Synopsis on the history of Russia
After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the reaction intensifies in the country. In the struggle against new ideas, the government used not only repression, but also weapons of an ideological nature. Such was the theory of S.S. Uvarov "official nationality", the purpose of which was: European education with our needs; heal newest generation, from a blind, thoughtless predilection for the superficial and foreign, spreading in these souls a reasonable respect for the domestic ... " Its main slogans were: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.
However, the Uvarov triad did not receive wide support in Russian society. Despite official opposition, the social movement developed, and in the 1940s a clear demarcation took place in it. The feudal serf system survived last decade. Sober-minded people wondered: what would come to replace him, what path would Russia's development take.
In the 40s, the main directions of social thought were formed, proceeding from the need for change in Russia: Slavophiles, Westerners and revolutionaries.
Westerners- this is the first bourgeois-liberal trend in Russia. Its prominent representatives were Kavelin, Granovsky, Botkin, Panaev, Annenkov, Katkov and others. They believed that Russia and the West were following the same path - the bourgeois one, and they saw the only salvation for Russia from revolutionary upheavals in borrowing through gradual reforms of bourgeois democracy. Westerners believed in the indivisibility of human civilization and argued that the West leads this civilization, showing examples of the implementation of the principles of freedom and progress, which attracts the attention of the rest of mankind. Therefore, the task of semi-barbarian Russia, which came into contact with universal culture only after the time of Peter the Great, is to join the European West as soon as possible and thus enter into a single universal civilization. As liberals, they were alien to the ideas of revolution and socialism. Until the mid-1940s, Belinsky and Herzen acted together with the Westerners, constituting the left wing of this trend.
The opponents of the Westerners were Slavophiles, who were hostile to the West and idealized pre-Petrine Rus', relied on the originality of the Russian people, believed in a special path for its development. Prominent Slavophiles were Khomyakov, Samarin, the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, Koshelev and others.
The Slavophiles argued that there is no single human civilization and cannot be. Each nation lives its own "originality", the basis of which is the ideological principle, penetrating all aspects of national life. For Russia, the Orthodox faith was such a beginning, and its embodiment was the community, as a union of mutual help and support. In the Russian countryside, you can do without the class struggle, this will save Russia from revolution and bourgeois "deviations". Being convinced monarchists, they nevertheless advocated freedom of opinion and the revival of Zemsky Sobors. They are also characterized by the rejection of the revolution and socialism. Neither the principles nor the organizational forms of Western life were acceptable to Russia. The Moscow kingdom corresponded more to the spirit and character of the Russian people than the monarchy built by Peter I according to European models. Thus, the Slavophile doctrine to the marrow of the bones reflected the Russian soil and denied everything or almost everything that was brought into the life of Russians from outside, and especially from Europe. The Slavophils put forward the reactionary idea of uniting the Slavic peoples under the auspices of the Russian Tsar (Pan-Slavism).
In their teaching, the features of the bourgeois-liberal and conservative-gentry ideologies were contradictory intertwined.
The ideological differences between the Westernizers and the Slavophiles, however, did not prevent their rapprochement in the practical issues of Russian life: both currents denied serfdom; both opposed the existing government controlled; both demanded freedom of speech and the press.
In the 40s, having broken away from the Westerners, a third trend of social thought took shape - revolutionary democratic. It was represented by Belinsky, Herzen, the Petrashevites, the then young Chernyshevsky and Shevchenko.
Belinsky and Herzen did not agree with the Westerners in regard to revolution and socialism. The revolutionary democrats were greatly influenced by the works of Saint-Simon and Fourier. But, unlike the Western socialists, they not only did not rule out the revolutionary path to socialism, but even relied on it. The revolutionaries also believed that Russia would follow the Western path, but unlike the Slavophiles and Westerners, they believed that revolutionary upheavals were inevitable.
The utopian nature of their views is obvious - they believed that Russia could come to socialism, bypassing capitalism, and considered this possible thanks to the Russian community, which they understood as the "embryo of socialism." They did not notice the private property instincts in the Russian countryside and did not foresee the class struggle in it. In the embryonic state in which the proletariat of Russia was, they did not understand its revolutionary future and hoped for a peasant revolution.
Compiled by Igor Borev
Notes:
* To compare the events that took place in Russia and in Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending in 1918 (the year of the transition Soviet Russia from Julian to Gregorian calendar), the DATE column indicates date according to the Gregorian calendar only , and the Julian date is shown in brackets along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of a new style by Pope Gregory XIII, (in the column DATES) dates are in the Julian calendar only . At the same time, the translation into the Gregorian calendar is not done, because it did not exist.
Literature and sources:
Russian and world history in tables. Author-compiler F.M. Lurie. St. Petersburg, 1995
Chronology Russian history. Encyclopedic reference book. Under the direction of Francis Comte. M., " International relationships". 1994.
Chronicle of world culture. M., "White City", 2001.
In 1841, the British take Canton, Amoy and Ningbo. In 1842 the British captured Shanghai and Zhenjiang. The threat to Nanjing made China sue for peace. China ceded Hong Kong to England, opened Canton, Amoy and Fuzhou to British trade, returned Ningbo and Shanghai to Britain and paid an indemnity of 20 million dollars
Notes:
* To compare the events that took place in Russia and Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year the Gregorian calendar was introduced in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year Soviet Russia switched from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), in the column DATES are indicated date according to the Gregorian calendar only, and the Julian date is shown in brackets along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of a new style by Pope Gregory XIII, (in the column DATES) dates are in the Julian calendar only. At the same time, the translation into the Gregorian calendar is not done, because it did not exist.
Literature and sources:
Russian and world history in tables. Author-compiler F.M. Lurie. St. Petersburg, 1995
Chronology of Russian history. Encyclopedic reference book. Under the direction of Francis Comte. M., "International relations". 1994.
Chronicle of world culture. M., "White City", 2001.
Social movement in Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Social movement in Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Policy |
After the massacre of the Decembrists, the entire social life of Russia was placed under the strictest supervision by the state, which was carried out by the forces of the 3rd department, its extensive network of agents and scammers. This caused the decline social movement.
A few circles tried to continue the work of the Decembrists. In 1827 ᴦ. at Moscow University, the brothers P., V. and M. Kritsky organized a secret circle, the goals of which were the destruction royal family and constitutional changes in Russia.
In 1831 ᴦ. The tsarist secret police discovered and destroyed the mugs of N.P. Sungurov, whose members were preparing an armed uprising in Moscow. In 1832 ᴦ. at Moscow University there was an ʼʼLiterary Society of Number 11ʼʼ, of which V.G. Belinsky was a member. In 1834 ᴦ. the circle of A.I. Herzen was opened.
At 30-40 gᴦ. three ideological and political trends emerged: reactionary-protective, liberal, and revolutionary-democratic.
The principles of the reactionary-protective direction were expressed in his theory by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov. Autocracy, serfdom, Orthodoxy were declared the most important foundations and a guarantee against upheavals and unrest in Russia. The conductors of this theory were professors of Moscow University M.P. Pogodin, S.P. Shevyrev.
The liberal opposition movement was represented by social movements of Westerners and Slavophiles.
The central idea in the concept of the Slavophiles is the belief in a peculiar way of Russia's development. Thanks to Orthodoxy, harmony has developed in the country between different strata of society. The Slavophiles called for a return to pre-Petrine patriarchy and the true Orthodox faith. They especially criticized reforms of Peter I.
Westernism arose in 30-40 AD. 19th century in the circle of representatives of the nobility and the raznochintsy intelligentsia. Main idea - the concept of community historical development Europe and Russia. Liberal Westerners advocated a constitutional monarchy with guarantees of freedom of speech, press, open court and democracy (T.N. Granovsky, P.N. Kudryavtsev, E.F. Korsh, P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin). They considered the reforming activity of Peter I the beginning of the renewal of old Russia and offered to continue it by carrying out bourgeois reforms.
In the early 40s, the literary circle of M.V. Petrashevsky gained immense popularity, which, over the four years of its existence, was visited by leading representatives of society (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.N. Pleshcheev, A. N. Maikov, P. A. Fedotov, M. I. Glinka, P. P. Semenov, A. G. Rubinshtein, N. G. Chernyshevsky, L. N. Tolstoy).
Social movement in Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Social movement in Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century" 2017, 2018.
The development of the portrait in the 19th century was predetermined by the Great French revolution, which contributed to the solution of new problems in this genre. In art, a new style becomes dominant - classicism, and therefore the portrait loses the splendor and sugariness of the works of the 18th century and becomes more ....
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Conservative thought - S.S. Uvarov's theory of "official nationality", the purpose of which was: "to smooth out the confrontation of the so-called European education with our needs; to heal the newest generation from a blind, thoughtless addiction to the superficial and foreign, spreading in these souls a reasonable respect for domestic ... "In the 40s, the main directions of social thought were formed: Slavophiles, Westerners and revolutionaries.
Westerners - this is the first bourgeois-liberal trend in Russia. Westerners believed in the indivisibility of human civilization and argued that the West leads this civilization, showing examples of the implementation of the principles of freedom and progress, which attracts the attention of the rest of mankind.
Slavophiles- hostile attitude. to the West and idealized pre-Petrine Rus', relying on the originality of the Russian people, believing in a special path for its development. Each nation lives its own "originality", the basis of which is the ideological principle, penetrating all aspects of national life. The ideological differences between the Westernizers and the Slavophils, however, did not prevent their rapprochement in the practical issues of Russian life: both currents denied serfdom; both opposed the existing state administration; both demanded freedom of speech and the press.
In the 40s, having broken away from the Westerners, a third trend of social thought took shape - revolutionary democratic. It was represented by Belinsky, Herzen, the Petrashevites, the then young Chernyshevsky and Shevchenko. The revolutionaries believed that Russia would follow the Western path, but unlike the Slavophiles and Westerners, they believed that revolutionary upheavals were inevitable.
44. Eastern issues in foreign policy in 30-50 years. Crimean War D another problem that Russia faced in these years in the foreign policy, was the so-called eastern question. The Eastern question acquired the greatest acuteness in the 1920s and 1950s. During this period, three crisis situations arose in the Eastern question: 1) in the early 1920s. in connection with the uprising in 1821 in Greece, 2) in the early 30s. in connection with the war of Egypt against Turkey and the threat of disintegration Ottoman Empire, 3) in the early 50s. in connection with the emergence of a dispute between Russia and France over "Palestinian shrines", which served as a pretext for the Crimean War. Entry into early XIX V. into Russia, Transcaucasia inevitably raised the question of joining all North Caucasus. In 1817, the Caucasian War began, which lasted for many years, costing tsarism many strengths and sacrifices and ended only by the middle of the 60s. 19th century Although tsarism pursued aggressive goals, objectively the entry of the Caucasus into Russia was of a progressive nature. An end was put to the devastating raids from neighboring states - the Ottoman Empire and Iran. The entry of the Caucasus into Russia contributed to the socio-economic and cultural development of its peoples. In the first half of the XIX century. there was an active process of voluntary entry of Kazakhstan into the Russian Empire; connection was initiated Central Asia, The territories of the Kazakhs became part of Russia. In 1854 the city of Verny (now Almaty) was founded. An important aspect of Russia's foreign policy during this period was connected with the Crimean War. The reason for the Crimean War was the outbreak that arose in the early 50s. a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic churches about "Palestinian shrines" located on the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I, for his part, sought to use the resulting conflict for a decisive offensive against the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to wage war with one weakened empire, Nicholas I's calculations turned out to be erroneous. England did not go along with his proposal to divide the Ottoman Empire. In 1853 a secret treaty was concluded between England and France directed against Russia. Thus, the Crimean War began in an atmosphere of diplomatic isolation of Russia. At the beginning of March 1854, England and France presented Russia with an ultimatum to clear the Danubian principalities and, having received no answer, declared war on Russia. The fate of the war was decided in the Crimea, although hostilities took place on the Danube, in Transcaucasia, and in a number of other places. At the beginning of September 1854, the heroic defense Sevastopol, which lasted 11 months. The defeat of serf Russia undermined its prestige in the international arena. The Crimean War contributed to the further deepening of the crisis of the feudal-serf system in Russia.
48. Populism 70-80 years. 19th century. Populism - the ideology and movement of the Russian intelligentsia in the 2nd half. XIX century, which expressed the interests of the peasants. The doctrines of populism, for all their differences, are similar in the main thing - they are a reflection of the pre-capitalist and pre-state values of the peasantry: the idealization of the community, the rejection of capitalism, criticism of serfdom, apolitism, absolutization strong personality. The autocracy must be overthrown by means of a popular revolution. Faith in the opening possibilities of the people, as soon as they become free. Populism is a kind of peasant communal socialist utopia. Ancestors - A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky; ideologists - M.A. Bakunin, P.L. Lavrov, P.N. Tkachev. The main populist organizations of the 60-80s: "Ishutintsy", "Chaikovtsy", "Land and Freedom", "Narodnaya Volya", "Black Redistribution". From the second floor. 80s the influence of liberal populism is growing - N.K. Mikhailovsky.
