Geographical shell and its features

All shells of the Earth are closely interconnected. As a result of this interaction, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the lower layers of the atmosphere, the biosphere and the hydrosphere formed a special environment - geographical envelope.

Geographic Shell Properties:

1. Within the geographic envelope, substances are in three states

2. Life Exists Within It

3. Various cycles flow in it

4. The main source of energy is the Sun

Rice. 1. Scheme of the geographic shell

Rice. 2. Stages of development of the geographical envelope

natural complex

Within the geographic envelope, its components constantly interact with each other, forming natural complexes.

Rice. 3. Scheme of interaction of natural components

Natural complex - a combination of natural components in a certain area, closely related to each other.

Rice. 4. Scheme of the natural complex and its components

Examples of natural complexes

The natural complexes of the Earth are very diverse, they differ from each other in plant, animal composition, geographic location, sizes, soils, climate, etc. The main component influencing the location of the natural complex is the climate.

Rice. 5. Types of natural complexes

The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope of the Earth.

Human impact on nature

Man and his activities with the development of science and technology, with an increase in the population, increasingly have an impact on the natural environment and its components. At the same time, one should not forget that when one component of the natural complex changes, others also change.

Rice. 1. Factory pipes

Therefore, the use of natural goods by man should be carried out carefully and reasonably.

Rice. 2. Man and nature: positive interaction

In connection with the growing influence of man on the natural environment, new questions arise for science and society. Scientists are already thinking about how to reduce the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, how to reuse many types of resources, trying to develop new energy sources and more.

To protect nature does not mean not to use its wealth and not to change it. The main thing is to carefully treat nature, use its resources economically and carefully, not take too much, develop new technologies, plant trees, and protect rare species of flora and fauna.

Conservation organizations

There are currently many international organizations for the protection and protection of nature:

1. World Wildlife Fund (the main goal is the conservation of the biosphere).

Rice. 3. Emblem of the Wildlife Foundation

2. Greenpeace (the main goal is to achieve a solution to global environmental problems).

3. United Nations Program for environment(UNEP).

Rice. 4. UNEP emblem

4. World Conservation Union

5. Green cross, etc.

Dam construction

When a dam is erected on a river, a reservoir is created, thereby increasing the amount and volume of water upstream. Due to this, the humidity of the area increases, swamping of the territory can occur, the appearance of new plants and animals to replace the former inhabitants of these places. Thus, due to human activity, a change in the natural complex occurs.

Red Book

The Red Book is a list of rare and endangered plants, animals and fungi. In Russia, this book is published in two volumes.

Rice. 5. Red Book of the Republic of Belarus (plants)

Earth Day

April 22 is Earth Day. At the end of the 20th century, the celebration of this date became international action. Earth Day has been celebrated in Russia since 1992.

Bibliography

Main

1. Starting Course geography: textbook. for 6 cells. general education institutions / T.P. Gerasimova, N.P. Neklyukov. – 10th ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, 2010. – 176 p.

2. Geography. Grade 6: atlas. – 3rd ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard; DIK, 2011. - 32 p.

3. Geography. Grade 6: atlas. - 4th ed., stereotype. – M.: Bustard, DIK, 2013. – 32 p.

4. Geography. 6 cells: cont. maps: M.: DIK, Drofa, 2012. - 16 p.

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

1. Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin. – M.: Rosmen-Press, 2006. – 624 p.

1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().

2. Russian geographical society ().

3. Geografia.ru ().

All nature around us consists of parts or, as they are called in another way, components. These include: relief, climate, animals, soils, plants and water. Interacting, they form natural complexes.

one system

A natural complex is an area similar in origin, history of development and modern composition. It has a single geological foundation, similar surface and ground waters, soil and vegetation cover, animals and microorganisms.

Natural complexes were formed quite a long time ago, but at first they went through a long path of development, becoming natural. They are very closely related to each other, and changes to one component directly affect the other. This can serve as confirmation of the existence of a single system.

Founder

In Russia, the founder of the study of this area is considered to be L.S. Berg. He identified the complexes by similar features, for example, by the same character of the relief. Examples of such complexes are forests, deserts or steppes. The scientist noted that the natural complex is very similar to a living organism, which consists of parts and affects them.

Differences

If we compare the sizes of natural complexes, we can see that they differ significantly from each other. For example, the entire geographic envelope of the Earth is also a natural complex, the same as its more limited representatives - continents and oceans. Even glades and ponds are considered a natural complex. IN modern world the geographical shell is the main object of study physical geography.

The smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its properties. But this does not mean that natural complexes large sizes natural conditions heterogeneous.

natural ingredients

In general, the Earth is a collection of zonal and non-zonal natural complexes. The non-zonal zones, in combination with the relief, act as a base, while the zonal ones seem to lie on top of them. Combining and complementing each other, they form a landscape.

1. Zonal complexes. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, it is unevenly heated by the Sun, as a result of which this factor is formed. It depends mainly on the geographic latitude (the amount of heat decreases with distance from the equator to the poles). Thus, geographical zones appear, which are especially well expressed in the flat areas. But in uneven areas (oceans, mountains) there are differences depending on the height and depth. Steppe, tundra, taiga can be taken as an example of zonal natural complexes.
2. Non-zonal. The same factor depends on the processes that occur in the bowels of the Earth, which affects the surface topography. Thanks to this, areas arose that are called physiographic countries (the Ural Mountains, the Cordillera, etc.).

Landscape

The landscape tends to change over time, which is greatly influenced by human activities. Now the so-called anthropogenic landscapes created specially by man are already beginning to appear. According to their purpose, they are industrial, agricultural, urban and so on. And depending on the degree of human impact on them, they are divided into:

• slightly modified;
• changed;
• heavily modified;
• improved.

Man and natural complexes

This situation has developed to such an extent that human activity is almost a fundamental factor in nature formation. This cannot be avoided, but it should be remembered that the components of the natural complex must be consistent with changes in the landscape. In this case, there will be no risk of disturbing the natural balance.

Almost every natural complex of the Earth is now modified by man, albeit in varying degrees. Some of them have even been created. For example, plantations located near a natural reservoir, an island of vegetation in the desert, reservoirs. It also affects the diversity of natural complexes.

The degree of interaction between the components is primarily affected by solar energy. Thanks to information about the energy potential of the natural complex, one can judge the productivity of its resources and their renewability. This enables a person to control the use of resources in the economy.

Russia is the largest country in terms of area. Its territory of 17.1 million square kilometers is located on the Eurasian continent.

The territory of the country has a large extent from west to east, which is why a wide variety of time zones can be traced. The natural complexes of Russia are quite diverse. For each of them there are character traits: temperature, precipitation, etc. Other factors also influence the nature of the natural zone - for example, its location in relation to the ocean. So the diversity of Russia's natural complexes cannot but surprise.

Arctic climate.

This climatic zone is characterized by the presence of arctic deserts and tundra. This area is weakly heated by the sun, which is why there are quite harsh conditions and a poor flora and fauna. Polar nights are a feature of the Arctic deserts.

The climate is very cold - the temperature in winter can drop to 60 degrees. And it lasts almost the whole year, because winter here lasts for 10 months. As a result, there is simply no time left for spring and autumn, which is why there are only two seasons here: winter and summer. And the latter can hardly be called such, because the temperature during this period rarely rises above 5 degrees.

But if a given natural zone is surrounded by water (for example, the islands of the Arctic Ocean), then the conditions change slightly. In winter, it is a little warmer here, because the waters accumulate heat in themselves, after which they give it to the air.

subarctic climate

This climate zone is slightly warmer, although winter still prevails over summer. In the warm season, the temperature here is about 12 degrees. Precipitation falls more often than in the Arctic zone, but in the end they are less.

A feature of this territory is the passing Arctic cyclones, due to which it is mostly cloudy and strong winds blow.

Temperate climate

It is this zone that occupies the territory more than other natural complexes of Russia. In general, it is characterized by four seasons that are clearly different from each other, different in temperature. But the temperate climate is usually divided into 4 varieties:

1. Moderate continental. In summer it is quite hot here (average temperature is about 30 degrees), and in winter it is frosty. The amount of precipitation depends on the proximity to the Atlantic. Humidity throughout the territory is also different.
2. Continental. It is formed under the influence of western air masses. Colder ones spread to the southern part of the territory, and tropical ones to the northern part. That is why in the north there is about 3 times more precipitation than in the south.
3. Sharply continental. A feature of this climatic zone is low cloudiness and a small amount of precipitation, most of which falls on the warm season. Due to the small amount of clouds, the earth heats up quickly and also cools down quickly, from which there is a big difference between winter and summer. Due to the small layer of precipitation, the soil freezes heavily, which is why permafrost is observed here.
4. Monsoon climate. In winter, atmospheric pressure rises here, and cold, dry air goes to the ocean. In summer, the mainland heats up well and the air from the ocean returns, which is why strong winds usually blow here, and sometimes even typhoons occur. Precipitation is more frequent and greater in summer.

Our planet is unique and inimitable. There are seas, oceans, land, glaciers, plants and animals, air, it rains, snows. All this is a whole complex that combines the geographical components of the planet. And here the question arises. What is a natural complex, and what does it consist of? As you know, the surface of the planet is heterogeneous: it has a relief, underground and aboveground waters, different kinds organisms, climate. All these components are interconnected and a change in one complex leads to a change in another.

one system

Everyone knows that a natural complex is a system that belongs to a single whole. If we consider this from the very beginning, then a natural complex can be an area where there are components similar in origin and development history, composition. This area has a single geological foundation, a similar surface, there are groundwater, vegetation, microorganisms and animal world. Such natural complexes have been formed for a very long time, and they are closely interconnected with each other. If you change at least one component of the complex, then the whole system will be broken.

Who started the study of complexes?

The first Russian person who tried to understand what a natural complex is and how it works was L. Berg. He identified complexes with similar features, for example, he grouped them according to the relief. This is how forest complexes appeared, as well as natural complexes of the ocean, steppe, and desert. Berg noted that any system is similar to an organism consisting of parts, where each element performs its role, but this organism cannot live without it.

They are different

When comparing natural complexes, one can see slight differences from each other. For example, the geographic envelope of our planet is a huge natural complex, the same as its smaller components. Meadows and glades are even considered natural complexes, but these species are more homogeneous and have many similar properties than larger objects.

natural ingredients

All natural-territorial complexes are usually divided into two large groups:

1. Zonal.

2. Azonal.

Zonal components of the natural complex are external factors that depend on the heating of the planet by the Sun. This indicator changes from the equator to the poles in the direction of decreasing. Because of this feature, zones of natural-territorial complexes were formed: geographical zones, natural zones. The complexes are especially pronounced on the plains, where the boundaries run parallel to the latitudes. In the oceans, natural-territorial complexes change with depth and height. Examples of natural territorial complexes are alpine meadows, zones mixed forests, taiga, steppes, etc.

Non-zonal or azonal types of natural complexes are represented by internal factors on which the processes occurring in the bowels of the planet depend. The result of such complexes is geological structure relief. It is because of azonal factors that azonal natural-territorial complexes were formed, examples of which are the Amazonian lowland, the Himalayas, and the Ural Mountains.

Zonal and azonal complexes

As already mentioned, all natural complexes of the Earth are divided into azonal and zonal. All of them are closely related.

The largest azonal complexes are the oceans and continents, while the smaller ones are plains and mountains. They are divided into even smaller ones, and the smallest ones are separate hills, river valleys, meadows.

Large-scale zonal complexes include geographic zones. They coincide with climatic zones and have the same names. The belts are divided according to heat and moisture level into areas that have similar natural components: vegetation, wildlife, soil. The main component of the natural zone is the climate. All other components depend on it. Vegetation influences the formation of soil and wildlife. All this characterizes natural areas by type of vegetation, character and helps to reflect the features.

Natural complexes of the oceans

Water complexes have been studied somewhat worse than land systems. However, the law of zoning also applies here. This territory is conditionally divided into latitudinal and vertical zones.

The latitudinal zones of the World Ocean are represented by equatorial and tropical zones, which are found in the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Here the waters are warm, and at the equator the water temperature is lower. In the tropics, the water is very salty. Such conditions in the oceans created unique conditions for the formation of various organic world. These zones are characterized by the growth of coral reefs, which are home to numerous species of fish and other aquatic creatures. In warm waters there are snakes, sponges, turtles, molluscs, squids.

And what natural complexes of the oceans can be distinguished? Scientists distinguish coral reefs, schools of fish, places with the same depth, where similar sea creatures live, into separate components. Separate groups include those parts of the oceans that are located in the temperate, tropical and other zones. Scientists then divide these zones into smaller components: reefs, fish, and so on.

The temperate zones include areas of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, where the average annual temperature differences are quite large. Moreover, the water in the Indian Ocean is colder than in the Atlantic and Pacific at the same latitude.

In the temperate zone, intense mixing of water occurs, due to which those waters that are rich in organic matter rise from the depths, and waters saturated with oxygen go to the bottom. This area is home to many commercial fish.

The polar and subpolar zones encircle the North Atlantic Ocean, as well as the northern regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. There are few species of living organisms in these places. Plankton only appears in summer period, and only in places that are free of ice at this time. Following plankton, fish and mammals come to these parts. The closer to north pole, the fewer animals and fish.

The vertical zones of the ocean are represented by strips of land and ocean, where all the earth's shells interact. In such zones there are ports, many people live. It is generally accepted that natural complexes in such zones have been altered by man.

The coastal shelf warms up well and receives a lot of precipitation, fresh water from rivers flowing into the oceans. There are many algae, fish, and mammals in these places. The most concentrated in the shelf zones more quantity a wide variety of organisms. With depth, the amount of heat entering the ocean decreases, but this does not have a strong effect on the diversity of aquatic life.

Given all this, scientists have developed criteria that help determine the differences in the natural conditions of the oceans:

1. Global factors. These include the geological development of the Earth.
2. geographic latitude.
3. local factors. It takes into account the influence of land, bottom topography, continents and other indicators.

Components of the ocean complex

Scientists have identified several smaller components that make up oceanic complexes. These include seas, straits, bays.

The seas are, to some extent, a separate part of the ocean, where there is its own, special regime. A part of the ocean or sea is called a bay. It enters deeply into the land, but does not move away from sea or ocean areas. If there is a thin water line between land areas, then they speak of a strait. It is characterized by raising the bottom.

Characteristics of natural objects

Knowing what a natural complex is, scientists were able to develop whole line indicators by which the characteristics of objects are determined:

1. Dimensions.
2. Geographical position.
3. A type of living organism that inhabits an area or water.
4. In the case of the oceans, the degree of connection with open space is taken into account, as well as the flow system.
5. When evaluating the natural complexes of the land, soils, vegetation, wildlife, and climate are taken into account.

Everything in the world is interconnected, and if one link in this long chain is broken, the integrity of the entire natural complex is violated. And no living being, except humans, has such an impact on the Earth: we are able to create beauty and at the same time destroy it.

The concept of the natural complex

The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical envelope of our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographical shell is subdivided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographical landscapes).

A natural complex is a territory that is homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a homogeneous soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis (a combination of microorganisms and characteristic animals). In the natural complex, the interaction and metabolism between its constituent components are also of the same type. The interaction of the components and ultimately leads to the formation of specific natural complexes.

The level of interaction of components in the composition of the natural complex is determined primarily by the amount and rhythms of solar energy (solar radiation). Knowing the quantitative expression of the energy potential of the natural complex and its rhythm, modern geographers can determine the annual productivity of its natural resources and optimal terms of their renewability. This makes it possible to objectively predict the use of natural resources of natural territorial complexes (NTC) in the interests of human economic activity.

At present, most of the Earth's natural complexes have been altered to some extent by man, or even re-created by him on a natural basis. For example, desert oases, reservoirs, crop plantations. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic. According to their purpose, anthropogenic complexes can be industrial, agricultural, urban, etc. According to the degree of change by human economic activity - in comparison with the initial natural state, they are divided into slightly changed, changed and strongly changed.

Natural complexes can be of different sizes - different ranks, as scientists say. The largest natural complex is the geographic envelope of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents, physiographic countries are distinguished - natural complexes of the third level. Such, for example, as the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Amazonian Lowland, the Sahara Desert and others. Well-known natural zones can serve as examples of natural complexes: tundra, taiga, forests of the temperate zone, steppes, deserts, etc. The smallest natural complexes (localities, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, separate hills, their slopes; or low-lying river valley and its separate sections: channel, floodplain, terraces above the floodplain. Interestingly, the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even in natural complexes of significant size, the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical and geographical processes is preserved. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland differs markedly from the Andes adjacent to the west, the Karakum (deserts of the temperate zone) an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse with the Sahara (deserts of the tropical zone), etc.

Thus, the entire geographical envelope of our planet consists of a complex mosaic of natural complexes of various ranks. Natural complexes formed on land are now called natural-territorial (NTC); formed in the ocean and another body of water (lake, river) - natural aquatic (PAC); natural-anthropogenic landscapes (NAL) are created by human economic activity on a natural basis.

The geographical envelope is the largest natural complex

Geographical shell - a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, including in a vertical section the upper part earth's crust(lithosphere), the lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere of our planet. What unites, at first glance, heterogeneous components natural environment into a single material system? It is within the geographic shell that a continuous exchange of matter and energy takes place, a complex interaction between the indicated component shells of the Earth.

The boundaries of the geographic shell are still not clearly defined. For its upper limit, scientists usually take the ozone screen in the atmosphere, beyond which life on our planet does not go. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth's crust, which is formed under the strong joint influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. The entire water column of the World Ocean is inhabited, therefore, if we talk about the lower boundary of the geographic shell in the ocean, then it should be drawn along the ocean floor. In general, the geographic envelope of our planet has a total thickness of about 30 km.

As you can see, the geographic envelope in terms of volume and geographically coincides with the distribution of living organisms on Earth. However, there is still no single point of view regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographic envelope. Some scientists believe that the concepts of "geographical envelope" and "biosphere" are very close, even identical, and these terms are synonymous. Other researchers consider the biosphere only as a certain stage in the development of the geographical envelope. In this case, three stages are distinguished in the history of the development of the geographical envelope: pre-biogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (modern). The biosphere, according to this point of view, corresponds to the biogenic stage of the development of our planet. According to the third, the terms "geographical envelope" and "biosphere" are not identical, as they reflect a different qualitative essence. The concept of "biosphere" focuses on the active and decisive role of living matter in the development of the geographic envelope.

Which point of view should be preferred? It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It differs primarily great variety material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through common (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To know the patterns of development of this unified system is one of the critical tasks modern geographical science.

Thus, the integrity of the geographical envelope is the most important regularity, on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management. Accounting for this regularity makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in others); to give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; to carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.

Another characteristic pattern is also inherent in the geographical shell - the rhythm of development, i.e. recurrence in time of certain phenomena. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-secular and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as you know, is due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, pressure and humidity, cloudiness, wind strength; in the phenomena of ebbs and flows in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.

The annual rhythm is the result of the Earth's movement in orbit around the Sun. This is the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. Interestingly, different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial zone.

Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than daily and annual rhythms.

natural areas the globe, their a brief description of

The great Russian scientist V.V. Dokuchaev at the end of the last century substantiated the planetary law of geographic zoning - a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amount precipitation. Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes are subject to the law of geographical zonality; zonal climate, land and ocean surface waters, soil cover, flora and fauna.

The largest zonal subdivisions of the geographic envelope are geographic belts. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with the climatic zones. Geographical zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in general features of atmospheric circulation. On land, the following geographical zones are distinguished:

Equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres; - subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere; - subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere. Belts similar in name were also found in the World Ocean. The zonality (zonality) in the ocean is reflected in the change from the equator to the poles of the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, and others), as well as in the change in the composition of flora and fauna.

Water, plants, animals and. All these components have come a long way of development, so their combinations are not random, but natural. Due to their interaction, they are closely connected with each other, and this interaction unites them into a single system, where all parts depend on one another and influence one another. Such one system called a natural-territorial complex, or landscape. The founder of Russian landscape science is deservedly considered L.S. . He defined natural-territorial complexes as areas similar in the prevailing nature of the relief, climate, waters, and soil cover. One can single out natural complexes, etc. L.S. Berg wrote that a landscape (or a natural-territorial complex) is, as it were, an organism in which the parts determine the whole, and the whole affects the parts.

The sizes of natural-territorial complexes are different. The largest can be considered the whole, smaller -. The smallest natural territorial complexes may include glades, ponds. It is important that, regardless of size, all components of these complexes are closely interconnected with each other.

The reason for the formation of natural-territorial complexes are natural components. They are usually divided into two groups:

Thus, our Earth is a system of zonal and azonal complexes, and the azonal complexes, together with the relief, form the base, while the zonal ones, like a veil, cover them. Touching and penetrating each other, they form a landscape - part of a single geographical shell.

Natural-territorial complexes (landscapes) tend to change over time. They are most affected economic activity person. Recently (within the framework of the development of the Earth), complexes created by man, anthropogenic (Greek anthropos - man, genes - birth) landscapes begin to appear on the planet. According to the degree of change, they are differentiated into:

• slightly modified - hunting grounds;
• modified - arable land, small settlements;
• heavily modified - urban settlements, large developments, large-scale plowing, deforestation;
• improved - sanitary clearing of forests, park zone, "green zone" around large cities.

Human impact on landscapes now acts as an important nature-forming factor. Of course, human activity in our century cannot but change nature, but it must be remembered that the transformation of landscapes must take place taking into account the interconnection of all components of the natural-territorial complex. Only then can the disturbance of natural balance be avoided.