Publishing House "Languages of Slavic Cultures", 2006
Serie: Studia naturalia
The book describes the results of experiments of the last third of the 20th century, proving the ability of great apes and some other higher vertebrates to master the simplest analogues human speech- use intermediary languages.
The first part gives an outline of modern ideas about the elementary thinking of animals, the second describes the history of the search for the rudiments of human speech in monkeys and modern research on this issue, analyzes the properties of the "language" that anthropoid apes master. It is shown that they are able to learn the meaning of hundreds of signs (gestures and lexigrams), use them in different contexts, including completely new situations, use synonyms to refer to the same object. They may resort to deliberate deception, communicate information known only to them, and enter into dialogues with each other. It also turned out that monkeys spontaneously combine signs in accordance with the rules of grammar and understand the meaning of word order in a sentence when referring to them. Bonobos, who began to be taught an intermediary language from the age of six months, learned not only the language of lexigrams, but also understood human speech at the level of two-year-old children.
Are they talking or monkeying around? (publisher's preface) (11)
Foreword (29)
Animal languages and human speech (35)
Main characteristics of natural communication systems in animals (37)
Features of natural languages of highly organized animals (38)
A Brief History of the Study of Mind and Consciousness in Animals (41)
Some hypotheses about the evolution of the behavior and psyche of animals (41)
Ch. Darwin on the evolutionary origins of human thinking (41)
A. N. Severtsov on the evolution of the psyche (43)
A. N. Leontiev on the stages of the evolution of the psyche (44)
The stage of consciousness in the evolution of the psyche (46)
Modern views on the stages of the evolution of the psyche (49)
I. P. Pavlov’s teaching about the presence of two signal systems as the basis for
physiological analysis of human speech (50)
Hypothesis of L. A. Orbeli about the existence of signaling systems
intermediate type (51)
L. S. Vygotsky on difference genetic roots thinking and speech (53)
Animal Thinking: general characteristics (55)
Basic definitions (55)
Classification of animal thought forms (57)
Tool activity and intelligence of animals (59)
The experiments of W. Koehler and the development of his ideas in contemporary works (59)
Purposefulness of tool behavior of anthropoids (64)
Generalization and abstraction operations in animals (71)
Definitions (71)
Transfer tests (74)
Levels of generalization and abstraction available to animals (76)
Preverbal concepts are the highest level of generalization in animals (78)
Studying the ability of animals to symbolize in traditional laboratory
experiments on the example of "count" (generalization of the sign "number") (79)
Generalization numerical features, or "count" in animals (79)
Evaluation of the ability to "count" in primates (80)
The ability to symbolize in birds (on the example of corvids) (86)
Inference operations (91)
Transitive Conclusion (91)
Identifying analogies (92)
Comparative characteristics of the thinking of great apes and
prospects for the search for the biological origins of human speech (95)
The evolution of views on the intelligence of anthropoids (96)
New directions in the study of the intelligence of anthropoids that have appeared
at the end of the 60s. 20th century (98)
Modern ideas about the intelligence of higher and lower monkeys (100)
First attempts to teach monkeys to talk (102)
Talking Orangutan by W. Furness (102)
Why can't monkeys imitate human speech? (103)
Chimpanzee foster care (105)
N. N. Ladygina-Kots and her contribution to the study of behavior and psyche
chimpanzee (105)
Yoni is the first pupil of psychologists: cognitive
abilities of a young chimpanzee (107)
Did Ioni understand human speech? (112)
The Kelloggs' attempt to raise a baby chimpanzee with
own child: comparison of oral speech comprehension
in a child and a chimpanzee (115)
Wiki in the Hayes Family of Psychologists: Revisiting Cognitive
chimpanzee abilities (116)
Attempts to teach Vicki to speak (119)
Starting a dialogue with monkeys using non-acoustic means (121)
About the benefits sign language for communication with monkeys (121)
First attempts to use non-acoustic signals for dialogue
with a monkey: experiments by A. I. Schastny (122)
"Education" of pointing and pictorial gestures in the lower
monkeys: experiments by N. A. Tikh (126)
Teaching orangutans to use pointing and other gestures
for communication with a person: experiments of G. G. Filippova (131)
From individual gestures to intermediary languages (133)
About terms (133)
What properties should the linguistic behavior of monkeys have?
to consider it an analogue of human language? (134)
Hocket Criteria (135)
Level of generalization underlying the use of signs (136)
Intentionality of communication (136)
Productivity and receptivity (137)
Syntax (137)
Types of intermediary languages (137)
Methodological features approach to the study of the rudiments of language
in A. and B. Gardner and D. and A. Primek (142)
Starting to communicate with a monkey using
sign language. First steps (145)
Some Features of Washoe's Early Education (148)
Sign Dictionary of Washoe and other monkeys (154)
Vocabulary capacity of anthropoids (156)
Use of pronouns and demonstratives
particles: "YOU TO ME", "I TO YOU" (157)
"Beyond the program": linguistic behavior not intended
Monkey Intermediate Language Training Program (159)
The use of signs is the result of generalization (160)
Making sentences and understanding their structure (164)
Assimilation of Amslen by other anthropoids (169)
"Project Coco" (169)
Coco vs. Washoe learning rate comparison (175)
Comparison of the speed of learning Amslen between gorillas and children (176)
Lexicon comparison of Coco, Michael and Washoe (177)
Vocabulary comparison between gorillas and children (178)
Creation of new signs by gorillas (180)
Checking the role of human imitation and the possibility of "hints"
when mastering an intermediary language (181)
"Project LANA" and the appearance of the Yerkish language (181)
Attack of Skeptics (187)
"Project Nim" and criticism of "language" experiments by G. Terres (187)
Defeat Attempt: Clever Hans Phenomenon Conference (191)
Is it possible to have a dialogue between two chimpanzees? (197)
S. Savage-Rumbaud as Unbelieving Thomas (197)
"Project Sherman and Austin" (203)
"Football player" and "philatelist" (205)
Productivity and receptivity: do chimpanzees understand
what they're saying? (214)
First dialogues between Sherman and Austin (215)
Can chimpanzees understand human speech? (219)
New tasks, new objects (219)
Matata and her "family" (220)
Kanzi: the first signs of spontaneous understanding
sounding speech (222)
Once again about the understanding of human speech by animals (223)
Word Comprehension: Spontaneous Manifestations and Test Performance (225)
Spontaneous learning of lexigrams by imitating the mother (226)
Again about syntax (232)
Human Spoken Syntax Comprehension Tests (233)
Comparison of bonobos and common chimpanzees and the role of early
language learning start (237)
Skeptics again (239)
Teaching the Intermediary Languages of Other Animals (242)
What are the "talking" birds talking about (242)
Pilot study language skills
gray parrot (zhako):
"Alex Program" Irene Pepperberg (246)
"Talking" corvids (255)
Intermediary languages learned by monkeys and language
human: similarities and differences (258)
Summing up: Properties of Chimpanzee Language
and Ch. Hockett's criteria (258)
Productivity property (259)
Move property (263)
On the role of observations and impressions in characterization
behavior of "talking" monkeys (269)
Cultural continuity in the acquisition of intermediary languages (275)
What Washoe and other "talking" monkeys "told"
about their cognitive abilities (283)
Activity planning (283)
Tool activity of "talking" monkeys (284)
Self-awareness, "theory of mind"
and "Machiavellian intelligence" (288)
The role of images and representations in the psyche of chimpanzees (297)
Conclusion: monkeys in "two worlds" (302)
Thanks (306)
Literature (308)
Name index (330)
Animal name index (336)
Index (338)
Application
Vyach. Sun. Ivanov. On comparative study of systems
signs of anthropoids and people (347)
A. D. Koshelev. About human language (in comparison
with the language of "speaking" anthropoids) (367)
| Comments: 2 |
Zoya Zorina, Inga Poletaeva
Tutorial devoted to elementary thinking, or rational activity - the most complex form of animal behavior. For the first time, the reader is offered a synthesis of classical works and the latest data in this area obtained by zoopsychologists, physiologists of higher nervous activity and ethologists. The manual reflects the content of lecture courses that the authors have been reading for many years at Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov and other universities. An extensive list of references is intended for those wishing to continue their acquaintance with the problem on their own. The manual is intended for students and teachers of biological and psychological faculties of universities and pedagogical universities
Kirill Efremov, Natalia Efremova
Elena Naimark
Scientists observed a group of chimpanzees relocated from the Netherlands national park to the Scottish zoo. As the animals forged new social bonds, so did the sound cues for food. In particular, the word-signal "apple" in Dutch chimpanzees began to sound "English". True, at the same time there was a slight "Dutch" accent. Scientists associate the learning of a new sound with the need to build social contacts, and not with a change in attitude towards the products themselves or the need for a semantic indication of them.
Zoya Zorina
The article considers the main characteristics of the behavior of great apes trained in simple non-sound analogues of the human language (the so-called intermediary languages). Evidence is given that their "linguistic" behavior really has the rudiments of many qualities of human language and approaches the language of 2-year-old children. The same similarity is also characteristic of a number of higher cognitive abilities common to both of them, which are absent in other animals (the ability to symbolize, self-recognition, theory of mind, etc.). It is emphasized that high level cognitive abilities creates the basis for the emergence of the rudiments of language in the process of evolution, that the ability to "speak" appears only together with the ability to "think".
The evolutionary development of human speech could not have taken place without the emergence of the so-called functional flexibility of interpreting signals - that is, the ability to express a wide range of different emotional states with one signal, regardless of their binding to the context of speech.
The formation of vocalizations (that is, sounds made) in newborn marmosets depends on whether they receive feedback from their parents. At first glance, this result, of course, does not look like sensational discovery. However, it is very important because it contradicts the traditional notion that the sound signals in primates are strictly innate and in no way dependent on experience and social environment. We set out to find out what the new results mean for understanding the nature of language, what scientists currently think about its origin, and why it is so difficult to teach monkeys to speak.
Western lowland gorilla Koko was born on July 4, 1971 at the San Francisco Zoo. At the age of one year, animal psychology student Francine Patterson began working with Koko, who began to teach her sign language. At the age of 19, the gorilla successfully passed the "mirror test", which determines the ability of animals to recognize themselves in the mirror (most gorillas and other animals are unable to do this). Patterson admitted that at the beginning of her training, she also believed that the gorilla unconsciously performs actions in order to receive a reward, but rethought this after Koko began to invent her own words. The ring became the "finger bracelet" and the mask was called the "eye cap". Koko was one of the few known animals that had pets - kittens, which she chose the name herself.
Eugene Linden
An American popularizer of science describes one of the most interesting experiments in modern ethology and linguistics - overcoming the age-old barrier in communication between humans and animals. Along with the striking facts of teaching chimpanzees the sign-conceptual language of the deaf-mute, the author sets out the views of major linguists on the nature of the language and the history of its development. Kinga is intended for a wide range of readers, but it will be of particular interest to specialists dealing with problems of communication and language.
Why do we like sour, salty, spicy and even moldy green cheese? Why do some flavors make you hungry and some make you sick? Like our smaller brothers, they are able to easily find their way home, not knowing the way at all, as birds feel when frosts should begin. Since the time of Aristotle, we have consoled ourselves with the postulate: man is distinguished from animals by the presence of reason. Recent research by scientists proves that animals can remember, imitate and even dream. They have their own language and intuition. They can change their behavior in certain situations, use tools and solve tasks. About this and more in documentary"Animal Intelligence"
Moscow State University them. M. V. Lomonosov
Department of Biology
Department of Higher Nervous Activity
Scientific editor I. I. Poletaeva
Zoya Alexandrovna Zorina
Doctor of Biological Sciences. Head of the Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Animal Behavior, Department of Higher Nervous Activity, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. He studies the elementary thinking of animals, including the ability to generalize and symbolize in corvids, lectures at Moscow State University and a number of institutes. Author of a monograph and a number of printed works on the rational activity of birds, as well as textbooks "Fundamentals of Ethology and Genetics of Behavior" (M., 1999/2002, co-authored); “Zoopsychology: elementary thinking of animals” (M., 2001/2003, together with I. I. Poletaeva) and the popular book “Animal Behavior” in the series “I Know the World” (M., 2001, together with I. I. Poletaeva ).
Anna Anatolyevna Smirnova
Candidate of Biological Sciences, Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Animal Behavior, Department of Higher Nervous Activity, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov. Engaged in experimental study of animal thinking.
Are they talking or monkeying around? (publisher's preface)
0. The idea of publishing this book was prompted by a TV show by Alexander Gordon, who carried out a wonderful project a few years ago: a series of interviews with Russian scientists who spoke in a lively and accessible form about their research and related problems. The program was dedicated to the ability of great apes to understand and use natural (human) language. In it famous scientists doctor of biol. Sciences Z. A. Zorina (researcher reasonable behavior animals) and Dr. historical sciences M. L. Butovskaya (specialist in the field of anthropology and ethology of primates) talked about the most interesting achievements of foreign, mainly American, biologists in this field.
These achievements amazed me. They turned out to be so unexpected and, moreover, incredible that, if not for the authority of scientists and the academic style of presentation (a detailed discussion of the conditions of each experiment, a multidimensional analysis of its results, caution in general estimates, etc.), their story could well have been accepted. for a pseudoscientific sensation.
I will cite only two episodes from this conversation, as they are already described in this book.
1. The first episode dealt with the experiment of American scientists, the couple Alan and Beatrice Gardner, who in 1966 adopted a 10-month-old female chimpanzee named Washoe into their family. Their goal was to find out whether chimpanzees are capable of mastering the simplest elements of the Amslan intermediary language, a simplified sign language of the American deaf and dumb (as you know, the anthropoid vocal apparatus is not adapted to reproduce the sounds of human speech).
After a short time, it became clear that Washoe was not a passive laboratory animal, but a creature endowed with the need to learn and communicate. She not only mastered the dictionary, but asked questions, commented on her own actions and the actions of her teachers, spoke to them herself, that is, she entered into full-fledged two-way communication with people. In a word, Washoe exceeded the expectations of the experimenters, and ... after three years of training, she already used about 130 signs ... She used “words” appropriately, combined them into small sentences, invented her own signs, joked and even cursed.
…Washoe corrected herself when she made mistakes. Here is a typical example: she pointed to the picture, made the sign "THIS IS FOOD", then carefully looked at her hand and changed the "statement" to "THIS DRINK", which was correct.<…>
Washoe accurately distinguished the sign of her own name and the pronoun of the 1st person. She regularly used the gestures "ME", "I", "YOU" and possessive pronouns- "MY", "YOUR" (these were different signs).<…>She was well aware of the difference between the acting subject and the object of his actions and demonstrated this understanding when using not only proper names, but also pronouns. When making a request, Washoe put "YOU" before "ME" 90% of the time: "YOU RELEASE ME"; "YOU GIVE ME", but "I GIVE YOU". When she was told “I TICKLE YOU” with signs, she expected to be tickled. But when she was told “YOU TICKE ME,” she, in turn, rushed to tickle the interlocutor.<…>
Washoe... very quickly generalized one of her first "OPEN" signs and spontaneously transferred it to a large number of objects (referents). For example, Washoe was originally taught this sign in relation to the opening of three specific doors. Not immediately, but she spontaneously began to use it to open all doors, including the doors of refrigerators and cupboards ... Then she used this sign to open all kinds of containers in general, including boxes, boxes, briefcases, bottles, pots. In the end, she made a real discovery - she gave this sign when she needed to turn on the water tap!
Finishing touch -
... the ability to use gestures in figurative meaning. Thus, Washoe "named" the attendant, who had not given her a drink for a long time, "DIRTY JACK", and the word "DIRTY" was apparently used not in the sense of "dirty", but as a swear word. On other occasions, various chimpanzees and gorillas referred to "DIRTY" as referring to stray cats, annoying gibbons, and the hated walking leash. Koko (gorilla. - A.K.) also called one of the ministers “YOU DIRTY BAD TOILET” (pp. 159–163).
Another episode belongs to a later time - to the second half of the 80s. It was attended by the now famous Kanzi, a representative of a recently discovered subspecies of bonobo pygmy chimpanzees. Kanzi was "bilingual". First, he was deliberately taught the new intermediary language, Yerkish. Instead of Amslen gestures, a special computer keyboard is used here with conditional (not iconic) icon keys (“lexigrams”) denoting words in English. When the key is pressed, the word icon is displayed on the monitor (no sound of the word). Thus, both participants see the entire dialogue and can correct or supplement their remarks. In addition, Kanzi, along with lexigrams, involuntarily (without special training) learned the sound of about 150 English words and, according to project leader Dr. Sue Savage-Rumbaud, he could directly perceive and understand sounding speech without resorting to a monitor and lexigrams. However, this observation required convincing experimental confirmation. After all
when communicating with humans, monkeys are so good at perceiving the non-verbal aspects of communication that they often guess the speaker's intentions without really understanding the meaning of the words. S. Savage-Rumbaud illustrates this with a good example: if you watch a "soap opera" with the sound turned off, then almost always you understand the meaning of what is being said without words. The ability to "read" information in a particular situation from various sources, including gestures, looks, actions, intonation, and knowledge of similar circumstances that have already taken place, is very well developed in monkeys. This often leads to the misconception that they understand words, because, focused primarily on language, people forget about the existence of other channels of information (p. 224).
To obtain such confirmation, S. Savage-Rumbaud conducted a unique experiment that allowed
to compare the understanding of sentences uttered by a person in Kanzi and in a child - girl Ali.<…>At the beginning of testing (it lasted from May 1988 to February 1989), Kanzi was 8 years old and Alya was 2 years old. They were offered a total of 600 oral tasks, each time new, in which both words and syntactic constructions were systematically changed in each trial. Phrases of the same type (in different variants) were repeated at least every few days. The testing environment was varied. It could have been direct contact, when the monkey and the man were sitting side by side on the floor among a pile of toys. In some of these experiments, the experimenter put on a helmet that covered his face, so that involuntary facial expressions or a look would not suggest the desired action or object (which was generally unlikely). In other experiments, also in order to avoid voluntary or involuntary hints, the examiner was in the next room, observing what was happening through the glass with one-way visibility. In these cases, Kanzi also listened to the tasks through headphones, and they were pronounced different people, and sometimes even a speech synthesizer was used.
In the vast majority of cases, Kanzi, without any special training, correctly followed the new instructions each time. Below we provide typical examples.
Put the bun in the microwave;
Get the juice out of the refrigerator;
Give the turtle potatoes;
Take the handkerchief out of X's pocket.
At the same time, some tasks were given in two versions, the meaning of which changed depending on the order of words in the sentence:
Go outside and find a carrot there;
Take the carrots outside;
Pour Coke into lemonade;
Pour lemonade into Coke.
Many of the phrases addressed to him provoked the commission of unusual (or even commonly punished) actions with ordinary objects:
Squeeze toothpaste on a hamburger;
Find a dog and give her an injection;
Spank the gorilla with a can opener;
Let the snake (toy) bite Linda (employee), etc.
Kanzi's daily sessions were constantly focused on finding out again and again the limits of his understanding of what was happening. For example, during a walk he might be asked:
Collect pine needles in your backpack;
Put the ball on the pins
and a few days later:
Put needles on the ball.
<…>Kanzi's achievements undoubtedly confirmed the chimpanzee's ability to spontaneously understand syntax. It turned out that, like his colleague in the experiment, the girl Alya, he almost infallibly understood all the proposed questions and tasks. On average, Kanzi completed 81% of the tasks correctly, while Alya did 64% (pp. 233–237).
Zoya Alexandrovna Zorina
Doctor of Biological Sciences, Head of the Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Behavior, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University. She was born on March 29, 1941.
Specialty - Physiology of higher nervous activity;
1958 -1963 - study at the biology and soil faculty of Moscow State University, department of VND, scientific supervisors N.A. Tushmalova, D.A. Fless; "Role and participation of the hippocampus in the genesis of audiogenic seizures";
1965 - 1986 junior researcher of the department of VND
1986 - 1993 senior researcher at the department of VND
1993 - 1997 leading researcher of the department of VND
1997 to present Head of the Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Behavior of the Department of VND
1968 - dissertation for competition degree candidate of biological sciences "The role and participation of the hippocampus in the genesis of audiogenic seizures of various origins"
1993 - dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Biological Sciences "Rational activity of birds"
2001 - title of Honored Research Fellow of Moscow State University
Special courses - "Elementary thinking of animals" for the department of VND, "Fundamentals of ethology and zoopsychology" - for the Faculty of Philosophy.
Prepared 3 graduate students who defended their dissertations.
Member of the Academic Council of the Faculty of Biology and Chemistry of the Moscow State Pedagogical University;
Member of the bureau of the working group on the study of corvids (separate information will be available)
Member of the Organizing Committee of the Moscow Ethological Seminar.
Main works:
Interview
Science: to the 120th anniversary of the birth of zoopsychologist Nadezhda Ladygina-KotsMay 19, 2009 marks the 120th anniversary of the birth of the outstanding zoopsychologist Nadezhda Ladygina-Kots, the author of the famous book "The Child of a Chimpanzee and the Child of Man". This work was the result of many years of observation of the development of the chimpanzee Yoni, and then his own son Rudolf. About the most interesting episodes of life and scientific work Ladygina - Kots says Zoya Zorina, Professor of the Faculty of Biology of Moscow State University. Olga Orlova and Alexander Markov are talking to her.
BEHIND. Zorin
List of works of the author available on the site
Elementary thinking of animals.Elementary Animal Thinking: Textbook. M.: Aspect Press, 2002.- 320 p. ISBN 5-7567-0135-4. The textbook is devoted to elementary thinking, or rational activity - the most complex form of animal behavior. For the first time, the reader is offered a synthesis of classical works and the latest data in this area obtained by zoopsychologists, physiologists of higher nervous activity and ethologists.
BEHIND. Zorina, I.I. Poletaeva
The main provisions of the concept of Lorentz
Lorentz based his initial concept on the division of behavior into innate (actually instinctive) and acquired (formed through individual experience, training). He pointed out that such fragmentation in most cases is conditional. Each sequence of behavioral acts is considered by Lorenz as a chain of instincts and learning. The inheritance of species-specific features in the performance of fixed sets of actions can be analyzed by studying the behavior of first-generation hybrids from crossing individuals of related species in which this behavior is clearly different, and also (which applies mainly to insects) in individuals with local mutations affecting this trait.
Thursday, October 26, 2017, 19:30, Moscow, Cultural and Educational Center "Arkhe".
The cultural and educational center "Arkhe" invites the leading domestic ethologist and zoopsychologist Zorina Zoya Aleksandrovna "Zoopsychology and comparative psychology" to the course.
Topic of the fourth lecture: "Ethology. Continuation".
The lecture will be devoted to the description of the behavioral act model according to K. Lorenz: motivation, search behavior, key incentives, the final act (including the example social behavior); behavior in a conflict of motivations (according to Tinbergen).
About the lecturer:
Zoya Alexandrovna Zorina- one of the best domestic ethologists, Doctor of Biology, Head of the Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Behavior of the Department of Higher Nervous Activity, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University.
About the course "Zoopsychology and Comparative Psychology"
The program of the course of zoopsychology and comparative psychology is closely related to the problems of the origin of the psyche, the ways of its phylogenetic development and the formation of the human psyche in the process of evolution. The course material is built on a generalization of data obtained both by psychologists of different directions, and by biologists - physiologists, ethologists, field zoologists, as well as behavioral geneticists.
In this course, you will learn whether animals think, whether they are able to make the right decision in an unexpected situation, and which animal species are most capable of such abilities. It will be shown how human language differs from the "language" of animals, and what rudiments of human speech abilities have been found in chimpanzees.
The lectures will consider the contribution of each of these sciences to the study of animal thinking. Along with experimental data, the results of ethological observations in nature are widely used. The features of animal ontogeny are discussed. different types, as well as genetically determined forms of behavior and the ratio of innate and acquired in its formation. Special attention given to the characteristics of the game stage of ontogeny and its significance in shaping the behavior of an adult animal.
Among the various topics questions will be raised, such as:
- How did the experimental study of the psyche of animals begin?
- How is the animal brain different from the human brain? Are these differences big?
- What enriched zoopsychology ethologists who study the behavior of animals in natural conditions?
- What is play and why do animals play?
- Do animals have more complex behaviors than instincts?
- Do animals have thinking, and in what forms does it manifest itself?
- Is it possible to talk about the mind of animals?
- Can animals use tools?
- How does the tool activity of a woodpecker differ from the tool activity of a chimpanzee?
- What is common between the psyche of higher mammals and higher birds?
- Are chimpanzees and crows capable of abstraction?
- To what extent can animals "count"?
- Is it possible to have a dialogue with chimpanzees, and what can they talk about?
- How do animals of different species behave in front of a mirror, and what does the ability to recognize oneself in a mirror indicate?
- What is a "reserve mind" and how does it manifest itself in chimpanzees?
