, from behavior, predict R, and from R to conclude about S. Behaviorists experimented mainly on animals.
They did this not because they were interested in animals in themselves, but because animals, from their point of view, have a great advantage: they are "pure" objects, since consciousness is not mixed with their behavior. The results they obtained were boldly transferred to humans. J. Watson identifies innate reactions (sneezing, hiccupping, sucking, smiling, crying, movements, etc.) and acquired. A new step in the development of behaviorism was the study of a special type of conditioned reactions, the cat. were called instrumental (E. Thorndike, 1898) or operant (B. Skinner, 1938). The phenomenon of instrumental or operant conditioning consists in the fact that if any action of the individual is reinforced, then it is fixed and then reproduced with great ease and constancy. Patterns of behavior: Thorndike: not an external impulse, but a problematic situation, was taken as the initial moment of a motor act. Then the connection
S-R was characterized by the following features: 1) starting point - a problematic situation; 2) the organism resists it as a whole; 3) he is actively seeking choice; and 4) is learned through exercise. He formulated the foundations of his approach in several laws: 1. Laws of exercises, according to which, other things being equal, the reaction to a situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetition of connections and their strength.
2. The law of readiness: exercise changes the body's readiness to conduct nerve impulses. 3. The law of associative shift: if, with the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. This step reflected the “law of effect”: if frequency, strength and contiguity were mechanical determinants, then effects were understood as special states inherent in the biopsychic level of behavior determination.
The law of effect said: “any act that causes satisfaction in a given situation is associated with it, so that if it reappears, then the appearance of this act becomes more likely than before. On the contrary, any act that causes discomfort in a given situation is split off from it, so that when it reappears, the occurrence of this act becomes less likely. From this it followed that the result of the action is evaluated by the organism and, depending on this assessment, the links between S and R are fixed. Then neobikhev appeared. Founder - Tolman. He said that it was impossible to describe a simple behavioral r-tion according to Watson, because the formula does not take into account the internal states of a person, because different districts can be given for the same stimulus. Introduced a new parameter O - intermediate variables S - O - R - internal experiences of a person (desires, knowledge, goals). Bihev-ma merits: introduced a strong materialistic spirit into psychology - a natural-scientific path of development; introduced an objective method based on the registration and analysis of externally observable facts, processes, events; the class of objects under study has expanded (behavior of animals, pre-speech babies); separate sections of psychology have been advanced (problems of learning, education of skills). Disadvantages of behavior: convergence of the psyche of an animal and a person; ignoring consciousness; underestimation of the complexity of human mental activity.
Topic: Motives, their types and functions. Motive - an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of a need, i.e. the motivating and determining choice of the direction of activity is the subject of need. Motivation is an impulse that causes activity.
In foreign psychology, a number of features of the nature and functions of the motive in the regulation of behavior have been identified: 1. The motivating and guiding function of the motive. 2. Determination of human behavior by unconscious motives. 3. Hierarchy of motives. 4. The desire for balance and tension - here the motive is understood purely energetically.
In the theory of Leontiev's activity, the realization of needs in the course of search activity and, thereby, the transformation of its objects into objects of needs is considered as a general mechanism for the emergence of a motive. Hence: the development of the motive occurs through a change and expansion of the circle of activity that transforms reality.
In man, the source of motive development is the process of social production of material and spiritual values. Such potential motives in otnogenesis are the values, ideals, interests inherent in a given society, which, in the event of their internalization, acquire a motivating force and become a motive. According to Leontiev, in the course of search activity, a need usually meets its object. At the moment the need meets the object, the need is objectified. This is very an important event. It is important because in the act of objectification a motive is born. The motive is defined as the subject of need. If we look at the same event from the side of need, we can say that through objectification, the need receives its concretization. In this regard, the motive is defined in another way - as an objectified need. A motive is that objective that induces and directs activity, responding to one or another need, concretizing the need or satisfying it. That is, the main function of motives is to induce and direct activity. Following the objectification of a need and the appearance of a motive, the type of behavior changes dramatically, if up to this point the behavior was non-directional, search, now it acquires a “vector”, or direction. A motive is something for which an action is performed. “For the sake of” something, a person, as a rule, performs many different actions.
A set of actions that are connected by one motive is called an activity, and more specifically, a special activity or a special type of activity. Correlation of motives and consciousness. Motives are not always recognized, therefore, two classes of motives are distinguished: those that are recognized and those that are not recognized. Examples of motives of the first class can be great life goals that direct a person's activities during long periods of his life - these are motives-goals. Relationship between motives and personality. It is known that human motives form a hierarchical system. Usually the hierarchical relationships of motives are not fully realized. They become clearer in a situation of conflict of motives. New motives are formed in the course of activity. In the theory of activity, a mechanism for the formation of new motives is described, which is called the mechanism for shifting a motive to a goal. The essence of this mechanism lies in the fact that the goal, previously impelled to its implementation by some motive, eventually acquires an independent motivating force, i.e. becomes its own motive. The transformation of a goal into a motive can only happen if positive emotions accumulate. There are the following functions of motives: 1. incentive (to activity); 2. directing (the motive directs the activity towards itself); 3. goal-generating (the motive generates an action aimed at meeting the need. Goals form the basis of actions); 4. sense-forming (the motive gives the actions significance, importance). What we do acquires personal meaning for us, i.e. experiencing an increased subjective significance of an object or event associated with a motive.
Possible grounds for the classification of motives. 1) Actual motives - what is being done (professional choice, leisure). Potential - those that can organize an action. They determine the possible options for a person's life. When social conditions change, then motives change. When we are forced to make an unattractive choice for ourselves under the influence of conditions, then potential motives acquire significance (neuroses, withdrawals). 2) Leading and secondary motives. The motivational sphere of personality is hierarchized. Activity is motivated by several motives. Human activity is polymotivated, i.e. simultaneously regulated by two or more motives. 3) Meaningful and motive incentives. After all, a person in his activity objectively implements a whole system of relations: to the objective world, to the people around him, to society and to himself. Some motives, stimulating the activity, at the same time give it a personal meaning - they are called leading or meaning-forming. 4) According to the subject content: 1. Subject - organize the final direction of the activity. They always clearly indicate what should be (eg: build a house). The motive consists of the content and the active nature of the transformation. Modes of transformation: refusal, renunciation, acquisition, creation, maintenance, expression, preservation, aggression, avoidance. 2. Functional motives: for example, people's need for communication does not have a final focus. They motivate the activity. Something that is pleasant in the process itself, and not in its end (it's nice to read a book). Game activity is an element of targeting (hide so that they are not found). Motivating mass of intermediate goals (intermediate motivations). This is a motivation that is tied to separate small intermediate goals (an analogue in animals is instinct). 3. Normative: appear less frequently. Levin: barriers are something that does not organize, but limits activity, does not encourage individual activity. Moral motives.5) According to the level of generalization. Dodonov, Merey. What really motivates activity is going on different levels generality (to love Beethoven's music or to love his Moonlight Sonata). The idea of justice - different levels of generalization. Generalized, specific, individual motives. 6) According to the degree of awareness. Conscious and unconscious. Often a person is not aware of the motives of his behavior and invents reasons.
Motivation is a consciously imagined motive that has nothing to do with reality..
Topic Perception, its main properties and patterns.
Perception is a holistic reflection of reality (objects, situations, events and phenomena), arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.
The difference from feeling perception reflects the object as a whole in the totality of its properties, and sensations reflect the individual properties of the stimulus. Types of perception. Depending on the forms of reflection, there are: 1. perception of space; 2. perception of movement; 3. perception of time. Depending on the goal, there are: 1. intentional perception, characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is connected with the volitional efforts of a person; 2. unintentional perception, in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with volitional efforts. Depending on the degree of organization, there are: 1. organized perception (observation) - this is a purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; 2. unorganized perception is the usual systematic perception of the surrounding reality. Naturally, visual, auditory, tactile perception is distinguished. Physiological bases of perception. It is caused by simultaneous complex stimuli, is carried out by the simultaneous and coordinated activity of several analyzers, and proceeds with the participation of the associative sections of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.
Properties of perception: 1. selectivity of perception - the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. It depends on the interests, attitudes and needs of the individual. 2. objectivity - the ability of a person to reflect the surrounding reality as the impact of its specific objects related to a certain class of phenomena. At the same time, the brain clearly distinguishes between the object, the background, the contour of perception.
3. apperception - the dependence of perception on the previous experience of a person. Apperception gives an active character to perception. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them. 4. The meaningfulness of perception shows that objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning. 5. constancy of perception is the constancy in perception, which is determined by the knowledge of the physical properties of the object, as well as by the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. The constancy of perception is explained by the experience acquired in the process of individual development of the personality. 6. The integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the mind of a person in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. 7. Categoriality is manifested in the fact that perception is of a generalized nature, and we designate each perceived object with a word-concept, refer to a certain class. 8. historicity of perception.
Of all the psychological theories, the problem of perception has been the most gestalt psychologists and from their point of view the laws of perception:
1. proximity - the closer objects are to each other in the visual field, the more likely they are to be organized into single, integral images; 2. similarity of processes in the visual field: the more unified and integral images, the more likely they are to be organized; 3. continuation - the more elements in the visual field are in places corresponding to the continuation of the regular sequence, i.e. function as parts of familiar contours, the more likely they are to organize into single holistic images; 4. isolation - the more the elements of the visual field form closed wholes, the more readily they will be organized into separate images.
Theories of perception:
Associative theories of perception. (Müller, Mach, Helmholtz, Goering, Wundt). A perceived image is a complex combination of primary elements - sensations, and a sensation is a conscious state of a sense organ that has been exposed to an isolated external stimulus. Consequently, the associative theories of perception are based on the principle of the specific energy of the sense organs and the receptor concept of sensations. The unification of sensations into perception occurs through associations of contiguity and similarity, where the leading role is given to past experience.
Structuralist school (Titchener): perception is a complex of sensations, therefore, the task of a psychologist is to find elementary sensations in his experience through self-observation. This is a method of analytical introspection. The theory of J. Gibson. Perception is the process of obtaining information about the environment, as a result of which the uncertainty of the position of the organism in it decreases. Associationists incorrectly asserted that point stimuli are reflected, since a single stimulus cannot carry any information about the object. Perception is an active process. Activity is necessary, since there is no initial isomorphism between the objects of the external world and their perception. Active movements of the whole organism and sense organs play a decisive role. It is important that the movements are highlighted in the stimulation stream in order to better navigate the environment. The theory of perceptual hypotheses by J. Bruner. Perception involves the act of categorization. We apply some influence to the input of the organism, and it responds, i.e. refers it to the corresponding class of things or phenomena.
Perception is a process of categorization: it is a movement from attributes to categories, and in many cases it occurs "unconsciously". Gestalt theory of perception. There are 3 types of gestalt: physical gestalt - studies outside; physiological gestalt - the study of the substance of the brain and neuro-connections; phenomenal gestalt - the study of what we see.
Gestalt theory deals with phenomena that are found in the visual field, which in turn is a dynamic distribution of energy, and its parts are interdependent due to their participation in the whole. A field is structured to the extent that within it there are differences in intensity or quality. To the extent that a field is structured, it contains potential energy capable of producing (perceptual) work. By visual field we mean the spatial structure (construct) into which the phenomena of the visual field can be ordered. The visible image is set by stimulation. Spatial relationships are set in the outside world through elements. Therefore, it is not the elements that are perceived, but the relationships that are assembled into a holistic image.
Topic: The concept of personality in psychology. Psychological structure of personality.
Personality is the basic concept in psychology - it is the social quality of the individual; subject of public relations. Personality - 1) an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity; 2) the systemic quality of the individual determined by involvement in social relations, which is formed in joint activities and communication.
Personality, according to Leontiev, is born twice: 1. preschool age - the beginning of the formation of a hierarchy of motives (obedience to social norms); 2. adolescence - is expressed in the emergence of the desire and ability to realize their motives, and also carries out active work on their subordination and resubordination.
Leontiev identifies several personality parameters: 1. The richness of the individual's connections with the world; 2. The degree of hierarchization of activities, their motives. Thus, a high degree of hierarchization of motives is expressed in the fact that a person, as it were, tries on his actions to the main motive-goal for him - the so-called. life purpose. 3. General type of personality structure.
The structure of a personality is a stable configuration of the main motivational lines hierarchized within itself. The motivational sphere of personality is always multi-top. “The internal correlation of the main motivational lines in the totality of human activities form, as it were, a general “psychological profile of the personality”.
