Natural zones of Eurasia in Ukrainian. Natural zones of the mainland Eurasia. Broad-leaved and mixed forests

Eurasia is the largest and most colorful planet, uniting all existing natural zones and stripes. Numerous arctic and tropical islands elegantly complement this natural tandem, bringing diversity to the flora and fauna. In the west of the continent, nature is also conditioned by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the east, monsoonal Pacific conditions prevail. In the center of the mainland, the change occurs from north to south and depends on temperature conditions and humidity.

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Map " natural areas Eurasia"/Source: uclg.ru

Arctic deserts of Eurasia, turning into tundra

These two natural belts always go inseparably from each other. The Arctic covers all the islands of the Arctic Ocean and is represented by icy, rocky soils. A and forest-tundra are located in the north of the mainland, covering Europe, part of Iceland, the upper belt of Russia. With the advancement to the east, the tundra expands.

Fact! The zone of arctic deserts and tundra is located in a narrow strip along the entire mainland in the north.

Both these zones are characterized by a minimum species diversity of both animals and plants. The harsh climate of the Arctic does not allow anything to grow here except for mosses, lichens, and algae. In the tundra, low-growing grasses appear, in some places - shrubs. However, the soils here are covered with permafrost, which begins 1-2 m from the surface.

Animals of the Arctic and tundra are well adapted to cold conditions: they have a large fat layer, like polar bears, or dense fur, like reindeer. There are many birds here, including waterfowl. In the territories of the tundra, due to the permafrost, many swamps are formed.

And the tundra is characterized by severe climatic conditions: in summer it is rarely warmer than + 5-8 degrees, while frosts in winter reach -60.

Taiga zone

It occupies most of Russia, as well as the Scandinavian Peninsula. Taiga forests are found in the north of Japan, from the west coast. Sedge and peat bogs dominate in the Russian taiga, while pines and spruces are found in the European taiga. In belts below 60 degrees N. sh. mixed forests begin, species such as ash and oak appear. But in the Asian region there are firs and cedars, as well as larch.

The fauna of this natural zone has the same species diversity as tropical worlds. Hundreds of herbivorous and predatory species live here, including such representatives as the largest bear in the world - brown Kamchatka, as well as charming lynxes and red deer. There are many such animals here, whose fur is valued for its beauty and warmth: mink, foxes, wolves, sables.

The species diversity of birds is also impressive. There are also large predators such as owls, and small partridges, as well as capercaillie and woodpeckers. The temperature in the taiga is severe, even in summer at +30 it remains cool in pine thickets, and in winter it stays at -30 for a long time.

Broad-leaved and mixed forests

The mixed zone prevails in the region of the East European Plain, which occupies part of the Russian Federation, and is also located in Europe (the Baltic states). Broad-leaved forests are also found in Europe and along the coast on the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean.

The broad-leaved area is distinguished by a large number of grasses, several tiers of forests. The soils here are mostly soddy-podzolic, and swampy zones are almost never found. Oaks and beeches grow on them, as well as some other species. Fully broad-leaved forests also consist of maples and lindens.

The animal diversity is striking: broad-leaved forests are characterized by all those species that live in the taiga, as well as more heat-loving red deer, wild boars, and brown bears are found in some parts of Europe.

The amount of precipitation here increases to 1-2 thousand mm, while the climate becomes warmer than in the taiga. Rarely the thermometer shows below -16.

Steppes and forest-steppes

The zones are located in a large part of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and are also found in the Black Sea region, in Siberia. There are few animals here, small species of rodents predominate, and the vegetation is represented mainly by undersized shrubs, cereals and other herbs. The soils are mostly gray forest.

The climate of the steppes can be different - from confidently cold in the Siberian part to temperate and arid in Mongolia.

hardwood subtropical forests

The territory is found mainly in the south of the European part of the world, in the Mediterranean. A favorable, relatively dry and hot summer climate with an abundance of precipitation prevails here. It is also warm in winter, the soils are chestnut.

There are many trees growing in the Mediterranean, including cork oaks and even cypresses. But on the banks of the forest almost completely destroyed. Such forests are partially found in southern China and Japan.

Deserts and semi-deserts (temperate zone)

The temperate region is a unique phenomenon, unlike the hot Sahara or the South American regions near the Andes. Temperate deserts occupy the region from Central Asia to the Caspian lowland. The soils here are not red, but brown and gray-brown desert.

The air in them remains dry, and there is little precipitation, in places there are clay lands. There is almost no vegetation, but in the sandy zones there are herbs such as wormwood. At night, the temperature can drop to -50 (as in winter), and in summer and during the day it rises to +50.

Subtropical deserts are located inside the mainland, the brightest zone is the Arabian Peninsula. In summer it is very dry here, the temperature fluctuates between 30-35 degrees, and it practically does not rain. There are oases in which acacias and palm trees grow. Lots of rodents. Also, continental deserts are common in the countries of the Caspian basin and in China.

Savannahs and woodlands

The subequatorial region, as well as the savannas, are located in the Southeast in India. Palms and tiki grow here, as well as many other trees, but they are located in small groups. The fauna is represented by ungulates, tropical birds, monkeys, leopards. In places there are wild elephants.

Moist equatorial forests

They occupy most of the Pacific Ocean from the Southeast, as well as Hindustan. These are regions very rich in vegetation with fertile soils - there are even more than 3 hundred species of palm trees here! Coconut palms grow here, as well as bamboos of all kinds.

Permanent moist equatorial forests are located on the islands of the Indian Ocean; evergreen lianas, ferns, and many southern flowers grow here. The fauna of the regions is also rich in monkeys, wild cats, and elephants.

Altitudinal zonality of the mainland

There are a lot of mountains in Eurasia, and some of them - the Tibetan Himalayas - belong to the highest complex in the world. Here there is a pronounced altitudinal zonality. Species diversity is also represented in the European Alps.

Other well-known high-altitude zones include the Urals, characterized by fuzzy belt changes, and the Sayan Mountains, which connect with the Himalayas. Altitude zonality is most interesting in the last series of mountains:

at an altitude of up to 1000 m variable-humid forests;
from 1000 m - subequatorial and evergreen oak and pine zones;
from 4000 m, alpine and subalpine latitudes begin with undersized plants and flowers;
above 5000 m - the territory of eternal ice and snow.

Eurasia is one of the most amazing continents, combining the dizzying beauty of the high Himalayas and mysterious Tibet, as well as the fierce severity of the Arctic deserts. But there are real paradise forests here, located in the equatorial zone of the islands belonging to Eurasia.

Table of natural zones of Eurasia

Name of the natural area	Geographic location	Climatic zones	Soils	Animals and plants
arctic desert	Islands of the Arctic Ocean	Arctic	Arctic, permafrost	Animals: polar bears, arctic foxes, reindeer, lemmings, eiders and guillemots Plants: lichens, arctic willow, cottongrass, forget-me-not and chickweed
Tundra and Forest Tundra	Located in the north of the mainland, covering Europe, part of Iceland, the upper belt of Russia. With the advancement to the east, the tundra expands	Subarctic	Tundra-gley and peaty, podzolic	Animals: wolves, arctic foxes, hares, reindeer and partridges. During the short summer you can observe loons, waders and geese Plants: lichens and mosses. Perennial plants are represented by saxifrage, lingonberries, wild rosemary, cassandra and cloudberries.
Taiga	Taiga occupies most of Russia as well as the Scandinavian Peninsula. Taiga forests are found in northern Japan, from the west coast	temperate continental, continental, sharply continental	Sod-podzolic, permafrost-taiga	Animals: lynxes, wolverines, wolves, foxes, brown bears, otters, sables, weasels, ermines, hares, shrews, beavers, chipmunks, mice, voles, squirrels, flying squirrels, reindeer and red deer, elk, roe deer Plants: coniferous and deciduous trees, juniper, honeysuckle, currant, blueberry, lingonberry and different kinds herbs
Broad-leaved and mixed forests	The mixed zone prevails in the region of the East European Plain, which occupies part of the Russian Federation, and is also located in Europe (the Baltic states). Broad-leaved forests are also found in Europe and along the East Pacific coast.	temperate continental	Sod-podzolic, gray and brown forest	Animals: wolves, ermines, foxes, martens, hedgehogs, badgers, nutrias, moles, hares, marsh turtles, vipers, viviparous lizards, snakes, hazel grouses, black grouses, crossbills, owls, owls Plants: Korean cedar, Manchurian walnut, Amur linden, larch. Lots of shrubs and herbs. Mosses and lichens cover the soil only in dark and damp areas. Forests are rich in fruit, berry plants and mushrooms
Steppes and forest-steppes	They are located in a large part of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and are also found in the Black Sea region, in Siberia	temperate continental, continental	Chernozems, chestnut	Animals: squirrels, martens, ground squirrels, bustards, moose Plants: Maple, oak, linden grow in the European part. Aspens and birches predominate in the Asian region. The steppe regions are rich in bluegrass and clover. People cultivate corn, rye, wheat, etc.
hardwood subtropical forests	It is located mainly in the south of the European part of the world, in the Mediterranean	Mediterranean	Brown	Animals: mountain sheep, rabbits and mountain deer Plants: olive, cork oak, laurel, cypress
Semi-deserts and deserts	Occupy the region from Central Asia to the Caspian lowland	Continental, sharply continental	The soils are saline, there are many sands, solonetzes and solonchaks.	Animals: ground squirrels, jerboas, gerbils, geckos, boas, monitor lizards, corsairs, wolves, foxes, saigas, larks, sajs and gyrfalcons Plants: acacia, camel thorn, cacti, cereals, saxaul, black wormwood
Savannahs and woodlands	Located in the southeast of the continent, in India	subequatorial	Red-brown	Animals: antelopes, monkeys, tigers, leopards, elephants Plants: palms, acacias, tikis, tall cereals
Moist equatorial forests	They occupy most of the Pacific Ocean from the Southeast, as well as Hindustan. Permanent moist equatorial forests are located on the islands of the Indian Ocean	Equatorial		Animals: elephants, rhinos, bulls, tapirs, tigers, tarsiers, pythons, crocodiles, tropical birds Plants: hundreds of species of palm trees, creepers, bamboo

Eurasia is the largest continent of the Earth, consisting of two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. Together with the islands, Eurasia occupies an area of about 53.4 million km2, of which the islands account for about 2.75 million km2. Extreme continental points of Eurasia:

in the north - Cape Chelyuskin (770 43' N, 104018' E);

in the south - Cape Piai (1°16'N, 103030'E);

in the west - Cape Roca (38048' N, 90 31' W);

in the east - Cape Dezhnev (660 05'N, 169°40" W)

A number of islands in the southeast of Eurasia are located in the Southern Hemisphere. Eurasia is washed by the oceans: in the west - the Atlantic, in the north - the Arctic, in the south - the Indian, in the east - the Pacific, and their marginal seas. In the southeast, the Australo-Asian seas separate Eurasia from Australia, in the northeast - the Bering Strait from North America, in the southwest - the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean and Red Seas from Africa, with which Eurasia is connected by the Suez Canal. The continuity of the land mass, the modern tectonic consolidation of the mainland, the unity of many climatic processes, a significant commonality of development organic world and other manifestations of natural historical unity, as well as the need to take into account the importance of territorial integrity for assessing socio-historical phenomena, caused the need for a name that would unite the entire continent. The concept of "Eurasia" introduced by E. Suess in 1883 into geology and geography turned out to be most convenient.
Eurasia - arena ancient civilizations. Millennia of agricultural culture have transformed the natural landscape of the low-lying plains of South and East Asia, the oases of Central, Central and West Asia, and the southern coasts of Europe. The territory of most of Europe underwent radical transformations, and a significant part of Asia was mastered. The modern cultural landscape prevails in most of Europe, the Great China, Indo-Gangetic plains, the Indochina peninsula, the Java islands and the Japanese archipelago.
Eurasia is characterized by a significant complexity of geological history and mosaic geological structure. The skeleton of Eurasia is fused from fragments of several ancient continents: in the northwest - Laurentia, the eastern part, which, after the Cenozoic subsidence in the Atlantic Ocean, separated from North America and formed the European ledge of Eurasia; in the northeast - Angaria, which in the late Paleozoic was articulated with Laurentia by the folded structure of the Urals, resulting in the formation of Laurasia, which existed until the middle of the Mesozoic; in the south - Gondwana, after the collapse of which the Arabian and Indian platforms joined Eurasia.
The structural plan of the modern relief of Eurasia was laid down in the Mesozoic, however, the formation of the main features of the surface is due to the latest tectonic movements that engulfed Eurasia in the Neogene-Anthropogen, and these movements manifested themselves here more intensively than anywhere else on Earth. These were large-scale vertical displacements - arched-block uplifts of mountains and highlands, lowering of depressions with a partial restructuring of many structures. The uplifts embraced not only the Alpine folded structures, but rejuvenated and often revived the mountainous relief in the older structures, which were leveled in the Cenozoic. The intensity of the latest movements led to the predominance of mountains in Eurasia (the average height of the mainland is 840 m) with the formation of the highest mountain systems (Himalayas, Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Tien Shan) with peaks exceeding 7-8 thousand m. Pamir, Tibet. These uplifts are associated with the revival of mountains in the vast belt from Gissar-Alay to Chukotka, the Kunlun, Scandinavian and many other mountains. , Dean, etc.). From the east, the mainland is bordered by marginal uplifts (the Koryak highlands, the Sikhote-Alin mountains, etc.) and is accompanied by mountain-island arcs, among which East Asian and Malay arcs are distinguished. Rift structures also play an important role in the relief of Eurasia - the Rhine graben, the basins of Baikal, the Dead Sea, etc. Young folded belts and structures of revived mountains are characterized by especially high seismicity - only South America can be compared with Eurasia in intensity and frequency of destructive earthquakes. Often, volcanism also participated in the creation of the relief of young uplifts (lava covers and volcanic cones of Iceland and the Armenian Highlands, active volcanoes in Italy, Kamchatka, island arcs in east and southeast Asia, extinct volcanoes of the Caucasus, Carpathians, Elbrus, etc.).
The latest subsidence has led to the flooding of many outskirts of the mainland and the isolation of the archipelagos adjacent to Eurasia (the Far East, the British Isles, the Mediterranean basin, etc.). The seas have advanced on different parts of Eurasia more than once in the past. Their deposits formed the sea plains, which were subsequently dissected by glacial, river and lake waters. The most extensive plains of Eurasia are East European (Russian), Central European, West Siberian, Turan, Indo-Gangetic. In many regions of Eurasia, sloping and socle plains are common. Ancient glaciation had a significant impact on the relief of the northern and mountainous regions of Eurasia. Eurasia contains the world's largest area of Pleistocene glacial and hydroglacial deposits. Modern glaciation is developed in many highlands of Asia (the Himalayas, Karakorum, Tibet, Kunlun, Pamir, Tien Shan, etc.), in the Alps and Scandinavia, and is especially powerful on the islands of the Arctic and in Iceland. In Eurasia, more extensive than anywhere else in the world, underground glaciation is widespread - permafrost rocks and wedge ice. In the areas of limestone and gypsum, karst processes are developed. The dry regions of Asia are characterized by desert forms and landforms.

The concept of natural zones and the reasons for their formation

Physico-geographical zones - natural land zones, large subdivisions of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, regularly and in a certain order replacing each other depending on climatic factors, mainly on the ratio of heat and moisture. In this regard, the change of zones and belts occurs from the equator to the poles and from the oceans to the interior of the continents. They are usually elongated in the sublatitudinal direction and do not have sharply defined boundaries. Each zone has typical features of its constituents. natural ingredients and processes (climatic, hydrological, geochemical, geomorphological, soil character, flora and fauna), their own type of historically established relationships between them and the dominant type of their combinations - zonal natural territorial complexes. Many physical-geographical zones are traditionally named according to the most striking indicator - the type of vegetation, which reflects the most important features of most natural components and processes (forest zones, steppe zones, savannah zones, etc.). The name of these zones is often assigned to individual components: tundra vegetation, tundra-gley soils, semi-desert and desert vegetation, desert soils, etc. Within the zones, which usually occupy vast strips, narrower divisions are distinguished - physiographic subzones. For example, the savannah zone as a whole is distinguished by the seasonal rhythm of the development of all natural components, due to the seasonal influx of precipitation. Depending on the number of the latter and the duration of the rainy period, subzones of moist tall grass, typical dry and desert savannas are distinguished within the zone; in the steppe zone - dry and typical steppes; in the temperate forest zone - taiga subzones (often considered an independent zone), mixed and broad-leaved forests, etc.

Natural zones, if they are formed in more or less similar geological and geomorphological (azonal) conditions, are repeated in general terms on different continents with a similar geographical position (latitude, position in relation to the oceans, etc.). Therefore, there are types of zones that are typological units of the territorial classification of the geographical shell (for example, tropical western oceanic deserts). At the same time, the local features of a particular territory (relief, composition of rocks, paleogeographic development, etc.) give individual features to each zone, in connection with which specific natural zones are considered as regional units (for example, the Atacama desert, the Himalaya highland, the desert Namib, West Siberian Plain.). In the physical and geographical atlas of the world for 1964, the allocation of 13 geographical zones was adopted, based on the climatic classification of B. P. Alisov: the equatorial belt and two (for both hemispheres) subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subpolar and polar (supporters of the thermal factor, as the main one in the formation of zoning, are limited to the allocation of only five or even three belts). Inside the belts, it is possible to distinguish sub-belts, or stripes.

Each belt and each of its large longitude segments - the sector (oceanic, continental and transitional between them) has its own zonal systems - its own set, a certain sequence and stretch of horizontal zones and subzones on the plains, its own set (spectrum) of altitudinal zones in the mountains. Thus, the forest-tundra zone is inherent only in the subpolar (subarctic) belt, the taiga subzone is in the temperate zone, the "Mediterranean" subzone is in the western oceanic sector of the subtropical belt, the monsoon mixed forest subzone is in its eastern oceanic sector, forest-steppe zones exist only in transitional sectors. The forest-tundra spectrum of altitudinal zones is typical only for the temperate zone, and the hylainoparamos spectrum is characteristic only for the equatorial zone. Depending on the position in a particular sector or on a particular morphostructural basis within zones and subzones, smaller taxonomic units can be distinguished - typological: western oceanic dark coniferous taiga, continental light coniferous taiga, etc., or regional: Western Siberian taiga, Central Yakut taiga, West Siberian forest-steppe, etc.

Since natural zones are determined mainly by the ratio of heat and moisture, this ratio can be expressed quantitatively (for the first time, the physical and quantitative basis of zoning was formulated in 1956 by A. A. Grigoriev and M. I. Budyko). For this purpose, various hydrothermal indicators are used (most often moisture indicators). The use of these indicators helps, first of all, the development of theoretical issues of zoning, the identification of general patterns, and the objective refinement of the characteristics of zones and their boundaries. For example, at values of the Budyko radiation index of dryness less than 1 (excessive moisture), humid zones of forests, forest-tundra and tundra dominate, at values more than 1 (insufficient moisture) - dry zones of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, at values close to 1 (optimal moisture) , - zones and subzones of forest-steppes, deciduous and light forests and humid savannahs. The definition and further refinement of quantitative indicators are also of great practical importance, for example, for the application of various agricultural activities in various sectors, zones, subzones. At the same time, it is very important to take into account not just the similarity of the final indicators, but also from what particular values in given conditions they are added up. So, establishing the "periodic law of zoning", A. A. Grigoriev noted the periodic repetition of the same values of the radiation index of dryness in zones of different belts (for example, in the tundra, subtropical hemihylae and equatorial forest swamps). However, while the index is common, both the annual radiation balance and the annual amount of precipitation in these zones are sharply different, just as all natural processes and complexes as a whole are different.

Along with zonal factors, the formation and structure of zonal systems are also strongly influenced by a number of azonal factors (in addition to the primary distribution of land and oceans, which largely determines circulation, currents, and moisture transport). First of all, there is a polar asymmetry of the landscape envelope of the Earth, which is expressed not only in the greater oceanicity of the Southern Hemisphere, but also in the presence, for example, of the subtropical hemigil subzone peculiar only to it and, on the contrary, in the absence of many zones and subzones of the Northern Hemisphere (tundra, forest tundra, taiga, deciduous forests, etc.). In addition, the configuration and size of the land area in any latitudes play a significant role (for example, the wide distribution of tropical deserts in North Africa and Arabia or Australia and their limited territory in the tropical belts of North America or South Africa, which occupy a smaller area). The nature of the large features of the relief also greatly influences. The high meridional ridges of the Cordillera and the Andes enhance continentality and determine the presence of corresponding semi-desert and desert zones on the inner plateaus of the subtropical and tropical belts. The Himalayas contribute to the immediate proximity of the high-mountainous deserts of Tibet and the humid-forest zonal spectrum of the southern slopes, and the Patagonian Andes are even the primary reason for the presence of a semi-desert zone in the east of the temperate zone. But usually the influence of regional factors only strengthens or weakens the general zonal patterns.

Of course, the zonal systems have undergone significant changes in the process of paleogeographic development. Belt and sector differences have already been established for the end of the Paleozoic. Later, there were changes in the distribution of land and sea, macroforms of relief, and climatic conditions, in connection with which, in the emerging zonal systems, some zones disappeared and were replaced by others, and the strike of zones varied. Modern zones are of different ages; due to the huge role that the Pleistocene glaciation played in their formation, the zones of high latitudes are the youngest. In addition, the increased temperature contrast between the poles and the equator in the Pleistocene increased the number of physiographic zones and significantly complicated their system. The impact of man also had a great influence, in particular on the boundaries of the zones.

The map in the appendix clearly shows the distribution of zones by belts and sectors and the differences in the manifestation of zoning in the high and middle latitudes of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. In the high latitude belts (polar, subpolar, and the northern part of the northern temperate zone - the boreal subbelt, which is absent on land in the Southern Hemisphere), there are relatively small changes in the ratios of heat and moisture and excessive moisture almost everywhere. Natural differentiation is associated mainly with changes in thermal conditions, that is, with an increase in the radiation balance with decreasing latitude. Consequently, the zones of polar deserts, tundra, forest-tundra and taiga extend sublatitudinally, and sectoral differences are weakly expressed (ice deserts in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic are mainly due to regional features). At the same time, the polar asymmetry of the zonal spectra, caused by contrasts in the distribution of land and oceans in different hemispheres, is most pronounced. In the subboreal subbelts, with an even more increasing heat input, the role of moisture also increases. Its increase is determined by the predominance of westerly winds, and in the east - by extratropical monsoons. Moisture indices vary significantly both in latitude and longitude, which is the reason for the diversity of zones and subzones and differences in their strike. The oceanic sectors are occupied by humid forests, the transitional sectors are occupied by forests, forest-steppes and steppes, and the continental sectors are predominantly semi-deserts and deserts. The most striking manifestation of these zonal features is observed in subtropical belts, within which there are still large latitudinal differences in radiation conditions, and moisture comes from both the west (only in winter) and from the east (mainly in summer). In the belts of low latitudes (tropical, subequatorial and equatorial), the asymmetry of the hemispheres is smoothed out, the radiation balance reaches its maximum, and its differences in latitude are weakly expressed. The leading role in changes in the ratio of heat and moisture passes to the latter. In tropical (trade wind) belts, moisture comes only from the east. This explains the presence of relatively humid zones (tropical forests, savannahs and light forests), extending submeridionally in the eastern sectors, semi-deserts and deserts that fill the continental and western sectors. Subequatorial belts receive moisture mainly from the equatorial monsoons, that is, its amount decreases rapidly from the equator to the tropics.

Natural zones of the mainland Eurasia

Location of natural zones on the Eurasian continent and their characteristics

Geographic zonality is a regularity of differentiation of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change of geographical zones and zones, due, first of all, to changes in the amount of radiant energy of the Sun incident on the Earth's surface, depending on the geographic latitude. Such zonality is also inherent in most components and processes of natural territorial complexes - climatic, hydrological, geochemical and geomorphological processes, soil and vegetation cover and wildlife, and partly the formation of sedimentary rocks. A decrease in the angle of incidence of solar rays from the equator to the poles causes the allocation of latitudinal radiation belts- hot, two moderate and two cold. The formation of similar thermal and, moreover, climatic and geographical zones is already associated with the properties and circulation of the atmosphere, which are greatly influenced by the distribution of land and oceans (the reasons for the latter are azonal). The differentiation of natural zones on land depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, which varies not only in latitude, but also from the coasts inland (sector pattern), so we can talk about horizontal zonality, a particular manifestation of which is latitudinal zonality, well expressed on the territory of the Eurasian continent .

Each geographical zone and sector has its own set (spectrum) of zones and their sequence. The distribution of natural zones is also manifested in the regular change of altitudinal zones, or belts, in the mountains, which is also initially due to the azonal factor - relief, however, certain spectra of altitudinal zones are also characteristic of certain belts and sectors. Zoning in Eurasia is characterized for the most part as horizontal, with the following zones (their name comes from the predominant type of vegetation cover):

— zone of arctic deserts;

— zone of tundra and forest-tundra;

— taiga zone;

- zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests;

- zone of forest-steppes and steppes;

- a zone of semi-deserts and deserts;

- a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (the so-called

"Mediterranean" zone);

- zone of variable-humid (including monsoon) forests;

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On the territory of Eurasia there are all types of natural zones of the Earth. The sublatitudinal strike of the zones is broken only in the oceanic sectors and mountainous regions.

Most of the Arctic islands and a narrow strip of coastline lie in Arctic desert zone, there are also cover glaciers (Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya and Severnaya Zemlya).

To the south are located tundra and forest tundra, which from a narrow coastal strip in Europe are gradually expanding into the Asian part of the mainland. Moss-lichen covers, shrubs and shrub forms of willow and birch on tundra-gley permafrost soils, numerous lakes and swamps and animals adapted to harsh northern conditions (lemmings, hares, arctic foxes, reindeer and many waterfowl) are common here.

South of 69°N

in the west and 65°N. in the east within the temperate zone dominate coniferous forests(taiga). Before the Urals, the main tree species are pine and spruce, in Western Siberia fir and Siberian cedar (cedar pine) are added to them, in Eastern Siberia larch already dominates - only it was able to adapt to permafrost. Small-leaved species such as birch, aspen, and alder are often mixed with conifers, especially in areas suffering from forest fires and logging sites.

Under the conditions of acidic coniferous litter and leaching regime, podzolic soils are formed, poor in humus, with a peculiar whitish horizon. The fauna of the taiga is rich and diverse - rodents predominate in terms of the number of species, many fur-bearing animals: sables, beavers, ermines, foxes, squirrels, martens, hares, which are of commercial importance; of large animals, moose, brown bears are common, lynxes, wolverines are found.

Most of the birds feed on seeds, buds, young shoots of plants (grouse, hazel grouse, crossbills, nutcrackers, etc.), there are insectivorous (finches, woodpeckers) and birds of prey (owls).

In Europe and East Asia, to the south, the taiga zone is replaced by zone of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests.

Due to leaf litter and grass cover, organic matter accumulates in the surface layer of soils of these forests and a humus (turf) horizon is formed. Therefore, such soils are called sod-podzolic. In the mixed forests of Western Siberia, the place of broad-leaved species is occupied by small-leaved species - aspen and birch.

In Europe, south of the taiga is located broadleaf forest zone, which wedges out near the Ural Mountains.

In Western Europe, under conditions of sufficient heat and precipitation, beech forests on brown forest soils predominate, in Eastern Europe they are replaced by oak and linden on gray forest soils, since these species better tolerate summer heat and dryness.

The main tree species in this zone are mixed with hornbeam, elm, elm in the west, maple and ash in the east. The grass cover of these forests consists of plants with wide leaves - broad grasses (goatweed, initial letter, hoof, lily of the valley, lungwort, ferns).

Foliage and herbs, rotting, form a dark and rather powerful humus horizon. Primary broad-leaved forests in most areas have been replaced by birch and aspen forests.

In the Asian part of the mainland, broad-leaved forests have survived only in the east, in mountainous regions. They are very diverse in composition with a large number of coniferous and relict species, lianas, ferns and a dense shrub layer.

In mixed and broad-leaved forests live many animals characteristic of both the taiga (hares, foxes, squirrels, etc.) and more southern latitudes: roe deer, wild boars, red deer; in the Amur basin, a small population of tigers has been preserved.

In the continental part of the mainland south of the forest zone, forest-steppes and steppes.

In the forest-steppe, grassy vegetation is combined with areas of broad-leaved (up to the Urals) or small-leaved (in Siberia) forests.

Steppes are treeless spaces where cereals with a dense and dense root system flourish. Under them, the most fertile chernozem soils in the world are formed, a powerful humus horizon of which is formed due to conservation. organic matter during the dry summer period. This is the most human-transformed natural zone of the interior of the mainland.

Due to the exceptional fertility of chernozems, steppes and forest-steppes are almost completely plowed up. Their flora and fauna (herds of ungulates) has been preserved only in the territories of several reserves.

Numerous rodents have adapted well to the new living conditions on agricultural land: ground squirrels, marmots and field mice. Dry steppes with sparse vegetation and chestnut soils predominate in inland regions with a continental and sharply continental climate. In the central regions of Eurasia, semi-deserts and deserts are located in the inner basins.

They are characterized by a cold winter with frosts, so there are no succulents here, but wormwood, saltwort, saxaul grow. In general, the vegetation does not form a continuous cover, as well as the brown and gray-brown soils that develop under them, which are saline.

Ungulates of Asian semi-deserts and deserts (wild asses-kulans, wild Przhevalsky horses, camels) are almost completely exterminated, and rodents, mostly hibernating in winter, and reptiles dominate among animals.

The south of the oceanic sectors of the mainland is located in subtropical and tropical forest zones.

In the west, in the Mediterranean, the indigenous vegetation is represented by hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs, the plants of which have adapted to hot and arid conditions. Beneath these forests, fertile brown soils have formed. Typical woody plants are evergreen oaks, wild olive, noble laurel, southern pine - pine, cypresses. There are few wild animals left. There are rodents, including a wild rabbit, goats, mountain sheep and a peculiar predator - the genet.

As elsewhere in arid conditions, there are many reptiles: snakes, lizards, chameleons. Birds of prey include vultures, eagles and rare species such as the blue magpie and the Spanish sparrow.

In the east of Eurasia, the subtropical climate has a different character: precipitation falls mainly in hot summers.

Once in East Asia, forests occupied vast areas, now they are preserved only near temples and in hard-to-reach gorges. The forests differ in species diversity, very dense, with a large number of vines. Among the trees there are both evergreen species: magnolias, camellias, camphor laurel, tung tree, and deciduous species: oak, beech, hornbeam.

An important role in these forests is played by southern coniferous species: pines, cypresses. Quite fertile red and yellow soils have formed under these forests, which are almost completely plowed up. They grow various subtropical crops. The deforestation has radically affected the composition of the animal world. Wild animals are preserved only in the mountains.

This is a black Himalayan bear, a bamboo bear - a panda, leopards, monkeys - macaques and gibbons. Among the feathered population there are many large and bright species: parrots, pheasants, ducks.

The subequatorial belt is characterized by savannahs and variable rainforests. Many plants here shed their leaves during the dry and hot winters. Such forests are well developed in the monsoon region of Hindustan, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. They are relatively simple in structure, the upper tree layer is often formed by one species, but these forests amaze with a variety of lianas and ferns.

In the extreme south of South and South-East Asia common humid equatorial forests.

They are distinguished by a large number of species of palms (up to 300 species), bamboo, many of them play a big role in the life of the population: they provide food, building material, raw materials for some types of industry.

In Eurasia large areas occupy areas with altitudinal zonality. The structure of altitudinal zonation is extremely diverse and depends on the geographical position of the mountains, the exposure of the slopes, and the height. The conditions are unique on the high plains of the Pamirs, Central Asia, and the Near Asian highlands.

A textbook example of altitudinal zonality are the greatest mountains of the world - the Himalayas - almost all altitudinal zones are represented here.

natural area	Climate type	Climate features	Vegetation	The soil	Animal world
TJan.	TJuly	Amount of precipitation
	Subarctic				Islands of small birches, willows, mountain ash	Mountain arctic, mountain tundra	Rodents, wolves, foxes, snowy owls
forest tundra	temperate marine				birches and alders	Podzols of illuvial humus.	Elk, ptarmigan, arctic fox
coniferous forest	temperate temperate continental				European spruce, Scotch pine	Podzolic	Leming, bear, wolf, lynx, capercaillie
mixed forest	Moderate temperate continental				Pine, oak, beech, birch	Sod-podzolic	Boar, beaver, mink, marten
broadleaf forest	temperate maritime				Oak, beech, heath	brown forest	Roe deer, bison, muskrat
coniferous forests	moderate monsoon				Fir, if, Far Eastern yew, small-leaved birch, alder, aspen, willow	Brown forest broadleaf forests	Antelope, leopard, Amur tiger, mandarin duck, white stork
evergreen subtropical forests	Subtropical				Masson's pine, sad cypress, Japanese cryptomeria, creepers	Red soils and yellow soils	Asian mouflon, markhor, wolves, tigers, marmots, ground squirrels
Tropical rainforests	subequatorial				Palms, Lychee, Ficus	Red-yellow ferralite	Monkeys, rodents, sloths, peacocks
	Moderate				Cereals: feather grass, fescue, thin-legged, bluegrass, sheep	Chernozems	ground squirrels, marmots, steppe eagle, bustard, wolf
	temperate, subtropical, tropical				tamarix, saltpeter, solyanka, juzgun	Desert sandy and rocky	Rodents, lizards, snakes

The lecture was added on 03/07/2014 at 14:48:58

Natural zones of Russia.

* Geographical position.

* Vegetable world.

* Animal world.

* Rare and endangered animals.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION:

* The taiga zone is the largest natural zone in Russia.

It stretched out in a wide continuous strip from western borders almost to the Pacific coast. The zone reaches its greatest width in Central Siberia (more than 2000 km). Here, the flat taiga merges with the mountain taiga of the Sayan and Cisbaikalia. The taiga of Russia could cover almost all of Europe - a whole part of the world.

CLIMATE:

The taiga is characterized by moderately warm summers and cold winters with snow cover, especially severe in Siberia.

In Central Yakutia, even the average January temperature drops below -40.

The taiga is characterized by sufficient and excessive moisture. There are many swamps, including upland ones, and lakes. Surface runoff in the taiga is higher than in other natural areas.

The density of the river network is great. Melted snow waters play an important role in feeding the rivers. In this regard, there is a spring flood.

THE SOIL.

* Taiga is coniferous forests of uniform composition. Podzolic and sod-podzolic soils are formed under them to the west of the Yenisei, and frozen-taiga soils to the east.

VEGETABLE WORLD.

* Taiga forests are usually formed by a single layer of trees, under which a moss cover is spread - a carpet with lingonberry and blueberry shrubs and rare herbs.

Sometimes the second tree layer forms the young generation of the forest. Young fir trees and firs in the forest feel like their mother, and pines feel like their stepmother. In order not to die, they have to fight all their lives for a place in the sun, and not only with their sisters, but also with their parents. After all, pine is a light-loving species. In lighter forests, in some places, shrubs - elderberry, brittle buckthorn, honeysuckle, wild rose, wild rosemary, juniper - can form their own tier.

ANIMAL
WORLD.

The animals inhabiting it are well adapted to life in the taiga.

Common in the taiga are brown bear, elk, squirrel, chipmunk, white hare, typical taiga birds: capercaillie, hazel grouse, various woodpeckers, nutcracker, crossbill. Predators are also characteristic of the taiga: wolf, lynx, wolverine, sable, marten, ermine, fox.

Rare and disappearing
animals.

The Central Forest Biosphere State Reserve was established in 1931 to preserve the southern border of the taiga, located in the Tver region, 50 kilometers north of the city of Nelidovo.

Conclusion.

* The dominance of evergreen coniferous trees in the taiga zone is the answer of plants to the duration of a frosty winter. The needles reduce evaporation, the diversity of animals is associated with a diverse and fairly plentiful food, and there are many shelters.

Materials used.

We used the booklet: "Central Forest Reserve" a textbook on geography. Electronic Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius.

Download abstract

Steppes are common on all continents except Antarctica; in Eurasia, the largest areas of steppes are located on the territory Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Mongolia. In the mountains it forms an altitudinal belt (mountain steppe); on the plains - a natural zone located between the forest-steppe zone in the north and the semi-desert zone in the south.

Atmospheric precipitation from 250 to 450 mm per year.

The climate of the steppe regions, as a rule, ranges from temperate continental to continental and is characterized by very hot summers and cold winters.

A significant part of the steppe territories has been plowed up.

A characteristic feature of the steppe is the treelessness of vast plains covered with rich grassy vegetation. Herbs that form a closed or almost closed carpet: feather grass, fescue, thin-legged, bluegrass, sheep, etc.

Both in species composition and in some ecological features, the fauna of the steppe has much in common with the fauna of the desert.

Of the ungulates, species are typical that are distinguished by sharp eyesight and the ability to run quickly and for a long time (for example, antelopes); from rodents - building complex holes (ground squirrels, marmots, mole rats) and jumping species (jerboas, kangaroo rats). Most of the birds fly away for the winter. Common: steppe eagle, bustard, steppe harrier, steppe kestrel, larks. Reptiles and insects are numerous.

Forest tundra and tundra.

forest tundra- a subarctic type of landscape in which oppressed light forests alternate with shrub or typical tundra in the interfluves.

The average air temperature in July is 10-12°C, and in January, depending on the increase in the continentality of the climate, from -10° to -40°C.

With the exception of rare taliks, the soils are everywhere permafrost.

Soils are peaty-gley, peat-bog

Shrub tundra and light forests change due to longitudinal zonality. In the eastern part of the North American forest-tundra, along with dwarf birches and polar willows, black and white spruce grow, and in the west, balsam fir

The fauna of the forest-tundra is also dominated by lemmings of various species in different longitudinal zones, reindeer, arctic foxes, white and tundra partridges, snowy owls and a wide variety of migratory, waterfowl and small birds that settle in the bushes.

The forest-tundra is a valuable reindeer pasture and hunting grounds.

Tundra- a type of natural zones lying beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, spaces with permafrost soil that is not flooded with sea or river waters.

The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. By the nature of the surface of the tundra are swampy, peaty, rocky. The southern border of the tundra is taken as the beginning of the Arctic.

The tundra has a very harsh climate (the climate is subarctic), only those plants and animals that can endure cold live here. The winter is long (5-6 months) and cold (up to −50 ° C).

Summer is also relatively cold, the average temperature in June is about 12 ° C, with the advent of summer, all vegetation comes to life. Summer and autumn tundra is rich in mushrooms and berries.

The vegetation of the tundra is primarily lichens and mosses; the angiosperms encountered are low grasses (especially from the Cereal family), shrubs and shrubs.

Wild deer, foxes, bighorn sheep, wolves, lemmings and European hares are typical inhabitants of the Russian tundra. But there are not so many birds: Lapland plantain, white-winged plover, red-throated pipit, plover, snow bunting, snowy owl and white partridge.

There are no reptiles in the tundra, but a very large number of blood-sucking insects.

Rivers and lakes are rich in fish (nelma, broad whitefish, omul, vendace, etc.).

Zone of icy Antarctic deserts.

The Antarctic belt is the southern natural geographical belt of the Earth, including Antarctica with adjacent islands and the ocean waters washing it.

Usually, the boundary of the Antarctic belt is drawn along the isotherm 5 degrees from the warmest month (January or February).

The Antarctic belt is characterized by:
— negative or low positive values of the radiation balance;
- Antarctic climate with low air temperatures;
- long polar night;
- the predominance of ice deserts on land;
- Significant ice cover of the ocean.

Zonal and azonal.

The most important geographical pattern - zoning- a regular change in components or complexes from the equator to the poles due to a change in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays.

The main reasons for zoning are the shape of the Earth and the position of the Earth relative to the Sun, and the prerequisite is the incidence of sunlight on the earth's surface at an angle gradually decreasing on both sides of the equator.

The founder of the doctrine of zoning was the Russian soil scientist and geographer V.V.

Dokuchaev, who believed that zoning is a universal law of nature. Geographers share the concepts of component and complex zonality. Scientists distinguish horizontal, latitudinal and meridional zonality.

Due to the zonal distribution of solar radiant energy on Earth, the following are zonal: air, water and soil temperatures; evaporation and cloudiness; atmospheric precipitation, baric relief and wind systems, VM properties, climates; nature of the hydrographic network and hydrological processes; features of geochemical processes and soil formation; vegetation types and life forms of plants and animals; sculptural landforms, to a certain extent, types of sedimentary rocks, and finally, geographical landscapes, combined in connection with this into a system of natural zones.

The zones do not form continuous bands everywhere.

The boundaries of many zones deviate from parallels, within the same zones there are great contrasts in nature. Therefore, along with zoning, another geographical regularity is distinguished - azonal. Azonality- change of components and complexes associated with the manifestation of endogenous processes.

The reason for the azonation is heterogeneity earth's surface, the presence of continents and oceans, mountains and plains on the continents, the originality of local factors: the composition of rocks, relief, moisture conditions, etc. Endogenous relief is azonal; location of volcanoes and tectonic mountains, structure of continents and oceans.

There are two main forms of azonal manifestation - sector geographic zones and altitudinal zonality.

Within the geographic zones, three sectors are distinguished - the mainland and two oceanic. Sectorization is most pronounced in the temperate and subtropical geographic zones, and weakest of all in the equatorial and subarctic.

Altitudinal zonality - a natural change of belts from the foot to the top of the mountain.

Altitudinal belts are not copies, but analogs of latitudinal zones; their selection is based on a decrease in temperature with height, and not a change in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays.

At the same time, altitudinal zonality has much in common with horizontal zonality: the change of belts when climbing mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles.

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Answer left guru

All natural zones of the Northern Hemisphere are represented in Eurasia. In the western part of the continent, the dominant influence of the Atlantic Ocean led to a change natural areas from northwest to southeast. In the eastern part of Eurasia, natural zones should be applied meridionally, which is a consequence of the mass mass transfer of monsoons in the Pripikhochanovsk region. The natural areas of the interior of the continent vary in width due to the change in temperature and wet slopes from north to south.

The Arctic desert with very harsh natural and climatic conditions occupies the Arctic islands.

There is no continuous floor covering, and poor vegetation is a heat tolerant species that survives in constant cold conditions. Here are common animals, polar bears, wet, seals, reindeer.

Due to the moderating influence of the North Atlantic current, tundra and forest-tundra differ in their western and eastern regions.

Near the European coast of the continent, the climate is moderately cold, and the tundra extends to the north, as anywhere in the world. With the advancement to the east, natural and climatic conditions become more severe, and the tundra and forest tundra occupy large areas. In the highlands of Siberia, tundra vegetation penetrates far to the south.

The plants are dominated by mosses and lichens that grow on the tundra and see the ground. Through a long-term frost, the humidity does not deepen, so there are many swamps. Main Animals: Reindeer, Arctic fox, some bird species

To the south of the forest tundra lies land. In warmer and wetter climates, huge patches of coniferous trees have been created on podzolic soils from spruce, pine and larch (the only conifers, the needles settle in winter.

The latter prevail in the Asian taiga, in conditions of a cold and sharp continental climate. In places where the taiga is very rich, there are many peat bogs and swamps.

The animal kingdom is extremely diverse here (brown bear, lus, black grouse, wolf, capercaillie).

Areas of mixed and deciduous forests are most common in the western part of Eurasia. Here, under conditions of significant moisture, spruce-podzolic soil grows spruce-oak and pine-oak forests of Western Siberia - coniferous and unpaved forests.

In addition to the east, mixed forests are disappearing and reappearing only along the Pacific coast. Broadband forests consist mainly of oak and beech, as well as hornbeam, maple, lime

For the forest-steppe and steppe regions, there are certain differences in the ozone distance caused by significant climate change with progress from west to east from the continent.

In conditions of a warm climate and inadequate moisture, fertile chernozems were created south of the Russian Plain, as well as gray forest soil. In the vegetation there are small patches of forest (oak, birch, linden, maple). In the eastern part of the continent, if there is a temperature range and a dry climate increase, the soil is often the physiological solution.

Here vegetable world here it is poorer and is mainly represented by grass and shrubs. The most characteristic representatives of the animal world are steppe and forest-steppe wolves, foxes, viver squirrels, voles, shrimps and steppe birds. Forest steppes and steppe are almost completely nourished, and natural vegetation is maintained only in protected areas and places that are not suitable for plowing

In large areas of the central and southwestern parts of the continent, they occupy half of the desert and desert.

The desert zone extends over three geographical zones. In total, for all deserts - a small amount of rainfall, poor soil and vegetation, well adapted to difficult conditions.

Deserts in the Arabian Peninsula are characterized by high temperatures throughout the year, low (up to 100 mm per year) precipitation, and predominantly flat surfaces. Deserts of subtropical plants (Iranian Highlands, Central Asia, part of the Gobi Desert) are characterized by a large temperature difference, richer vegetation, and a significant number of species. Covered with sand or stones of the desert of the temperate zone of the Karakum, Takla-Makan, part of the Gobi is characterized by very hot summers and severe frosts in winter

GEOGRAPHY
Thorough preparation for ZNO and DPA

continents

Topic 10.EURASIA

natural areas

All the natural zones of the globe are represented in Eurasia, but only the zones of arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra and coniferous forests form continuous bands that stretch from west to east across the whole mainland, gradually replacing each other.

Violation of latitudinal zonality in the distribution of natural zones is most clearly seen in the west and east of Eurasia.

Eurasia is characterized by a variety of manifestations and a significant spread of altitudinal zonality. The sequence of altitudinal belts depends on the natural zone at the foot of the mountains, their height and distance from the oceans. In Europe, the altitudinal zonality is most clearly manifested in the Alps, where five altitudinal zones regularly replace each other. The largest number of altitudinal belts is observed on the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

In the extreme north of Eurasia, there is a zone of arctic deserts. In the west, this zone covers individual islands in the Arctic Ocean, in the east, in addition to the islands, there is also part of the coast. Most of its surface is covered with snow and ice for almost a year. Only in some places in summer the snow melts, and then on a thin soil cover growing poor vegetation of lichens and mosses, sometimes there is a polar poppy, saxifrage. Arctic foxes, lemmings are found here, the polar bear is the largest inhabitant of the Arctic deserts. Polar birds nest on the hard-to-reach rocks of numerous islands and coasts, forming "bird colonies".

To the south, along the coast of Eurasia and on the adjacent islands, it extends in a narrow striptundra zone, which, in the case of moving to the east, expands with an increase in the severity of the climate. As in the North American tundra, lichens, mosses, marsh grasses, berry plants - cloudberries, blueberries, lingonberries grow here on peat-bog soils. In the south of the zone, dwarf trees appear - birch and willow, which creep along the ground.

In the south, the tundra is adjacent to the forest-tundra zone. On the Scandinavian, Kola Peninsulas, and the island of Iceland, it is characterized by thickets of twisted birches and alders; among the tundra vegetation, coniferous trees appear to the east - Siberian spruce and various types of larch.

The fauna of the tundra and forest-tundra is not rich, but peculiar. Reindeer, arctic foxes, wolves, lemmings, hare hares are found here, from birds - polar owls, white and tundra partridges, swans, eiders, white-fronted geese, ducks, gulls arrive in the summer.

The zone of coniferous forests, or taiga, covers large areas from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. European and Asian taiga are slightly different. The west is dominated by pine and spruce, Ural - fir, Siberian cedar, in Eastern Siberia - larch. Deciduous species are mixed with conifers: birch, aspen, alder. Coniferous forests grow on podzolic soils with low humus content. The taiga has a rich and varied wildlife, many fur-bearing animals: sable, beaver, ermine, as well as foxes, squirrels, martens, hares, chipmunks, lynxes. From large animals - moose, bears. Many different birds: capercaillie, hazel grouse, shishkarі, nutcrackers, woodpeckers. Some of the birds are the object of fishing: hazel grouse, partridge, black grouse. The main wealth of the taiga forests is valuable timber. Nowadays, forests have been heavily modified by humans and require immediate measures for their restoration and rational use.

Mixed forests are located in Eurasia not in a continuous strip, but only in Europe and East Asia. In the west, mixed forests begin in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula and stretch to the foothills of the Southern Urals. In these forests, in addition to conifers, oak, linden, ash, elm, and hornbeam grow. Soils in mostly sod-podzolic. The eastern part of the zone of mixed forests is located in the basin of the middle reaches of the Amur and along the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea - in the area of monsoons. The vegetation here is dense and varied. Along with Siberian species of coniferous trees, Mongolian oak, Amur linden, Manchurian walnut, and maple are common here. The soils are brown, forest. In addition to animals characteristic of the taiga, there are Ussuri tigers, Amur cats, raccoon dogs, Ussuri black bears, wild boars, and spotted elene.

The broad-leaved forests of Eurasia also do not form a continuous band. In the west of Europe, they stretch from the southern shores of the Baltic and North Seas, gradually stretching out on the East European Plain. Here, on brown forest soils, oak and beech forests grow with an admixture of hornbeam, and in the Atlantic region - a noble chestnut. Red deer, roe deer, wild boars, forest cats are found in broad-leaved forests. Large areas of forests in Europe have been cut down and replaced with cultivated vegetation. In the east of the mainland, broad-leaved forests have survived only in mountainous regions.

The forest-steppe stretches in a narrow strip from the Middle Danube lowland to the Yenisei River. Separate areas of the forest-steppe are found among forests and mountains in eastern Asia. In this zone, on gray forest and chernozem soils, sections of steppes alternate with individual groves and copses. In the European forest-steppe, oak prevails among tree species, and in Zahidnosibirsky - birch. The animal world is represented by forest and steppe species: martens, roe deer, foxes, badgers, jerboas, birds - eagles, golden eagles.

Steppes are treeless spaces where cereal vegetation reigns. The steppe zone extends as a strip from the bottom of the Danube and the banks of the Black and Seas of Azov, skirting the Ural Mountains from the south, to Altai, continuing on the elevated plains of East Asia. Fertile chernozem soils are formed under the grassy cover of the steppes.

In our time, the steppe and forest-steppe is the most plowed and human-modified natural zones. Of the fauna in the steppes, rodents have survived - field mice, marmots, ground squirrels, steppe eagles, and bustards in some places are found among birds. Of the predators in the steppe, there are foxes, steppe ferrets.

Semi-deserts and deserts of Eurasia occupy large areas - about 1/4 of the mainland. They formed in the arid regions of central, southwestern, and partly in southern Asia in three climatic zones: temperate, subtropical, and tropical.

Deserts of the temperate zone occupy a significant part of Central Asia. These are the deserts of the Karakum, Kyzylkum, Gobi, Takla-Makan. In the semi-deserts, light chestnut and brown soils predominate, in the deserts - gray-brown with a very small amount of humus, there are many solonchaks. Vegetation is very poor, in some places completely absent. Meets single bushes grass cover of wormwood, saltwort, hard prickly herbs. The typical plant of these deserts is the arborescent saxaul shrub. The deserts of the temperate zone are characterized by a sharp contrast of climatic conditions: exhausting heat in summer and severe frosts with winds in winter. The animal world is well adapted to temperature extremes and constant water shortages. There are many rodents - ground squirrels, jerboas, pikas; of large herbivores, antelopes, kulans, two-humped camels are found. Especially a lot of reptiles - lizards, snakes, turtles and arachnids - scorpions and tarantulas.

In the subtropical zone, the zone of semi-deserts and deserts is located on plateaus and highlands "fenced" by mountains - Asia Minor, Iranian, etc. Here, on infertile gray soils and gray-brown soils, ephemeral vegetation grows, which develops rapidly in the spring.

The Arabian Peninsula, the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea and the region of the lower reaches of the Indus River are occupied by the desert zone of the tropical belt. Vegetation is extremely sparse, and on loose sands it is completely absent. Date palms grow in oases. Various rodents, wild donkeys, fennec foxes, striped hyenas are found in tropical deserts. Generally natural conditions The tropical deserts of Eurasia are in many ways similar to those of Africa.

The southwest and southeast of Eurasia within the subtropical zone are occupied by zones with evergreen vegetation.

The zone of evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs is located on the Mediterranean coast, protected by mountains from cold northern winds. In a subtropical climate with mild, wet winters and hot dry summers, plants grow that have adapted to a long summer drought: holm and cork oaks, strawberry trees, laurels, oleanders, olive trees, cypresses. They have thick bark, shiny waxy leaves, and a strong root system. In our time, there are few evergreen forests near the Mediterranean, but thickets of evergreen shrubs - maquis - are common. There are also few wild animals left. There are fallow deer, jackals, wild rabbits, in the west - a white-tailed macaque monkey. Lots of lizards, snakes and turtles.

In southeast Asia, there is a zone of subtropical monsoon forests. It occupies the southern part of the Great Plain of China, the south of the Korean Peninsula and the southern half of the Japanese Islands. The climatic conditions here are different than near the Mediterranean: precipitation falls mainly in summer, when it is very hot. They are brought by the summer monsoon from the ocean. Winters are cool and relatively dry. Evergreen trees grow in forests on yellow and red soils: magnolias, camphor laurels, camellias, tung trees, stunted palms, and bamboo. They are mixed with deciduous: oaks, beeches, hornbeams and southern conifers (special types of pines, cypresses). Wild animals are preserved mainly in the mountains. There are black Himalayan bears, bamboo bears - pandas, leopards, monkeys - macaques and gibbons. Many birds with bright plumage - pheasants, parrots, ducks.

The plains of the peninsulas of Hindustan, Indochina and the island of Sri Lanka, where the dry period is well expressed, are occupied by savannas and light forests in the subequatorial zone. They are characterized by the predominance of grass cover, where red-brown and red soils have formed.

The coasts of the seas and the slopes of the mountains of the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas are occupied by subequatorial variable-humid forests. Here, palm trees, ferns, bamboo, and many tall grasses grow on red-yellow soils. The fauna of the savannas and subequatorial forests is rich and varied. Of the predators, tigers, black panthers, cheetahs, and striped hyenas are common. Deer and buffalo live in the forests, antelopes live in the savannahs, and wild boars live in the thickets of river valleys. There are monkeys everywhere. In some places, wild elephants have been preserved. There are many poisonous snakes, crocodiles are found in the rivers.

The zone of humid equatorial forests of Eurasia covers the south of the Indochina peninsula, almost completely the Greater Sunda Islands and the southwest of the island of Sri Lanka. As for the equatorial forests on other continents, they are characterized by evergreen lush multi-tiered vegetation and rich wildlife. The zone of the Eurasian equatorial forests is characterized by rhinos, wild bulls, tigers, Malay bears, tapirs. On the Greater Sunda Islands, great apes are common - orangutans and gibbons. There are huge lizards - monitor lizards and pythons, many birds, butterflies.

Questions and tasks

1. How is the law of natural zonality manifested in the territory of Eurasia?

In the change of geographical components and complexes from north to south, with the change of natural zones.

2. It is known that more plant mass is formed in forests than in the steppes, but chernozem soils are much more fertile than podzolic ones. How can this be explained?

Soils are formed due to climatic features and flora. In the forests, podzolic and gray forest soils have formed, and in the steppes, grass and a small amount of precipitation, dissolved substances remain in the upper layers of the soil, thus forming chernozems - the most fertile soils in the world.

3. What natural zones of the temperate zone are most mastered by man? What contributed to their development?

In the temperate zone, the natural zones of the steppes and forest-steppes are most developed, due to the richest soil. It was easier to cultivate the land in these territories; since ancient times, grain crops have been cultivated here.

4. On which continent do tropical deserts occupy the largest area? Specify the reasons for their distribution.

The largest area of the desert is occupied in Africa (Sahara, Kalahari, Namib), in Eurasia (Rub al-Khali, Thar). The reasons for the spread are high temperature, little rainfall. Poor flora and fauna.

5. On the example of one of the natural zones of Eurasia, show the connections between the components of its nature.

In the natural zone of the steppes - a temperate type of climate, with predominantly grassy vegetation, with black earth soil. Animals in this zone are mostly rodents. Ungulates, predators, many birds also live. Predators prey on artiodactyls and rodents.

6. Compare the natural zones of Eurasia and North America at 40 ° N. sh. What are the reasons for the similarities and differences in their alternation?

Natural zones of northern America from west to east: taiga, deserts and semi-deserts, steppes, forest-steppe, mixed and broad-leaved forests. Eurasia: hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs, deserts, semi-deserts, variable wet (monsoon forests). The zone of deserts and semi-deserts in Eurasia is larger, due to the greater extent from west to east. The natural areas of the continents are under the influence of westerly winds, but in North America they are less affected due to the Cordillera mountains. In North America, the natural zones of steppes and forest-steppes are located in the meridional direction; in Eurasia, all natural zones are located in the latitudinal direction.

7. The peoples of what language groups inhabit Eurasia?

Indo-European language family. (Language groups: peoples). Slavic: Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Bulgarians. Germanic: Germans, British, Swedes, Norwegians. Baltic: Latvians, Lithuanians. Romance: French, Italians, Portuguese, Spaniards. Celtic: Irish. Greek: Greeks. Iranian: Tajiks, Afghans, Ossetians. Indo-Aryan: Hindustanis, Nepalese. Armenian: Armenians.

Kartvelian language family. Georgians.

Afroasian language family. (Language groups: peoples). Semitic: Jews, Arabs. Ural-Yukaghir language family. (Language groups: peoples). Finno-Ugric: Finns, Estonians, Hungarians.

Altaic language family. (Language groups: peoples). Turkic: Turks, Turkmens, Uzbeks, Kirghiz, Kazakhs. Mongolian: Mongols, Buryats. Japanese: Japanese. Korean: Koreans.

Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese, Burmese.

North Caucasian language family. (Language groups: peoples). Abkhaz-Adyghe: Abkhazians, Adyghes. Nakh-Dagestan: Chechens, Lezgins, Ingush.

8. Show on the map the most populated parts of the continent.

Western and central Europe, South and Southeast Asia.

9. What territories are poorly populated? Why?

Low population density in the territory of Eurasia in the Far North, in the interior of Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, in the highlands of the Himalayas, Tibet, Tien Shan. Population density is influenced by such factors: natural conditions, age of development, level of economic development.

10. On what grounds can the countries of Eurasia be grouped?

In terms of area and population. By geographic location: coastal (France, Russia), peninsular (Italy, India), island (Sri Lanka, Malta), archipelago countries (Japan, Philippines), without access to the sea (Mongolia, Czech Republic, Austria). According to the state structure: federal (Russia, Switzerland), unitary (France, Italy). According to the level of economic development: developed countries (Germany, France, Italy, England, South Korea), countries with an average level of development (Spain, Portugal), developing countries (Afghanistan, Pakistan).

geographic eurasia natural zone

Geographic zonality is a pattern of differentiation of the geographic (landscape) shell of the Earth, manifested in a consistent and definite change in geographic zones and zones, primarily due to changes in the amount of radiant energy from the Sun falling on the Earth's surface, depending on the geographic latitude. Such zonality is also inherent in most components and processes of natural territorial complexes - climatic, hydrological, geochemical and geomorphological processes, soil and vegetation cover and wildlife, partly the formation of sedimentary rocks. A decrease in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays from the equator to the poles causes the allocation of latitudinal radiation belts - hot, two moderate and two cold. The formation of similar thermal, and even more so climatic and geographical zones, is already associated with the properties and circulation of the atmosphere, which are greatly influenced by the distribution of land and oceans (the reasons for the latter are azonal). The differentiation of natural zones on land depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, which varies not only in latitude, but also from the coasts inland (sector pattern), so we can talk about horizontal zonality, a particular manifestation of which is latitudinal zonality, well expressed on the territory of the Eurasian continent .

Arctic desert zone;

Tundra and forest-tundra zone;

Taiga zone;

Zone of mixed and deciduous forests;

Zone of forest-steppes and steppes;

Zone of semi-deserts and deserts;

The zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (the so-called

"Mediterranean" zone);

Zone of variable-humid (including monsoon) forests;

Zone of humid equatorial forests.

Now all the presented zones will be considered in detail, their main characteristics, whether it be climatic conditions, vegetation, wildlife.

The Arctic Desert (“Arktos” in Greek means bear) is a natural zone part of the Arctic geographical zone, the basin of the Arctic Ocean. This is the northernmost of the natural zones, characterized by an arctic climate. The spaces are covered with glaciers, rubble and stone fragments.

The climate of the Arctic deserts is not very diverse. The weather conditions are extremely severe, with strong winds, little rainfall, very low temperatures: in winter (up to? 60 ° C), on average - 30 ° C in February, the average temperature of even the warmest month is close to 0 ° C. Snow cover on land lasts almost all year round, disappearing only for a month and a half. Long polar days and nights lasting for five months, short off-seasons give a special flavor to these harsh places. Only the Atlantic currents bring additional heat and moisture to some areas, such as the western shores of Svalbard. Such a state is formed not only in connection with the low temperatures of high latitudes, but also in connection with the high ability of snow and ice to reflect heat - albedo. The annual amount of atmospheric precipitation is up to 400 mm.

Where everything is covered with ice, life seems to be impossible. But that's not the case at all. In places where nunatak rocks emerge from under the ice, there is its own flora. In the cracks of the rocks, where a small amount of soil accumulates, in the thawed areas of glacial deposits - moraines, mosses, lichens, some types of algae and even cereals and flowering plants settle near snowfields. Among them are bluegrass, cotton grass, polar poppy, dryad partridge grass, sedge, dwarf willows, birches, and various types of saxifrage. But, the recovery of vegetation is extremely slow. Although during the cold polar summer it manages to bloom and even bear fruit. Numerous birds find shelter and nest on the coastal rocks in the summer, arranging "bird colonies" on the rocks - geese, gulls, eiders, terns, waders.

Numerous pinnipeds live in the Arctic - seals, ringed seals, walruses, elephant seals. Seals feed on fish, swimming in search of fish to the ice of the Arctic Ocean. The elongated streamlined shape of the body helps them move in the water at great speed. The seals themselves are yellowish-gray, with dark spots, and their cubs have a beautiful snow-white coat, which they retain until they grow up. Because of her, they got the name of the pups.

Terrestrial fauna is poor: arctic fox, polar bear, lemming. The most famous inhabitant of the Arctic is the polar bear. This is the largest predator on Earth. The length of his body can reach 3 m, and the weight of an adult bear is about 600 kg and even more! The Arctic is the realm of the polar bear, where he feels himself in his element. The absence of land does not bother the bear, its main habitat is the ice floes of the Arctic Ocean. Bears are excellent swimmers and often swim far into the open sea in search of food. The polar bear feeds on fish, hunts seals, seals, walrus cubs. Despite its power, the polar bear needs protection, it is listed in the Red Book of both the International and Russian.

In the high northern latitudes (these are the territories and water areas lying north of the 65th parallel) there is a natural zone of the Arctic deserts, a zone of eternal frost. The boundaries of this zone, as well as the boundaries of the Arctic as a whole, are rather arbitrary. Although the space around the North Pole does not have land, its role here is played by solid and floating ice. In high latitudes there are islands, archipelagos washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, and within their borders lie the coastal zones of the Eurasian continent. These pieces of land are almost entirely or mostly bound by "eternal ice", or rather, the remains of huge glaciers that covered this part of the planet during the last ice age. The arctic glaciers of the archipelagos sometimes go beyond the land and descend into the sea, as, for example, some glaciers in Svalbard and Franz Josef Land.

In the Northern Hemisphere, along the outskirts of the Eurasian continent, south of the polar deserts, as well as on the island of Iceland, there is a natural tundra zone. Tundra is a type of natural zone lying beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, an area with permafrost soil that is not flooded by sea or river waters. The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. By the nature of the surface of the tundra are swampy, peaty, rocky. The southern border of the tundra is taken as the beginning of the Arctic. The name comes from the Sami language and means "dead land".

These latitudes can be called subpolar, the winter here is severe and long, and the summer is cool and short, with frosts. The temperature of the warmest month - July does not exceed +10 ... + 12 ° C, it can snow in the second half of August, and the established snow cover does not melt for 7-9 months. Up to 300 mm of precipitation falls in the tundra annually, and in the regions of Eastern Siberia, where the climate becomes more continental, their amount does not exceed 100 mm per year. Although there is no more precipitation in this natural zone than in the desert, they fall mainly in summer and evaporate very poorly at such low summer temperatures, so excess moisture is created in the tundra. The ground frozen during the harsh winter thaws only a few tens of centimeters in summer, which does not allow moisture to seep deep into, it stagnates, and waterlogging occurs. Even in slight relief depressions, numerous swamps and lakes are formed.

Cold summers, strong winds, excessive moisture and permafrost determine the nature of vegetation in the tundra. +10… +12°C are the temperature limits at which trees can grow. In the tundra zone, they acquire special, dwarf forms. Infertile tundra-gley soils poor in humus grow dwarf willows and birches with twisted trunks and branches, low-growing shrubs and shrubs. They are pressed to the ground, densely intertwined with each other. The endless flat plains of the tundra are covered with a thick carpet of mosses and lichens, hiding small trunks of trees, shrubs and grass roots.

As soon as the snow melts, the harsh landscape comes to life, all the plants seem to be in a hurry to use the short warm summer for their vegetation cycle. In July, the tundra is covered with a carpet of flowering plants - polar poppies, dandelions, forget-me-nots, mytnik, etc. The tundra is rich in berry bushes - lingonberries, cranberries, cloudberries, blueberries.

Based on the nature of the vegetation, three zones are distinguished in the tundra. The northern arctic tundra is characterized by a harsh climate and very sparse vegetation. The moss-lichen tundra located to the south is softer and richer in plant species, and in the very south of the tundra zone, in the shrub tundra, you can find trees and shrubs reaching a height of 1.5 m. taiga. This is one of the most waterlogged natural areas, because there is more precipitation here (300-400 mm per year) than it can evaporate. In the forest-tundra, low-growing birch, spruce, and larch trees appear, but they grow mainly along river valleys. Open spaces are still occupied by vegetation typical of the tundra zone. To the south, the area of forests increases, but even there the forest-tundra is an alternation of light forests and treeless spaces, overgrown with mosses, lichens, shrubs and shrubs.

Mountain tundra form an altitudinal zone in the mountains of the subarctic and temperate zones. On stony and gravelly soils from high-altitude light forests, they begin with a shrub belt, as in the flat tundra. Above are moss-lichen with cushion-shaped subshrubs and some herbs. The upper belt of mountain tundra is represented by scale lichens, sparse squat cushion-like shrubs and mosses among stone placers.

The harsh climate of the tundra and the lack of good food force the animals living in these parts to adapt to difficult living conditions. The largest mammals of the tundra and forest tundra are reindeer. They are easy to recognize by the huge horns that not only males, but also females have. The horns go back first, and then bend up and forward, their large processes hang over the muzzle, and the deer can rake snow with them, getting food. Deer see poorly, but have sensitive hearing and a subtle sense of smell. Their dense winter fur consists of long, hollow, cylindrical hairs. They grow perpendicular to the body, creating a dense heat-insulating layer around the animal. In summer, deer grow softer and shorter fur.

Large divergent hooves allow the deer to walk on loose snow and soft ground without falling through. In winter, deer feed mainly on lichens, digging them out from under the snow, the depth of which sometimes reaches 80 cm. They do not refuse lemmings, voles, they can destroy bird nests, and in famine years they even gnaw each other's horns.

Deer lead a nomadic lifestyle. In summer, they feed in the northern tundra, where there are fewer midges and gadflies, and in autumn they return to the forest-tundra, where there is more food and warmer winters. During seasonal transitions, animals cover distances of 1000 km. Reindeer run fast and swim well, which allows them to escape from their main enemies - wolves.

Reindeer of Eurasia are distributed from the Scandinavian Peninsula to Kamchatka. They live in Greenland, on the Arctic islands and on the northern coast of North America.

Since ancient times, the peoples of the North have domesticated deer, receiving from them milk, meat, cheese, clothes, shoes, material for plagues, vessels for food - practically everything necessary for life. The fat content of the milk of these animals is four times higher than cow's. Reindeer are very hardy, one reindeer can carry a load weighing 200 kg, passing up to 70 km per day.

Together with reindeer, polar wolves, polar foxes, polar hares, white partridges, polar owls live in the tundra. In summer, many migratory birds arrive, geese, ducks, swans, and waders nest along the banks of rivers and lakes.

Of the rodents, lemmings are especially interesting - touching fluffy animals the size of a palm. There are three types of lemmings that are common in Norway, Greenland and Russia. All lemmings are brown in color, and only the hoofed lemming changes its skin to white in winter. These rodents spend the cold period of the year underground, they dig long underground tunnels and actively breed. One female can give birth to up to 36 cubs per year.

In the spring, lemmings come to the surface in search of food. Under favorable conditions, their population can increase so much that there is not enough food for everyone in the tundra. Trying to find food, lemmings make mass migrations - a huge wave of rodents rushes along the endless tundra, and when a river or sea meets on the way, hungry animals fall into the water under the pressure of those running after them and die by the thousands. Life cycles many polar animals depend on the number of lemmings. If there are few of them, the snowy owl, for example, does not lay eggs, and arctic foxes - polar foxes - migrate south, to the forest tundra, in search of other food.

The white, or polar, owl is undoubtedly the queen of the tundra. Its wingspan reaches 1.5 m. The old birds are dazzling white, and the young ones are variegated, both have yellow eyes and a black beak. This magnificent bird flies almost silently, hunting voles, lemmings, and muskrats at any time of the day. She attacks partridges, hares and even catches fish. In summer, the snowy owl lays 6-8 eggs, nesting in a small depression on the ground.

But because of human activity (and above all because of oil production, the construction and operation of oil pipelines), many parts of the Russian tundra are in danger of an ecological catastrophe. Due to fuel leaks from oil pipelines, the surrounding area is polluted, often there are burning oil lakes and completely burned out areas, once covered with vegetation.

Despite the fact that during the construction of new oil pipelines, special passages are made so that deer can move freely, animals cannot always find and use them.

Road trains move along the tundra, leaving behind garbage and destroying vegetation. The soil layer of the tundra damaged by caterpillar transport is being restored for more than a dozen years.

All this leads to an increase in the pollution of soil, water and vegetation, a decrease in the number of deer and other inhabitants of the tundra.

The forest-tumndra is a subarctic type of landscape, in which oppressed light forests alternate with shrub or typical tundras on the interfluves. Various researchers consider the forest-tundra to be a subzone of either the tundra, or the taiga, and, more recently, the tundro forest. Forest-tundra landscapes stretch in a strip from 30 to 300 km wide from the Kola Peninsula to the Indigirka basin, and to the east they are fragmented. Despite the low amount of precipitation (200--350 mm), the forest-tundra is characterized by a sharp excess of moisture over evaporation, which causes the wide distribution of lakes from 10 to 60% of the subzone area.

The average air temperature in July is 10-12°С, and in January, depending on the increase in the continentality of the climate, from? 10 ° to? 40 ° C. With the exception of rare taliks, the soils are everywhere permafrost. Soils are peaty-gley, peat-bog, and under light forests - gley-podzolic (podburs).

The flora has the following character: shrub tundra and light forests change in connection with the longitudinal zonality. On the Kola Peninsula - warty birch; east to the Urals - spruce; in Western Siberia - spruce with Siberian larch; east of Putoran - Dahurian larch with lean birch; to the east of the Lena - Cajander larch with lean birch and alder, and east of Kolyma cedar elfin is mixed with them.

Reserves and national parks, including the Taimyr Reserve, have been created to protect and study the natural landscapes of the forest-tundra. Reindeer breeding and hunting are traditional occupations of the indigenous population, who use up to 90% of the territory for reindeer pastures.

The natural zone of the taiga is located in the north of Eurasia. Taiga is a biome dominated by coniferous forests. It is located in the northern subarctic humid geographical zone. Coniferous trees form the basis of plant life there. In Eurasia, originating on the Scandinavian Peninsula, it spread to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The Eurasian taiga is the largest continuous forest zone on Earth. It occupies more than 60% of the territory of the Russian Federation. The taiga contains huge reserves of wood and supplies a large amount of oxygen to the atmosphere. In the north, the taiga smoothly passes into the forest-tundra, gradually the taiga forests are replaced by light forests, and then by individual groups of trees. The furthest taiga forests enter the forest-tundra along river valleys, which are most protected from strong northern winds. In the south, the taiga also smoothly turns into coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests. For many centuries, humans have interfered with natural landscapes in these areas, so now they are a complex natural and anthropogenic complex.

On the territory of Russia, the southern border of the taiga begins approximately at the latitude of St. Petersburg, stretches to the upper Volga, north of Moscow to the Urals, further to Novosibirsk, and then to Khabarovsk and Nakhodka in the Far East, where they are replaced by mixed forests. All Western and Eastern Siberia, most of the Far East, the mountain ranges of the Urals, Altai, Sayan, Baikal, Sikhote-Alin, Greater Khingan are covered with taiga forests.

The climate of the taiga zone within the temperate climate zone varies from maritime in the west of Eurasia to sharply continental in the east. In the west, relatively warm summers (+10 °C) and mild winters (-10 °C), more precipitation falls than can evaporate. Under conditions of excessive moisture, the decay products of organic and mineral substances are carried into the lower soil layers, forming a clarified podzolic horizon, according to which the predominant soils of the taiga zone are called podzolic. Permafrost contributes to moisture stagnation, therefore, significant areas within this natural zone, especially in the north of European Russia and Western Siberia, are occupied by lakes, swamps and swampy woodlands. In dark coniferous forests growing on podzolic and frozen-taiga soils, spruce and pine dominate and, as a rule, there is no undergrowth. Twilight reigns under the closing crowns, mosses, lichens, forbs, dense ferns and berry bushes grow in the lower tier - lingonberries, blueberries, blueberries. In the north-west of the European part of Russia, pine forests predominate, and on the western slope of the Urals, which is characterized by high cloudiness, sufficient precipitation and heavy snow cover, spruce-fir and spruce-fir-cedar forests.

On the eastern slope of the Urals, the humidity is less than on the western one, and therefore the composition of forest vegetation is different here: light coniferous forests predominate - mostly pine, in places with an admixture of larch and cedar (Siberian pine).

The Asian part of the taiga is characterized by light coniferous forests. In the Siberian taiga, summer temperatures in continental climates rise to +20 °C, and in northeastern Siberia in winter they can drop to -50 °C. On the territory of the West Siberian Lowland, mainly larch and spruce forests grow in the northern part, pine forests in the central part, and spruce, cedar and fir in the southern part. Light coniferous forests are less demanding on soil and climatic conditions and can grow even on poor soils. The crowns of these forests are open, and through them Sun rays freely penetrate into the lower tier. The shrub layer of the light coniferous taiga consists of alder, dwarf birches and willows, and berry bushes.

In Central and North-Eastern Siberia, under conditions of a harsh climate and permafrost, larch taiga dominates. For centuries, almost the entire taiga zone has suffered from the negative impact of human activities: slash-and-burn agriculture, hunting, haymaking in river floodplains, selective logging, atmospheric pollution, etc. Only in hard-to-reach areas of Siberia today you can find corners of virgin nature. The balance between natural processes and traditional economic activity, which has evolved over thousands of years, is now being destroyed, and the taiga as a natural complex is gradually disappearing.

In general, the taiga is characterized by the absence or weak development of undergrowth (since there is little light in the forest), as well as the monotony of the grass-shrub layer and moss cover (green mosses). Types of shrubs (juniper, honeysuckle, currant, willow, etc.), shrubs (blueberries, lingonberries, etc.) and herbs (sour, wintergreen) are not numerous.

In the north of Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia), spruce forests predominate. The taiga of the Urals is characterized by light coniferous forests of Scots pine. In Siberia and the Far East, sparse larch taiga dominates with an undergrowth of dwarf pine, Daurian rhododendron, etc.

The fauna of the taiga is richer and more diverse than that of the tundra. Numerous and widespread: lynx, wolverine, chipmunk, sable, squirrel, etc. Of the ungulates, there are reindeer and red deer, elk, roe deer; rodents are numerous: shrews, mice. Birds are common: capercaillie, hazel grouse, nutcracker, crossbills, etc.

In the taiga forest, in comparison with the forest-tundra, the conditions for the life of animals are more favorable. There are more settled animals here. Nowhere in the world, except for the taiga, there are so many fur-bearing animals.

The fauna of the taiga zone of Eurasia is very rich. Both large predators live here - brown bear, wolf, lynx, fox, and smaller predators - otter, mink, marten, wolverine, sable, weasel, ermine. Many taiga animals survive long, cold and snowy winters in a state of suspended animation (invertebrates) or hibernation (brown bear, chipmunk), and many species of birds migrate to other regions. Sparrows, woodpeckers, black grouses - capercaillie, hazel grouse, wild grouse constantly live in the taiga forests.

Brown bears are typical inhabitants of vast forests, not only taiga, but also mixed forests. There are 125-150 thousand brown bears in the world, two thirds of them live in the Russian Federation. The sizes and colors of subspecies of brown bears (Kamchatka, Kodiak, grizzly, European brown) are different. Some brown bears reach three meters in height and weigh more than 700 kg. They have a powerful body, strong five-fingered paws with huge claws, a short tail, a large head with small eyes and ears. Bears can be reddish and dark brown, almost black, and by old age (by the age of 20-25) the tips of the wool turn gray and the animal becomes gray. Bears feed on grass, nuts, berries, honey, animals, carrion, dig up anthills and eat ants. In autumn, bears feed on nutritious berries (they can eat over 40 kg per day) and therefore quickly get fat, gaining almost 3 kg in weight every day. During the year, in search of food, bears travel from 230 to 260 kilometers, and as winter approaches, they return to their dens. Animals arrange winter "apartments" in natural dry shelters and line them with moss, dry grass, branches, needles and leaves. Sometimes male bears sleep in the open all winter. The winter sleep of a brown bear is very sensitive, in fact, this is a winter stupor. In the thaw, individuals who did not manage to work up a sufficient amount of fat during the autumn go in search of food. Some animals - the so-called connecting rods - do not hibernate at all for the winter, but wander in search of food, representing a great danger to people. In January-February, the female gives birth to one to four cubs in the den. Babies are born blind, without hair and teeth. They weigh just over 500 grams, but grow quickly on breast milk. In the spring, furry and nimble cubs come out of the den. They usually stay with their mother for two and a half to three years, and finally mature by the age of 10.

Wolves are common in many parts of Europe and Asia. They are found in the steppe, in the desert, in mixed forests and in the taiga. The body length of the largest individuals reaches 160 cm, and the weight is 80 kg. Mostly wolves are gray, but tundra wolves are usually somewhat lighter, and desert wolves are greyish-red. These ruthless predators are highly intelligent. Nature has provided them with sharp fangs, powerful jaws and strong paws, therefore, when chasing a prey, they are able to run many tens of kilometers and can kill an animal much larger and stronger than themselves. The main prey of the wolf are large and medium-sized mammals, as a rule, ungulates, although they also hunt birds. Usually wolves live in pairs, and in late autumn they gather in packs of 15-20 animals.

The lynx is found in the taiga zone from Scandinavia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. She climbs trees well, swims well and feels confident on the ground. High legs, strong torso, sharp teeth and excellently developed sense organs make it a dangerous predator. The lynx preys on birds, small rodents, less often on small ungulates, and sometimes on foxes, domestic animals, climbs into herds of sheep and goats. At the beginning of summer, in a deep, well-hidden hole, a female lynx gives birth to 2-3 cubs.

The Siberian chipmunk lives in the taiga forests of Siberia - a typical representative of the chipmunk genus, which is also found in Northern Mongolia, China and Japan. The body length of this funny animal is about 15 cm, and the length of its fluffy tail is 10 cm. There are 5 longitudinal dark stripes on a light gray or reddish background, characteristic of all chipmunks, on the back and sides. Chipmunks nest under fallen trees or, less commonly, in tree cavities. They feed on seeds, berries, mushrooms, lichens, insects and other invertebrates. Chipmunks store about 5 kg of seeds for the winter and, falling into hibernation in the cold season, do not leave their shelters until spring.

The color of squirrels depends on the habitat. In the Siberian taiga, they are reddish or copper-gray with a blue tint, and in European forests they are brown or reddish-red. The squirrel weighs up to a kilogram, and its body length reaches 30 cm, about the same length as its tail. In winter, the fur of the animal is soft and fluffy, and in summer it is more rigid, short and shiny. The squirrel is well adapted to life in trees. A long, wide and light tail helps her deftly jump from tree to tree. The squirrel swims well, raising its tail high above the water. She arranges a nest in a hollow or builds the so-called gayno from tree branches, which has the shape of a ball with a side entrance. The squirrel nest is carefully lined with moss, grass, rags, so even in severe frosts it is warm there. Squirrels bring cubs twice a year, in one litter there are from 3 to 10 squirrels. The squirrel feeds on berries, seeds of coniferous trees, nuts, acorns, mushrooms, and when there is a lack of food, it gnaws the bark from the shoots, eats leaves and even lichens, sometimes preys on birds, lizards, snakes, and destroys nests. The squirrel makes reserves for the winter.

The taiga of Eurasia, mainly the massifs of the Siberian taiga, is called the green "lungs" of the planet, since the oxygen and carbon balance of the surface layer of the atmosphere depends on the state of these forests. To protect and study the typical and unique natural landscapes of the taiga in North America and Eurasia, a number of reserves and national parks have been created, including Wood Buffalo, Barguzinsky Reserve, etc. Industrial timber reserves are concentrated in the taiga, large deposits of minerals (coal , oil, gas, etc.). Also a lot of valuable wood

The traditional occupations of the population are hunting for fur-bearing animals, collecting medicinal raw materials, wild fruits, nuts, berries and mushrooms, fishing, logging, (building houses), cattle breeding.

The zone of mixed (coniferous-deciduous) forests is a natural zone characterized by a symbiosis of coniferous and deciduous forests. The condition for this is the possibility for them to occupy specific niches in the ecological system of the forest. As a rule, it is customary to talk about mixed forests when an admixture of deciduous or coniferous trees is more than 5% of the total.

Mixed forests together with taiga and deciduous forests make up the forest zone. The forest stand of a mixed forest is formed by trees of various species. Within the temperate zone, several types of mixed forests are distinguished: coniferous-deciduous forest; secondary small-leaved forest with an admixture of coniferous or broad-leaved trees and a mixed forest consisting of evergreen and deciduous tree species. In the subtropics, in mixed forests, mainly laurel and coniferous trees grow.

In Eurasia, the zone of coniferous-deciduous forests is distributed south of the taiga zone. Fairly wide in the west, it gradually narrows towards the east. Small areas of mixed forests are found in Kamchatka and the south of the Far East. The zone of mixed forests is characterized by a climate with cold snowy winters and warm summers. Winter temperatures in areas of the maritime temperate climate are positive, and as they move away from the oceans, they drop to -10 ° C. The amount of precipitation (400-1000 mm per year) slightly exceeds evaporation.

Coniferous-broad-leaved (and in continental regions - coniferous-small-leaved) forests grow mainly on gray forest and soddy-podzolic soils. The humus horizon of soddy-podzolic soils, located between the forest litter (3-5 cm) and the podzolic horizon, is about 20 cm. The forest litter of mixed forests consists of many herbs. Dying and rotting, they constantly increase the humus horizon.

Mixed forests are distinguished by a clearly visible layering, that is, a change in the composition of vegetation along the height. The upper tree layer is occupied by tall pines and spruces, and oaks, lindens, maples, birches, and elms grow below. Shrubs, herbs, mosses and lichens grow under the shrub layer formed by raspberries, viburnum, wild rose, hawthorn.

Coniferous-small-leaved forests, consisting of birch, aspen, alder, are intermediate forests in the process of coniferous forest formation.

Within the zone of mixed forests, there are also treeless spaces. Elevated treeless plains with fertile gray forest soils are called opolia. They are found in the south of the taiga and in the zones of mixed and broad-leaved forests of the East European Plain.

Polissya - lowered treeless plains, composed of sandy deposits of melted glacial waters, are common in eastern Poland, in Polesie, in the Meshchera lowland and are often swampy.

In the south of the Far East of Russia, where seasonal winds - monsoons - dominate within the temperate climatic zone, mixed and broad-leaved forests, called the Ussuri taiga, grow on brown forest soils. They are characterized by a more complex longline structure, a huge variety of plant and animal species.

The territory of this natural zone has long been mastered by man and is quite densely populated. Agricultural lands, towns, cities are spread over large areas. A significant part of the forests has been cut down, so the composition of the forest has changed in many places, and the proportion of small-leaved trees has increased in it.

Fauna of mixed and broad-leaved forests. Animals and birds living in mixed forests are typical for the forest zone as a whole. Foxes, hares, hedgehogs and wild boars are found even in well-developed forests near Moscow, and elk sometimes come out on roads and on the outskirts of villages. There is a lot of protein not only in forests, but also in city parks. Along the banks of rivers in quiet places, away from settlements, you can see the huts of beavers. Bears, wolves, martens, badgers are also found in mixed forests, the world of birds is diverse.

The European elk is called the forest giant for a reason. Indeed, this is one of the largest ungulates of the forest zone. The average weight of a male is about 300 kg, but there are giants weighing more than half a ton (the largest elks are East Siberian, their weight reaches 565 kg). In males, the head is decorated with huge spade-shaped horns. The coat of moose is coarse, gray-brown or black-brown in color, with a bright shade on the lips and legs.

Moose prefer young clearings and copses. They feed on branches and shoots of deciduous trees (aspen, willow, mountain ash), in winter - pine needles, mosses and lichens. Moose are excellent swimmers, an adult animal is able to swim for two hours at a speed of about ten kilometers per hour. Moose can dive underwater looking for tender leaves, roots and tubers of aquatic plants. There are cases when moose dived for food to a depth of more than five meters. In May-June, the moose cow brings one or two calves, they walk with their mother until autumn, eating her milk and green fodder.

The fox is a very sensitive and cautious predator. It is about a meter long and has a fluffy tail of almost the same size, on a sharp, elongated muzzle - triangular ears. Foxes are painted most often in a red color of various shades, the chest and abdomen are usually light gray, and the tip of the tail is always white.

Foxes prefer mixed forests, alternating with clearings, meadows and ponds. They can be seen near villages, on forest edges, on the edge of a swamp, in groves and bushes among fields. The fox navigates the terrain mainly with the help of smell and hearing, her eyesight is much less developed. She swims pretty well.

Usually the fox settles in abandoned badger burrows, less often independently pulls out a hole 2-4 m deep with two or three exits. Sometimes in a complex system of badger burrows, foxes and badgers settle side by side. Foxes lead a sedentary lifestyle, go hunting more often at night and at dusk, feed mainly on rodents, birds and hares, in rare cases they attack roe deer cubs. On average, foxes live 6-8 years, but in captivity they can live up to 20 years or longer.

The common badger is found in Europe and Asia up to the Far East. The size of an average dog, it has a body length of 90 cm, a tail of 24 cm, and a mass of about 25 kg. At night, the badger goes hunting. Its main food is worms, insects, frogs, nutritious roots. Sometimes he eats up to 70 frogs in one hunt! In the morning the badger returns to the hole and sleeps until the next night. The badger hole is a capital structure with several floors and about 50 entrances. Lined with dry grass, the central burrow, 5-10 m long, is located at a depth of 1-3 or even 5 m. The animals carefully bury all sewage in the ground. Badgers often live in colonies, and then the area of their holes reaches several thousand square meters. Scientists believe that the age of some badger holes exceeds a thousand years. By winter, the badger accumulates a significant supply of fat and sleeps in its hole all winter.

The common hedgehog is one of the most ancient mammals - its age is about 1 million years. The hedgehog has poor eyesight, but the sense of smell and hearing are well developed. Defending itself from enemies, the hedgehog curls up into a prickly ball, which no predator can cope with (the hedgehog has about 5000 needles 20 mm long). In Russia, hedgehogs with gray needles are more common, on which dark transverse stripes are visible. Hedgehogs live in birch forests with dense grass cover, in thickets of shrubs, in old clearings, in parks. The hedgehog feeds on insects, invertebrates (earthworms, slugs and snails), frogs, snakes, eggs and chicks of birds nesting on the ground, sometimes berries. Hedgehogs make winter and summer burrows. In winter they sleep from October to April, and in summer hedgehogs are born. Shortly after birth, the pups develop soft white needles, and 36 hours after birth, dark-colored needles appear.

The white hare lives not only in forests, but also in the tundra, birch groves, in overgrown clearings and burnt areas, and sometimes in steppe bushes. In winter, the brownish or gray color of the skin changes to pure white, only the tips of the ears remain black, and fur “skis” grow on the paws. The white hare eats herbaceous plants, shoots and bark of willow, aspen, birch, hazel, oak, maple. The hare does not have a permanent lair; in case of danger, he prefers to flee. In the middle lane, usually twice a summer, from 3 to 6 cubs are born from a hare. Young growth becomes adult after wintering. The number of hare from year to year varies significantly. In years of high abundance, hares severely damage young trees in forests and make mass migrations.

Deciduous forest - a forest in which there are no coniferous trees.

Deciduous forests are common in fairly humid areas with mild winters. Unlike coniferous forests, a thick layer of litter is not formed in the soils of deciduous forests, since a warmer and more humid climate contributes to the rapid decomposition of plant residues. Although the leaves fall annually, the mass of deciduous litter does not much exceed coniferous, since deciduous trees are more light-requiring and grow less frequently than conifers. Leaf litter, compared to coniferous, contains twice as many nutrients, especially calcium. Unlike coniferous humus, in less acidic deciduous humus, biological processes are actively taking place with the participation of earthworms and bacteria. Therefore, almost all litter decomposes by spring, and a humus horizon is formed that binds nutrients in the soil and prevents them from being washed out.

Deciduous forests are divided into broad-leaved forests and small-leaved forests.

European broadleaf forests are endangered forest ecosystems. Just a few centuries ago, they occupied most of Europe and were among the richest and most diverse on the planet. In the XVI - XVII centuries. natural oak forests grew on an area of several million hectares, and today, according to forest fund records, there are no more than 100 thousand hectares left. So for several centuries the area of these forests has decreased tenfold. Formed by deciduous trees with wide leaf blades, broad-leaved forests are common in Europe, Northern China, Japan and the Far East. They occupy an area between mixed forests in the north and steppes, Mediterranean or subtropical vegetation in the south.

Broad-leaved forests grow in areas with a humid and moderately humid climate, which are characterized by a uniform distribution of precipitation (from 400 to 600 mm) throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. The average temperature in January is -8…0 °C, and in July +20…+24 °С. Moderately warm and humid climatic conditions, as well as the vigorous activity of soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, invertebrates) contribute to the rapid decomposition of leaves and the accumulation of humus. Under deciduous forests, fertile gray forest and brown forest soils, less often chernozems, are formed.

The upper tier in these forests is occupied by oak, beech, hornbeam and linden. In Europe, there are ash, elm, maple, elm. The undergrowth is formed by shrubs - hazel, warty euonymus, forest honeysuckle. The dense and high grass cover of European broad-leaved forests is dominated by goutweed, zelenchuk, hoof, lungwort, woodruff, hairy sedge, spring ephemeroids: corydalis, anemone, snowdrop, blueberry, goose onion, etc.

Modern broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests were formed five to seven thousand years ago, when the planet warmed up and broad-leaved tree species could move far to the north. In subsequent millennia, the climate became colder and the zone of broad-leaved forests gradually decreased. Since the most fertile soils of the entire forest zone formed under these forests, the forests were intensively cut down, and arable land took their place. In addition, oak, which has a very durable wood, was widely used in construction.

The reign of Peter I was the time for Russia to create a sailing fleet. The “royal idea” required a large amount of high-quality wood, so the so-called ship groves were strictly guarded. Forests that were not part of the protected areas, the inhabitants of the forest and forest-steppe zone were actively cut down for arable land and meadows. In the middle of the XIX century. the era of the sailing fleet ended, the ship groves were no longer guarded, and the forests began to be reduced even more intensively.

By the beginning of the XX century. only fragments of the once unified and vast belt of broad-leaved forests have survived. Even then, they tried to grow new oaks, but it turned out to be a difficult task: young oak groves died due to frequent and severe droughts. Research conducted under the guidance of the great Russian geographer V.V. Dokuchaev showed that these disasters were associated with large-scale deforestation and, as a result, changes in the hydrological regime and climate of the territory.

Nevertheless, in the 20th century, the remaining oak forests were intensively cut down. Insect pests and cold winters at the end of the century made the extinction of natural oak forests inevitable.

Today, in some areas where deciduous forests used to grow, secondary forests and artificial plantations have spread, dominated by coniferous trees. It is unlikely that it will be possible to restore the structure and dynamics of natural oak forests not only in Russia, but throughout Europe (where they have experienced an even stronger anthropogenic impact).

The fauna of deciduous forests is represented by ungulates, predators, rodents, insectivores, and bats. They are distributed mainly in those forests where habitat conditions are least changed by man. Moose, red and spotted deer, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boars are found here. Wolves, foxes, martens, polecats, ermines and weasels represent a detachment of predators in broad-leaved forests. Among rodents there are beavers, nutrias, muskrats, squirrels. Rats and mice, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, as well as various types of snakes, lizards and marsh turtles live in the forests. Birds of deciduous forests are diverse. Most of them belong to the order of passerines - finches, starlings, tits, swallows, flycatchers, warblers, larks, etc. Other birds live here: crows, jackdaws, magpies, rooks, woodpeckers, crossbills, as well as large birds - hazel grouse and black grouse . From predatory there are hawks, harriers, owls, owls and eagle owls. In the swamps there are sandpipers, cranes, herons, different types of ducks, geese and gulls.

Red deer used to live in forests, steppes, forest-steppes, semi-deserts and deserts, but deforestation and plowing of the steppes led to the fact that their numbers declined sharply. Red deer prefer light, mainly broad-leaved forests. The body length of these graceful animals reaches 2.5 m, weight - 340 kg. Deer live in a mixed herd of about 10 individuals. The herd is most often led by an old female, with whom her children of different ages live.

In autumn, males gather a harem. Their roar, reminiscent of the sound of a trumpet, is heard for 3-4 km. Having defeated rivals, the deer acquires a harem of 2-3, and sometimes up to 20 females - this is how the second type of deer herds appears. At the beginning of summer, a deer is born to a deer. It weighs 8-11 kg and grows very quickly up to six months. A newborn deer is covered with several rows of light spots. From the year the males have antlers, after a year the deer shed their antlers, and immediately new ones begin to grow in them. Deer eat grass, leaves and shoots of trees, mushrooms, lichens, reeds and saltwort, they will not refuse bitter wormwood, but the needles are destructive for them. In captivity, deer live up to 30 years, and in natural conditions no more than 15.

Beavers - large rodents - are common in Europe and Asia. The body length of a beaver reaches 1 m, weight - 30 kg. The massive body, flattened tail and swimming membranes on the toes of the hind legs are maximally adapted to the aquatic lifestyle. Beaver fur is from light brown to almost black, animals lubricate it with a special secret, protecting it from getting wet. When a beaver dives into the water, its auricles fold lengthwise and its nostrils close. A dived beaver consumes air so economically that it can stay under water for up to 15 minutes. Beavers settle on the banks of slowly flowing forest rivers, oxbow lakes and lakes, preferring water bodies with abundant aquatic and coastal vegetation. Near the water, beavers make burrows or huts, the entrance to which is always located under the surface of the water. In reservoirs with unstable water levels below their "houses", beavers build famous dams. They regulate the flow so that it is always possible to get into the hut or hole from the water. Animals easily gnaw through branches and fell large trees, gnawing them at the base of the trunk. A beaver fells an aspen with a diameter of 5-7 cm in 2 minutes. Beavers feed on aquatic herbaceous plants - reed, egg capsule, water lily, iris, etc., and in autumn they cut down trees, preparing food for the winter. In the spring, beaver cubs are born, which can swim in two days. Beavers live in families, only in the third year of life, young beavers leave to create their own family.

Wild pigs - wild boars - are typical inhabitants of deciduous forests. The boar has a huge head, an elongated muzzle and a long strong snout ending in a movable "patch". The jaws of the beast are equipped with serious weapons - strong and sharp triangular fangs, bent up and back. Vision in wild boars is poorly developed, and the sense of smell and hearing are very subtle. Boars can collide with a stationary hunter, but they will hear even the slightest sound made by him. Boars reach a length of 2 m, and some individuals weigh up to 300 kg. The body is covered with elastic strong bristles of dark brown color.

They run fast enough, swim excellently and are able to swim across a reservoir several kilometers wide. Boars are omnivorous animals, but their main food is plants. Wild boars are very fond of acorns and beech nuts, which fall to the ground in autumn. Do not refuse frogs, worms, insects, snakes, mice and chicks.

Piglets are born usually in the middle of spring. They are covered on the sides with longitudinal dark brown and yellow-gray stripes. After 2-3 months, the stripes gradually disappear, the piglets become first ash-gray, and then black-brown

Small-leaved forests - forests formed by deciduous (summer green) trees with narrow leaf blades.

Tree species are represented mainly by birch, aspen and alder, these trees have small leaves (compared to oak and beech).

They are distributed in the forest zone of the West Siberian and East European Plains, are widely represented in the mountains and on the plains of the Far East, they are part of the Central Siberian and West Siberian forest-steppe, form a strip of birch forests (pegs). Small-leaved forests make up a strip of deciduous forests that stretches from the Urals to the Yenisei. In Western Siberia, small-leaved forests form a narrow subzone between the taiga and the forest-steppe. Ancient stone-birch forests in Kamchatka form the upper forest belt in the mountains.

Small-leaved forests are light forests, they differ great variety grass cover. These ancient forests were later replaced by taiga forests, but under human influence on taiga forests (cutting down taiga forests and fires), they again occupied large areas. Small-leaved forests, due to the rapid growth of birch and aspen, have good renewability.

Unlike birch forests, aspen forests are very resistant to human impact, since aspen reproduces not only by seeds, but also vegetatively, they are characterized by the highest rates of average growth.

Small-leaved forests often grow in floodplains, where they are most widely represented by willows. They stretch along the channels in some places for many kilometers, formed by several types of willows. Most often these are trees or large shrubs with narrow leaves, developing long shoots and possessing high energy growth.

Forest-steppe is a natural zone of the Northern Hemisphere, characterized by a combination of forest and steppe areas.

In Eurasia, forest-steppes stretch in a continuous strip from west to east from the eastern foothills of the Carpathians to Altai. In Russia, the border with the forest zone passes through such cities as Kursk, Kazan. To the west and east of this strip, the continuous stretch of the forest-steppe is broken by the influence of the mountains. Separate areas of forest-steppes are located within the Middle Danube Plain, a number of intermountain basins Southern Siberia, Northern Kazakhstan, in Mongolia and the Far East, and also occupy part of the Songliao Plain in northeast China. The climate of the forest-steppe is temperate, usually with moderately hot summers and moderately cool winters. Evaporation slightly prevails over precipitation.

The forest-steppe is one of the zones that make up the temperate zone. The temperate zone implies the presence of four seasons - winter, spring, summer and autumn. In the temperate zone, the change of seasons is always clearly expressed.

The climate of the forest-steppe is, as a rule, temperate continental. The annual rainfall is 300-400 mm per year. Sometimes evaporation is almost equal to precipitation. Winter in the forest-steppe is mild, the average January temperature is -7 degrees in the city of Kharkov, Ukraine (the southern border of the forest-steppe) to about -10 degrees in Orel, where the zone of mixed forests begins. Sometimes, in the forest-steppe, both severe frosts and mild winters can rage in winter. The absolute minimum in the forest-steppe zone is usually ?36?40 degrees. Summer in the forest-steppe is sometimes hot and dry. Sometimes it can be cold and rainy, but this is rare. Most often, summer is characterized by unstable, unstable weather, which can be very different, depending on the activity of certain atmospheric processes. The average temperature in July, depending on the location, ranges from 19.50С to 250С. The absolute maximum in the forest-steppe is about 37-39 degrees in the shade. However, heat in the forest-steppe occurs less frequently than severe cold, while in the steppe zone it is the opposite. One of the features of the forest-steppe is that the flora and fauna of the forest-steppe is intermediate between the flora and fauna of the mixed forest zone and the steppe zone. In the forest-steppe, both drought-resistant plants and plants characteristic of the forest, more northern, zone grow. The same applies to the animal world.

Description and also comparative characteristic steppes and deserts I will give in the second part of this chapter. Now let's move on to the consideration of the natural zone - the semi-desert.

Semi-desert, or deserted steppe - a type of landscape that is formed in an arid climate.

Semi-deserts are characterized by the absence of forests and specific vegetation and soil cover. They combine elements of steppe and desert landscapes.

Semi-deserts are found in the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of the Earth and form a natural zone located between the steppe zone in the north and the desert zone in the south.

In the temperate zone, semi-deserts are located in a continuous strip from the west to the east of Asia from the Caspian lowland to eastern border China. In the subtropics, semi-deserts are widespread on the slopes of plateaus, plateaus, and uplands (the Anatolian Plateau, the Armenian Highlands, the Iranian Highlands, and others).

Semi-desert soils, formed in dry and semi-arid climates, are rich in salts, since precipitation is scarce, and salts are retained in the soil. Active soil formation is possible only where soils receive additional moisture from rivers or groundwater. Compared to atmospheric precipitation, underground and river waters are much saltier there. Due to the high temperature, evaporation is high, during which the soil dries out, and the salts dissolved in the water crystallize.

The high salt content causes an alkaline soil reaction, to which plants have to adapt. Most cultivated plants do not tolerate such conditions. Sodium salts are especially harmful, since sodium prevents the formation of a granular soil structure. As a result, the soil turns into a dense structureless mass. In addition, excess sodium in the soil interferes with physiological processes and plant nutrition.

The highly sparse plant cover of the semi-desert often appears as a mosaic consisting of perennial xerophytic grasses, turf grasses, saltworts and wormwoods, as well as ephemers and ephemeroids. In America, succulents are common, mainly cacti. In Africa and Australia, thickets of xerophytic shrubs (see Scrub) and sparse low-growing trees (acacia, doum palm, baobab, etc.) are typical.

Among the animals of the semi-desert, hares, rodents (ground squirrels, jerboas, gerbils, voles, hamsters) and reptiles are especially numerous; from ungulates - antelopes, bezoar goat, mouflon, kulan, etc. Small predators are ubiquitous: jackal, striped hyena, caracal, steppe cat, fennec fox, etc. Birds are quite diverse. Many insects and arachnids (karakurt, scorpions, phalanges).

To protect and study the natural landscapes of the semi-deserts of the world, a number of national parks and reserves have been created, including the Ustyurt Reserve, Tigrovaya Balka, Aral-Paygambar. The traditional occupation of the population is grazing. Oasis agriculture is developed only on irrigated lands (near water bodies).

The subtropical climate of the Mediterranean is dry, precipitation in the form of rain falls in winter, even mild frosts are extremely rare, summers are dry and hot. In the subtropical forests of the Mediterranean, thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees predominate. Trees rarely stand, and various herbs and shrubs grow wildly between them. Here grow junipers, noble laurel, strawberry tree, which sheds its bark every year, wild olives, tender myrtle, roses. Such types of forests are characteristic mainly in the Mediterranean, and in the mountains of the tropics and subtropics.

The subtropics on the eastern outskirts of the continents are characterized by a more humid climate. Atmospheric precipitation falls unevenly, but it rains more in summer, that is, at a time when vegetation is especially in need of moisture. Dense moist forests of evergreen oaks, magnolias, and camphor laurels predominate here. Numerous creepers, thickets of tall bamboos and various shrubs enhance the originality of the humid subtropical forest.

The subtropical forest differs from the humid tropical forests in a lower species diversity, a decrease in the number of epiphytes and lianas, as well as the appearance of coniferous, tree-like ferns in the forest stand.

Moist evergreen forests are located in narrow bands and patches along the equator. The largest tropical rainforests exist in the Amazon Basin (Amazonian Rainforest), in Nicaragua, in the southern part of the Yucatan Peninsula (Guatemala, Belize), in most of Central America (where they are called "selva"), in equatorial Africa from Cameroon to Democratic Republic of the Congo, in many parts of Southeast Asia from Myanmar to Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the Australian state of Queensland.

Tropical rainforests are characterized by:

continuous vegetation of vegetation throughout the year;

diversity of flora, the predominance of dicots;

· the presence of 4-5 tree tiers, the absence of shrubs, a large number of epiphytes, epiphalls and lianas;

· the predominance of evergreen trees with large evergreen leaves, poorly developed bark, buds not protected by bud scales, in monsoon forests - deciduous trees;

The formation of flowers and then fruits directly on the trunks and thick branches (caulifloria).

"Green Hell" - this is what many travelers of past centuries called these places, who had to be here. High multi-tiered forests stand like a solid wall, under the dense crowns of which darkness constantly reigns, monstrous humidity, constant high temperature, there is no change of seasons, downpours regularly fall in an almost continuous stream of water. The forests of the equator are also called permanent rainforests.

The upper floors are at a height of up to 45 m and do not have a closed cover. As a rule, the wood of these trees is the most durable. Below, at a height of 18-20 m, there are tiers of plants and trees, forming a continuous closed canopy and almost not allowing sunlight to pass down to the ground. The rarer lower belt is located at a height of about 10 m. Shrubs and herbs grow even lower, such as pineapples and bananas, ferns. Tall trees have thickened overgrown roots (they are called board-shaped), helping the gigantic plant maintain a strong connection with the soil.

In a warm and humid climate, the decomposition of dead plants occurs very quickly. From the resulting nutrient composition, substances are taken for the life of the gilea plant. Among such landscapes flow the most full-flowing rivers of our planet - the Amazon in the selva South America, Congo in Africa, Brahmaputra in Southeast Asia.

Some of the rainforests have already been cleared. In their place, man cultivates various crops, including coffee, oil and rubber palms.

Like vegetation, the fauna of moist equatorial forests is located on different high-rise floors of the forest. In the less populated lower tier, various insects and rodents live. In India, Indian elephants live in such forests. They are not as large as African ones, and can move under the cover of multi-storey forests. Hippos, crocodiles and water snakes are found in full-flowing rivers and lakes and on their banks. Among rodents there are species that do not live on the ground, but in the crowns of trees. They acquired devices that allow them to fly from branch to branch - leathery membranes that look like wings. Birds are very diverse. Among them there are very small bright nectary birds that extract nectar from flowers, and rather large birds, like a huge turaco or banana-eater, a hornbill with a powerful beak and a growth on it. Despite its size, this beak is very light, like the beak of another forest dweller - the toucan. The toucan is very beautiful - bright yellow plumage of the neck, green beak with a red stripe, and turquoise skin around the eyes. And of course, one of the most common birds of the humid evergreen forests is a variety of parrots.

Monkey. Jumping from branch to vine, monkeys use their paws and tails. Chimpanzees, monkeys, and gorillas live in the equatorial forests. The permanent habitat of gibbons is at a height of about 40-50 m above the ground, in the crowns of trees. These animals are quite light (5-6 kg) and literally fly from branch to branch, swaying and clinging with flexible front paws. Gorillas are the largest representatives of monkeys. Their height exceeds 180 cm, and they weigh much more than a person - up to 260 kg. Despite the fact that their impressive size does not allow gorillas to jump on branches as easily as orangutans and chimpanzees, they are quite fast. Packs of gorillas live mainly on the ground, settling in the branches only for rest and sleep. Gorillas only eat vegetable food, which contains a lot of moisture and allows them to quench their thirst. Adult gorillas are so strong that large predators are afraid to attack them.

Anaconda. The monstrous size (up to 10 meters) of the anaconda allows it to hunt large animals. Usually these are birds, other snakes, small mammals that have come to a watering place, but crocodiles and even people can be among the victims of the anaconda. When attacking a victim, pythons and anacondas first strangle it; and then gradually swallow, "putting on" the prey's body like a glove. Digestion is slow, so these huge snakes go without food for a long time. Anacondas can live up to 50 years. Boas give birth to live cubs. Unlike them, pythons living in the humid forests of India, Sri Lanka, and Africa lay eggs. Pythons also reach very large sizes and can weigh up to 100 kg.

Comparative analysis of the steppe and desert zones

In the process of writing this course work, a comparison of two natural zones was carried out and the following picture was obtained. It will be presented in the form of a table (Annex 1).

Common features are:

1) a type of landscape characterized by a flat surface (only with small hills)

2) complete absence of trees

3) similar fauna (both in species composition and in some ecological features)

4) similar humid conditions (both zones are characterized by excessive evaporation and, as a result, insufficient moisture)

5) it is possible to distinguish the types of these zones (say, in the forest-steppe zone it is impossible to indicate additional types)

6) the location of the steppes and deserts of Eurasia in the temperate zone (with the exception of the desert territories of the Arabian Peninsula)

The differences appear in the following:

1) latitudinal localization: deserts are located to the south than the steppe zone

2) a significant difference is the types of soils: the steppes have chernozems, and the deserts have brown soils

3) in the soils of the steppes, the humus content is high, and the desert soils are highly saline

4) the climatic regime is not the same: in the steppe one can observe a sharp change of seasons, in the deserts, the temperature imbalance is observed during the day

5) the amount of precipitation in the steppe is much higher

6) grasses growing in the steppe form an almost closed carpet; in deserts, the distance between individual plants can reach several tens of meters.