At present, the historical path traversed by mankind is divided into the following segments: the primitive era, the history of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages. It is worth noting that today among scientists who study the stages of human development, there is no consensus on periodization. Therefore, there are several special periodizations, which partially reflect the nature of the disciplines, and the general, i.e. historical.

Of the special periodizations, the most significant for science is archaeological, which is based on differences in tools.

The stages of human development of the primitive era are determined in more than 1.5 million years. The basis for its study was the remains of ancient tools, rock paintings and burials, which were revealed during Anthropology - a science that is engaged in the restoration of the appearance of primitive man. In this time period, the emergence of man occurs, it ends with the appearance of statehood.

During this period, the following stages of human development are distinguished: anthropogenesis (the evolution that ended about 40 thousand years ago and led to the emergence of the species of a reasonable person) and sociogenesis (the formation of social forms of life).

The history of the Ancient World begins its countdown in the period of the emergence of the first states. The periods of human development expressed in this epoch are the most mysterious. Ancient civilizations left monuments and architectural ensembles, examples of monumental art and painting, which have survived to this day. This era refers to the IV-III millennium BC. At this time, there was a split in society into the ruled and the rulers, into the have-nots and the haves, slavery appeared. The slaveholding system reached its apogee in the period of antiquity, when the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome rose.

Russian and Western science attribute the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, which occurred at the end of the fifth century, to the beginning of the Middle Ages. However, in the encyclopedia "History of Humanity", published by UNESCO, the beginning of this stage is considered to be the moment that appeared already in the seventh century.

In the Middle Ages, they are divided into three time periods: early (5th century - middle of the 11th century), high (middle of the 11th century - end of the 14th century), later (14th-16th century).

In some sources, the civilizations of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages are not distinguished within the framework of the theoretical position on the "stages of growth" and are considered as based on

In the period of modern times, the formation of an industrial and capitalist civilization took place. The stages of human development at this stage are divided into several segments.

First. It originates when revolutions take place in the world aimed at overthrowing the estate system. The first of these took place in England in 1640-1660.

The second period came after the Great French Revolution(1789-1794). At this time, there is a rapid growth of colonial empires, the division of labor at the international level.

The third period begins at the end of the 19th century and is characterized by rapid development, which occurs due to the development of new territories.

Recent history and its periodization is currently controversial. However, within its framework, the following stages of human development are distinguished. The table available in school textbooks shows that this era consists of two main periods. The first began at the end of the 19th century and affects the entire first half of the 20th century - early modern times.

Great crisis, power rivalry, destruction of the colonial systems of European states, conditions cold war. Qualitative changes took place only in the second half of the 20th century, when the nature of labor activity changed with the development of industrial robots and the spread of computers. Changes also affected the international sphere, when cooperation took the place of rivalry.

Introduction.

History - (Greek Ιστορία, “research”) - the sphere of humanitarian knowledge that studies a person (his activities, condition, worldview, social relations and organizations, etc.) in the past; in a narrower sense - a science that studies all kinds of sources about the past in order to establish the sequence of events, the objectivity of the facts described and draw conclusions about the causes of events.

The father of history as a science is Herodotus, who wrote the treatise "History" describing the Greco-Persian wars.

Herodotus.

History tells us about the past and about the role played by one person or group of people in certain events. History is most interesting science, because it allows you to trace how events change as a result of certain actions of people, epochs come one after another, how revolutions are made, wars begin, or truces are concluded. What could be more interesting than a person and his life? Studying history, you can try to understand why people act in a certain way in any situations, how to learn from the mistakes of others to make less of your own. History is one of the most voluminous sciences, because includes not only a presentation of specific events, but also their various interpretations. Within the framework of one textbook there is no way to embrace the immensity. Therefore, in the classroom and in the textbook, only the tip of the iceberg of historical knowledge will be shown, a small part of what can be known.

History is a humanitarian science. Therefore, the human factor plays an important role in it. Consequently, history tends to be subjectivist more than any other science. Try to imagine if you had a conflict with a friend, and each of you will tell someone else about it ... Most likely, the stories will turn out to be far from the same. And this will not happen because you deliberately tried to twist events in your favor. It's just that a person tends to put his personal attitude into the story. But we were considering the situation that happened recently. What to say about the affairs of bygone days? Therefore, there is an acute question about the reliability of historical knowledge and the sources that give us it.

Reliability and sources of historical knowledge. The historical method consists in following the principles and rules of working with primary sources and other evidence found during the study and then used in writing a historical work.

historical science deals with facts which form the basis of all historical knowledge. It is on the facts that all ideas and concepts are based. Perception and explanation depend on the reliability of facts. historical reality, the ability to comprehend the essence historical process. In historical science fact is considered in two senses: 1) as a phenomenon that has taken place in history; and 2) as its reflection in historical science (fact - knowledge).

But there is a close connection between them. The second is impossible without the first. By themselves, "bare facts" as "fragments of reality" may say nothing to the reader. Only the historian gives a fact a certain meaning, which depends on his general scientific and ideological and theoretical views. Therefore, in different systems of views, the same historical fact receives different interpretation, different meaning. Thus, between the historical fact (event, phenomenon) and the corresponding scientific-historical fact there is an interpretation. It is she who turns the facts of history into the facts of science.

History is a science about the past, therefore there is no way to observe the object of your study. In most cases, the only source of information about the past for him is a historical monument, thanks to which he receives the necessary concrete historical data, factual material that forms the basis of historical knowledge.

All historical sources can be divided for 6 groups:

1. Written sources (epigraphic monuments, i.e. ancient inscriptions on stone, metal, ceramics, etc.; graffiti - texts scratched by hand on the walls of buildings, dishes; birch bark letters, manuscripts on papyrus, parchment and paper, printed materials, etc.).

2. Material monuments (tools, handicrafts, household items, dishes, clothes, jewelry, coins, weapons, remains of dwellings, architectural structures, etc.).

3. Ethnographic monuments - the remnants, remnants of the ancient life of various peoples that have survived to this day.

4. Folklore materials - monuments of oral folk art, i.e. legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, anecdotes, etc.

5. Linguistic monuments - geographical names, personal names, etc.

6. Film and photo documents.

The study of the maximum number of all types of sources allows you to recreate a fairly complete and reliable picture of the historical process.

The following 4 sciences can be named as the sciences that provide most of the information:

Archeology is the science of antiquities, the study of the life and culture of ancient peoples according to material monuments that have come down to us.

Ethnography is a science that studies the life of backward (relic) tribes and remnants of the past in modern societies.

Anthropology is a science that studies the bones of primitive people.

Linguistics is a science that studies the language and reveals in it the most ancient layers that were formed in the distant past.

Civilizations. Variants of their typology.

Civilization - integral socio-cultural systems with their own patterns, which include :

religion

economic organization

social organization

political organization

The system of education and upbringing

signs of civilization

High level of development of the manufacturing economy

Presence of political structures

Use of writing

monumental structures

natural community. historical communities living within the natural cycle.

Civilization The natural community is characterized by deification of nature, traditionalism in culture and collectivism in social life, power is based on tradition or blood relationship

Eastern civilization. Traditionalism, n low mobility and low diversity of all forms of human life, the idea of ​​a person’s complete lack of freedom, a focus on contemplation, political organization - despotism, collectivism

Western civilization. Signs of Western civilization can be considered: dynamism, novelty orientation importance to the human personality, individualism, rationality, freedom, equality, tolerance, respect for private property, democracy. A subspecies of Western civilization is a technogenic civilization that began to form at the beginning of the 15th century and spread throughout the Earth.

Modern (global) civilization. IN modern world a new global type of civilization has appeared, in which it is impossible for one civilization to exist in isolation from another. Peoples and cultures constantly influence each other, exchange the latest achievements in all areas of life.

Factors of historical development

Natural and climatic - determines the type of management in a given territory, the activity that people will mainly engage in. Nature determines not only the type of activity that people will be engaged in in a given area, but also their relationship with each other, as well as the form of government. If the climate is severe, the greater the likelihood of the emergence of collective forms of management, and the easier the living conditions, the more inclined people will be to individualism. In milder conditions of life, government will be more democratic. A harsh climate requires and sufficient authoritarian leadership capable of collecting taxes in the face of a lack of resources.

Geographic - Different geographical areas provide different opportunities for this. Some of them are so well suited to human life that they do not create the prerequisites for changing the environment, and hence the growth of needs and, ultimately, development. Others are so unfavorable that they prevent any transformation.
The most rapidly developing territories are located at the crossroads of geographical routes connecting different peoples, near the centers of civilizations. Progress is facilitated by proximity to more developed countries. This causes a steady desire for improvement.

economic factor.The idea that the economy plays a crucial role in history came in the second half of XIX V. many historians. This direction, which is usually called historical-economic, or simply economic (“economism”), has received the widest distribution in the historical science of Germany, France, Great Britain, and Russia. Moreover, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, it became the leading one, which was recognized by both its champions and its opponents.

ethnic factor . Ethnic community (ethnos) - historically an emerging type of stable social grouping of people, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation, group of peoples (Slavic ethnic community, etc.). The ethical factor can be traced remarkably in the history of Russia, which is at the crossroads of Western and European civilizations. Russia borders on many peoples, interacts with them, adopts customs and traditions. Many words in the Russian language, which we now perceive as native, are actually borrowed. In the process of cultural exchange, peoples noticeably develop. Ethnic interaction occurs in the process economic activity man, military campaigns.

Periodization of world history.

1. Paleolithic (2 million years - 8 thousand years BC) - the era of the existence of a fossil man, as well as fossil, now extinct species of animals. In the Paleolithic era, the climate of the Earth, its flora and fauna were quite different from modern ones. People of the Paleolithic era used only chipped stone tools, not yet knowing how to grind them and make pottery - ceramics. They hunted and gathered plant food. Fishing was just beginning to emerge, while agriculture and cattle breeding were not known. The beginning of the Paleolithic coincides with the appearance on Earth of the most ancient ape-like

2. Mesolithic (8 thousand years - 5 thousand years BC) the era of the Stone Age, transitional between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. The Mesolithic cultures of many territories are characterized by miniature stone tools - microliths. Chipped chopping tools made of stone were used - axes, adzes, picks, as well as tools made of bone and horn - spearheads, harpoons, fish hooks, points, picks, etc. Bows and arrows, various devices for fishing and hunting sea animals spread ( dugout boats, nets). Pottery appeared mainly during the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic. The dog, which was probably domesticated in the Late Paleolithic, was widely used in the Mesolithic; the domestication of some other animal species (the pig, etc.) also began. The basis of the economy was hunting, fishing and gathering (including the collection of edible shellfish). Prerequisites arose for the transition (already at the Neolithic stage) to productive forms of economy - agriculture and cattle breeding.

3. Neolithic (5 thousand years - 3 thousand years BC) - the era of the later Stone Age, characterized by the use of exclusively flint, bone and stone tools (including those made using sawing, drilling and grinding techniques) and, as a rule, the wide distribution of pottery. Neolithic labor tools represent the final stage in the development of stone tools, which are then replaced by metal products that appear in increasing quantities. According to cultural and economic characteristics, Neolithic cultures fall into two groups: 1) farmers and pastoralists, and 2) developed hunters and fishermen. Neolithic cultures of the first group reflect the consequences of the transition to fundamentally new forms of obtaining products through their production (the so-called producing economy).

4. Eneolithic (3 thousand years - 2 thousand years BC) Copper-Stone Age, the era of transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age.

5. Bronze Age (2 thousand years - 1 thousand years BC) - a historical and cultural period characterized by the spread of bronze in the advanced cultural centers of metallurgy and its transformation into the leading material for the production of tools and weapons.

6. Iron Age

oldest stage the history of mankind.

Isolation of man from the animal world. Anthropogenesis.

Anthropogenesis commonly referred to as part of biological evolution that led to the appearance of a species Homo sapiens, separated from great apes and placental mammals. It is believed that the closest common ancestor of humans and anthropomorphic apes was a group dryopithecus (tree monkeys), living 25-30 million years ago. Approximately 25 million years ago, there was a division of driopithecus into two branches, which later led to the emergence of two families: pongid, or anthropomorphic monkeys(gibbon, gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee), and hominids (humans).

Tab. 1.1. The main stages of human evolution.

Temporary boundaries

Stages of anthropogenesis

Character traits development

40 thousand years ago

Stage neoanthrope (Cro-Magnon). Homo sapiens

Shape Shaping modern man. The emergence of society. Domestication of plants and animals

200-500 thousand years ago

Stage paleoanthrope (Neanderthal). Neanderthal man

The volume of the brain is 1200-1400 cm 3. High culture of making tools. Improving speech and tribal relations

1-1.3 million . years ago

Stage archanthrope (Pithecanthropus). Homo erectus (Pithecanthropus - Java Island; Sinanthropus - China, Atlanthropus - Africa, Heidelberg Man - Europe)

Brain volume 800-1200 cm3. Formation of speech. mastery of fire

2-2.5 million years ago

skillful man

Transitional stage to the formation of the type of modern man. Brain volume 500--800 cm 5 . Making the first tools (pebble culture)

9 million years ago

Stage protanthrope. Australopithecus - the forerunners of humans

Transitional form of ape to man. Upright. The use of primitive "tools" (sticks, stones, bones). Further development of herding

25 million years ago

Common ancestors of great apes and humans - dryopithecus

Arboreal lifestyle, herding

Our ancient ancestors were grouped into human herds(proto-communities) numbering from 20 to 40 people. Such a number of individuals in the herd is most beneficial for the survival of man as a biological species. A smaller number of members of the herd could not cope with the harsh conditions of life. The main occupations at that time were hunting or gathering, i.e. appropriate type of business. While the men were in search of food, the women took care of the children, whose survival was also necessary for the continued existence of the herd; women's duties also included maintaining the fire. A larger number of individuals in the herd is also inappropriate, because. as the herd grows, it becomes more difficult to manage it. People lived as one big family, earning food together and taking care of common children. Relations between men and women were most likely disordered - promiscuity. If the number of the herd increased, then it was divided into two.

Gradually, however, people begin to notice that less and less healthy offspring are being born in their society, and, consequently, the herd is becoming less viable. This was due to the entry into sexual contact of close relatives. Therefore, a ban on the entry into communication of members of the same herd gradually appears - exogamy. With the advent of exogamy appears and tribal community. Every tribal community had to maintain friendly relations with other tribal communities with which it exchanged spouses. There have always been two or more communities nearby. The women of the community were entitled to men from the neighboring community, but not to their own. Similarly, men had the right to women only in the neighboring community. At that time social structure was based on the power of a woman, i.e. matriarchy prevailed. Children born from group marriages of spouses from friendly communities lived in the mother community, because. it was not always possible to establish the father. But in this case, there is a danger of a relationship between a father and a daughter, which can again lead to the birth of unhealthy offspring. Then the division into age groups was accepted. Gradually, more and more restrictions were introduced into marriage, until it became monogamous and produced the largest number of healthy children. By that time, cattle breeding became the main occupation of people, and a little later, agriculture, i.e. the type of economy from appropriating evolves into producing. People were kept together by a large tribal community until they had perfect tools for working the land, and until this activity required joint efforts.

With the advent of a plow with an iron plowshare, an iron ax, a shovel, a bow with arrows, the tribal community is replaced neighborly. People live in smaller groups, but some activities that require a lot of physical effort (clearing arable land) are shared by several neighboring communities.

Since in earning a livelihood people become more independent and less in need of their neighbors, what is earned already remains within the same family. Thus, private property begins to emerge, which must be protected. In this regard, those who are physically stronger become stronger economically. They can afford to hire labor to meet their needs. In connection with the growth of incomes, it becomes necessary to protect them, that is, to hire an army. Thus, the first states begin to form. We will explore this process in more detail in the following chapters.

Early civilizations

Ancient world- the period in the history of mankind between the prehistoric period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe. The beginning of the period marked the appearance of writing. The duration of the written period of history is approximately 5-5.5 thousand years, starting from the appearance of cuneiform writing among the Sumerians. The end of the Ancient period is the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 under the blows of the barbarian troops and the subsequent sharp decline in the culture and standard of living of people.

Consider some of the oldest known civilizations. While people were still weak and wild, they settled in the most climatically favorable conditions. This explains the appearance of the first civilizations in the river valleys in the warm climate of the East. The river gave the human herd at the beginning of evolution (and then the community and the proto-states) food. The warm climate contributed to human settlement and survival. However, the same river also required significant efforts, both physical and intellectual. Man had to solve difficult problems. How to save yourself from the annual floods? How to protect yourself from the raids of neighbors who all came along the same river? How can a river be made to irrigate a large soil? How can you pass on your knowledge to your descendants? Solving these issues, people created calendars, built protective structures and an irrigation system, and created writing.

Life required the efforts of each member of society, therefore collectivism is characteristic of Eastern civilization. The team could not afford for anyone to evade their duties, so the punishment system was cruel, the power was despotism. The hot climate did not make it possible to work all day, and the darkness did not allow working at night. A short interval, when it was possible to do something, was followed by a period of forced inactivity. Therefore, contemplation, a mood for reflection is characteristic of an Eastern person. As a result of these reflections, scientific discoveries were born that could facilitate work in the short hours of coolness.

The ancient East is a fairly broad concept. From the point of view of a medieval European, the East is everything except Europe. Thus, the East includes such diverse countries and cultures as Islamic, China, India, Indo-China, as well as the northern tip of Africa.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia, Greek Μεσοποταμία) is an area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, on the territory of modern Iraq, one of the cradles of Eurasian civilization.

Mesopotamia

On the territory between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates at different times there were several states. The largest and most famous are Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia.

Sumer

The Sumerians are the people who settled in the Southern Mesopotamia (the interfluve of the Euphrates and the Tigris in the south of advanced Iraq) at the very beginning historical period. The Sumerians probably own the discovery of the wheel, baked bricks, irrigation systems and beer.

The oldest known writing system is the Sumerian script, which later developed into cuneiform. Cuneiform is a writing system in which symbols are pressed out with a reed stick (stylus) on a tablet of wet clay.

Sumerian cuneiform

It is not known for certain where the Sumerians came from, but when they appeared in Mesopotamia, people already lived there. The tribes that inhabited Mesopotamia in the deepest antiquity lived on islands that towered among the swamps. They built their settlements on artificial earth embankments. Draining the surrounding swamps, they created the oldest system of artificial irrigation.

The disunity of the city-states created a problem with the exact dating of events in Ancient Sumer. The fact is that each city-state had its own chronicles. Approximately the history of Sumer can be dated as follows:

2900 - 2316 BC - heyday of the Sumerian city-states
2316 - 2200 BC - the unification of the Sumerians under the rule of the Akkadian dynasty (Semitic tribes of the northern part of the Southern Mesopotamia who adopted the Sumerian culture)
2200 - 2112 BC - Interregnum. The period of fragmentation and invasions of nomads - Kuti
2112 - 2003 BC - Sumerian Renaissance, the heyday of culture
2003 BC - the fall of Sumer and Akkad under the onslaught of the Amorites (Elamites). Anarchy
1792 - the rise of Babylon under Hammurabi (Old Babylonian kingdom)

Assyria

The Assyrian Empire lasted over a thousand years, beginning in the 17th century BC. e. and until its destruction in the 7th century BC. e. (about 609 BC) Media and Babylonia.

Assyria, ancient state in present-day Iraq. The core of Assyria was Ashur. Ethnic composition its primary population is unknown, by 2000 BC. e. The bulk of the inhabitants were Semites-Akkadians.

Ancient Assyria is characterized by a self-governing rural and urban community (alu), which owned a periodically redistributed land fund, which was directly owned by home communities (bitu). The nobility, which was part of trading companies, profited from the caravan trade. Cities that later formed the core of the Assyrian state (Nineveh, Ashur, Arbela, etc.), until the 15th century. BC, apparently, did not represent a single political or even ethnic whole. One of the most important items of intermediary trade in the II millennium BC. there were textiles and ores, and its central points were Ashur, Nineveh and Arbela. Gradually, the communal system is decomposing, the population is stratified. Some fall into bondage and are forced to bear duties in favor of richer fellow tribesmen.

In the 18th century Ashur and adjacent cities were subject to the Babylonian king Hammurabi, and in the 16-15 centuries. - The kings of Mitanni. The ruler of Ashur, Ashshuruballit I [late 15th - early 14th centuries] succeeded in creating a strong state and subordinating Babylonia to his influence. His descendants adopted the title of "Kings of Assyria". In the 14th-13th centuries. they managed to conquer northern Mesopotamia and seize the supply routes to Babylonia. The Assyrian rulers were highly educated people. Libraries were created in their palaces. The most famous of them is the library of King Ashurbanipal. It was discovered during the excavations of Nineveh.

From the end of the 9th c. a crisis began in Assyria associated with the devastation of agricultural areas during wars, as well as civil wars between the party of the priesthood and the privileged merchant and service nobility and the military party.

The military-technical achievements of Assyria ceased to be its monopoly. At the end of the 7th c. a coalition of Babylonia and Media defeated Assyria, destroyed its main cities and destroyed (626-605) the Assyrian state. The Assyrian nobility was slaughtered during the war, the rest of the population mixed with the Arameans of Mesopotamia.

A very interesting cultural, historical and everyday monument of the era are the so-called "Middle Assyrian laws".

Laws are grouped in accordance with the subject of regulation into very large "blocks", each of which is dedicated to a special tablet, because the "subject" is understood in the Central Assyrian laws extremely broadly. Yes, Tab. A (fifty-nine paragraphs) is devoted to various aspects of the legal status of a free woman - "the daughter of a man", "the wife of a man", a widow, etc., as well as a harlot and a slave. This also includes various offenses committed by a woman or against her, marriage, property relations of spouses, rights to children, etc. In other words, the woman acts here both as a subject of law, and as its object, and as a criminal, and as a victim. "At the same time" this also includes actions committed by "a woman or a man" (murder in a strange house; sorcery), as well as cases of sodomy. Such a grouping, of course, is much more convenient, but its shortcomings are also obvious: theft, for example, ends up in two different tablets, false accusations and false denunciations also fall into different tablets; the same fate befell the rules concerning inheritance. However, these shortcomings are obvious only from our modern point of view. New, in comparison with the Laws of Hammurabi, is also the extremely wide use of public punishments - flogging and "royal work", i.e. a kind of hard labor (in addition to monetary compensation to the victim). Such a phenomenon is unique for such early antiquity and can be explained both by the unusually high development of legal thought and by the preservation of communal solidarity, which considered many offenses, especially in the field of land relations or against the honor and dignity of free citizens, as affecting the interests of the entire community. On the other hand, the Central Assyrian laws, as already noted, also contain archaic features. These include laws according to which the murderer is handed over to the "owner of the house", i.e. the head of the family of the deceased. The "owner of the house" can do with him at his own discretion: kill him or let him go, taking a ransom from him (in more developed legal systems, a ransom for murder is not allowed). Such a mixture of archaic features with features of a relatively high development is also characteristic of the Middle Assyrian society itself, as it is reflected in the Middle Assyrian laws.

Babylonia

There are many people who would not have heard of the Babylonian pandemonium or one of the wonders of the world, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Both of these grandiose buildings were in Babylonia.

According to biblical tradition, the inhabitants of Ancient Babylon set out to get to heaven and for this purpose began to build a high tower. Then, according to the Bible, "all people on earth had one language and the same words." An angry God confused their language so that they no longer understood each other, and chaos ensued. This legend gives us the opportunity to draw conclusions about the life of the ancient Babylonians. If there are legends about such monumental buildings, then the inhabitants of this area were excellent architects and builders. If we are talking about the separation of languages, we can conclude that the state was multinational, as well as that these diverse peoples did not find mutual language between themselves.

tower of babel

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The correct name for this building is hanging gardens Amitis: that was the name of the wife of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, for whose sake the gardens were created.

According to legend, at the beginning of the VI century BC. King Nebuchadnezzar II ordered the creation of hanging gardens for one of his wives Amiits, who yearned for her homeland in the mountainous part of Iran in lowland Babylonia. Then where does the name Semiramis come from? There is a Greek legend, transmitted by Herodotus and Ctesias, about the creation of "hanging gardens" in Babylon in honor of Semiramis. According to legend, the king of Babylon Shamshiadat V fell in love with the Assyrian Amazon queen Semiramis. In her honor he built huge building, consisting of an arcade - a series of arches placed on top of each other. On each floor of such an arcade, earth was poured and a garden was laid out with many rare trees. Among the amazingly beautiful plants, fountains murmured, bright birds sang. The gardens of Babylon were through and multi-storey. This gave them lightness and a fabulous look.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

Babylonia, or the Babylonian kingdom, is an ancient kingdom in the south of Mesopotamia (the territory of modern Iraq), which arose at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. and lost its independence in 539 BC. e .. The capital of the kingdom was the city of Babylon, after which it received its name. The Semitic people of the Amorites, the founders of Babylonia, inherited the culture of the previous kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Sumer and Akkad. State language Babylonia had a written Semitic Akkadian language, and a disused unrelated language Sumerian long preserved as a cult.

The heyday of Babylonia is associated with the name of King Hammurabi.

King Hammurabi receives laws from the solar god Shamash (relief of the upper part of the column of the Code of Laws)

The basis of the well-being of the inhabitants of Babylonia was Agriculture. Taking care of the harvest, they restored the old and laid new irrigation systems. However, due to land salinization, typical of irrigation in low rainfall climates, crop yields gradually declined. Farming remained largely communal. Having lost land for debts, a person was deprived of the whole complex of civil rights, moreover, he could no longer perform the most important cult of ancestors. During the reign of Hammurabi, the decomposition of the rural community and the enslavement for debts had already taken on a significant character. From the laws of Hammurabi it is clear that slavery has lost its former patriarchal character.

The rise of Babylon led to its transformation into a major religious center: the local god took the place of the head of the Sumerian-Akkadian pantheon. The New Year's festivities held here, during which the king touched the hands of Marduk, became the culmination of the cult and recognition of the divinity of royal power.

In the 7th century BC e. the Assyrians destroyed Babylon twice (689 and 648 BC), but, taking advantage of the weakening of Assyria, the governor of Babylon, a Chaldean by birth, in 626 proclaimed the separation of Babylonia from Assyria and, together with the king of Media, divided the territory of the Assyrian kingdom. Nabopolassar became the founder of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the first of the Chaldean dynasty. His son, whose forty-year reign was a time of great territorial acquisitions, is the last significant ruler on the Babylonian throne.

Our story about Babylon began with the legend of the most notable architectural structures, and it will end with the legend of the fall of a powerful state.

Belshazzar was the last Chaldean ruler of Babylon, the son of Nebuchadnezzar. According to the Bible, on the night of the capture of Babylon by the Persians at the last feast arranged by Belshazzar, he blasphemously used the sacred vessels taken by his father from the Jerusalem temple for food and drink. In the midst of the fun, the words inscribed with a mysterious hand appeared on the wall: “mene, mene, tekel, uparsin.” The prophet Daniel interpreted the inscription, translated from Aramaic meaning: “Numbered, calculated, weighed, divided” - and deciphered them as a message from God to Belshazzar, predicted the imminent death of him and his kingdom. That very night Belshazzar died.

Persian kingdom

Persia is the ancient name of a country in Southwest Asia, officially called Iran since 1935.

In ancient times, Persia became the center of one of the greatest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to the river. Ind. It included all previous empires - Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Hittites. The later empire of Alexander the Great included almost no territory that would not have previously belonged to the Persians, while it was smaller than Persia under King Darius.

Since its inception in the 6th c. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the ancient world.

In 553 BC Cyrus II the Great, Achaemenid, the ruler of Parsa, raised an uprising against the Median king Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, as a result of which a powerful alliance of the Medes and Persians was created. In 539 BC Cyrus occupied Babylonia, and by the end of his reign expanded the borders of the state from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern outskirts of the Iranian Highlands, making the capital of Pasargada, a city in southwestern Iran.

Darius (ruled from 522 to 485 BC) is the greatest of the Persian kings, he combined the talents of a ruler, builder and commander. Under him, the north-western part of India passed under the rule of Persia up to the Indus River and Armenia to the Caucasus Mountains. Darius divided the country into regions - satrapies, which were ruled by officials - satraps.

Eastern Mediterranean.

In the east of the Mediterranean Sea, different climatic conditions developed, and therefore the civilizations that developed in this region differed significantly from the river ones. Possibility to engage in arable farming was limited due to the lack of good land, but even those that were available could still be used quite intensively, since the sea winds brought heavy rains. Horticulture prevailed here, olives, dates, and grapes were cultivated.

Phoenicia

As some researchers suggest, the first inhabitants of Phenicia spoke a non-Semitic language. However, already in the III millennium BC, according to the testimony of Egyptian sources, Semitic tribes lived here.

The ancient Phoenicians were also engaged in fishing, which is natural for the sea people. It is no coincidence that the name of one of the Phoenician cities is Sidon, which means “place of fishing”. Great wealth for the country was represented by the forests of mountainous Lebanon, which abounded with cedar and other valuable species.

The name "Phoenician" is already found in Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions of the middle of the III millennium BC. in the form of fenech. Later, the ancient Greeks used the word "foinikes", which meant "reddish", "dark". Hence the name of the country.

Another version interprets the name of the state from the Greek. φοινως - "purple", possibly associated with the production of purple paint from a special type of mollusks that lived off the coast of Phenicia, which was one of the main crafts of the locals.

One of the most significant achievements of the Phoenicians was the invention of alphabetic writing. The Phoenician scribes actually brought the discovery of the Egyptians to its logical conclusion. As you know, the Egyptians created 24 consonants, but they also retained hundreds of syllabic signs and signs denoting whole concepts.

Ancient Palestine - a historical region in Western Asia, located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Syria.

Here, in ancient times, agriculture has received significant development. A large trade route passed through this region, going from Egypt to Syria. The Saron lowland, which was sometimes called the "Garden of Eden", was especially distinguished by its fertility. No less fertile are some of the interior regions of Western Palestine. Such is the plain of Jericho, beautifully irrigated by the Wadi Kelt.

Archaeological excavations indicate that a person lived in Palestine already in the era of the ancient Stone Age.

Biblical traditions have preserved distant and vague information about those tribes that in ancient times inhabited the territory of Palestine.

On the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Tire, lived the Aegean tribe of the Philistines (in Hebrew Pelishtim), who gave the name to the country of Palestine (in Hebrew Peleshet, in ancient Egyptian Peleset).

Approximately three and a half thousand years ago, nomadic Semitic tribes came to the land of Canaan, who had previously lived across the Euphrates River, then crossed over it and roamed in the Arabian desert. These tribes called themselves "the people of Israel". Other peoples called them "ibrim", or "Jews", which probably meant "those who crossed the river" or "came from beyond the river." There is every reason to believe that the name of the Khabiri tribe is identical with the biblical name of the tribe of the Jews (ibrim), as well as with the ancient Egyptian word "aperu", which the Egyptians in the era of the New Kingdom denoted captives captured in Palestine during their conquests in Syria

Let us recall the biblical lines about how Moses brought his people out of the land of Egypt and led them to the Promised Land. The 40-year wandering in the desert was also not accidental. Firstly, during long wanderings, the faith of the people in that was strengthened. That only God can help them in a difficult life situation. Secondly, the people became a single whole. During this period, 2 generations of people were born. Communicated only in the circle of their national group. Thirdly, a free generation appeared that did not know slavery, and therefore, it will be able to live in new conditions and not allow itself to be conquered by any other tribe.

From the point of view of considering the formation of statehood among the ancient Jews, the legends about David and Goliath and Solomon are interesting.

Goliath was a Philistine warrior, distinguished by extraordinary strength and enormous growth - 6 cubits with a span or 2 meters 89 centimeters (1 cubit \u003d 42.5 cm, 1 span \u003d 22.2 cm). The Philistine giant was dressed in scaly armor weighing approximately 57 kilograms (5000 shekels of copper, 1 shekel = 11.4 g) and copper knee pads, a copper helmet was on his head, and a copper shield was in his hands. Goliath carried a heavy spear, the tip of which alone weighed 600 shekels of iron (6.84 kg), and a large sword.

David had no armor at all, and his only weapon was a sling. The Philistine giant considered it an insult to himself that a young man, still a boy, went out to fight him. Goliath and David were chosen by their fellow tribesmen for single combat, which was supposed to decide the outcome of the battle: the one who won the duel won the victory for his side. During the battle, David kills the giant Goliath. For this, his fellow tribesmen elect him as their king.

No less interesting is the life story of the son of David, the legendary King Solomon. Solomon is the tenth son of King David. When the time came for his father to die, he bequeathed the throne to Solomon, as the most capable, most intelligent among his many children. "And the trumpets blew and all the people cried out, Long live King Solomon."

During the reign of Solomon in Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Temple was built - the main shrine of Judaism.

After accession, Solomon made a great sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord appeared to him at night and asked: “What can I give you?” The young king did not want anything for himself, he did not need fame or wealth, he asked for only one thing - to give him a reasonable, kind heart to judge and rule fairly numerous people Israeli. The Lord promised.

However, at the end of his life, Solomon renounced God and began building pagan temples. For this, God was angry with him and promised many hardships to the people of Israel, but after the end of the reign of Solomon. Thus, the whole reign of Solomon passed quite calmly.

Ancient Egypt

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into five periods, during which 30 dynasties of pharaohs ruled: Early, Ancient, Middle, New and Late kingdoms (III-I millennium BC). The pharaohs were considered the embodiment of the supreme god Horus on earth. The first pharaoh was Menes, who united Upper and Lower Egypt.

During the period of the Old Kingdom, the deification of the pharaohs, who bore the title "Son of the Sun", reached its climax. The symbol of their greatness was the construction of giant pyramids - the tombs of the pharaohs.

The Egyptian pyramids are the greatest architectural monuments of Ancient Egypt, among which one of the "seven wonders of the world" is the pyramid of Cheops (Khufu).

Pyramids are huge pyramid-shaped stone structures used as tombs for the pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The word "pyramid" is Greek. According to some researchers, a large pile of wheat became the prototype of the pyramid. According to other scientists, this word comes from the name of the funeral cake of a pyramidal shape. A total of 118 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.

After the period of construction of the pyramids, the time of unrest begins, the weakening of the power of the pharaohs, the disintegration of Egypt into warring semi-independent principalities (nomes). During the Middle Kingdom, the country was united again, but it was shaken by uprisings of slaves and the urban poor. Egypt, weakened by uprisings, was captured by wild Asian tribes - the Hyksos. Causing damage to civilization, they simultaneously introduced the Egyptians to their military equipment: bronze weapons and chariots with horses. The pharaohs of the 18th dynasty managed to expel the Hyksos and create a grandiose power that, in addition to Egypt itself, encompassed the entire modern Middle East, part of Libya, and Namibia.

During the reign of Ramses II, Egypt expanded even more, and the successful conqueror built new cities, canals and giant temples. The successors of Ramses II fought a lot, but unsuccessfully and weakened the country, which at the end of the kingdom became the prey of foreign conquerors.

The first to invade Egypt were the Libyans, then the Ethiopians and the Assyrians. The last period of Egyptian independence ended in the 6th century BC. its capture by the mighty Persian kingdom. In the IV century BC. Persia itself fell into decline and, together with Egypt, fell under the blows of the troops of Alexander the Great. The commander of Alexander Ptolemy received Egypt after the collapse of the Macedonian state. For Egypt, a new period began - Hellenism, closely connected with the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

In ancient Egypt, the family was considered a great value. Women were respected in society. They had the right to property, they could go to court. There were even female rulers, which is not typical for the countries of the East. One of the most famous female pharaohs was Hatshepsut.

Hatshepsut, the granddaughter of the progenitor of the dynasty, Queen Ahmose-Nofretari, was the daughter and chosen successor of Thutmose I, the pharaoh who restored Egyptian influence in Palestine and Syria. Hatshepsut's reign began after the death of her father (c. 1525 BC), although her sickly half-brother and husband Thutmose II was considered pharaoh. After about seven years, Thutmose II died, and Hatshepsut appropriated the regalia of the pharaoh - a beard and a crown. Her young stepson Thutmose III married the young daughter of the queen, Hatshepsut II, and became her junior co-ruler.

Sources consider the most important act of Hatshepsut to be a grandiose journey by sea and land to a rich and refined country called "Punt", or "God's land" (its biblical parallel is the story of the visit of Solomon by the Queen of Sheba, who in the story of Joseph is called the ruler of Egypt and Ethiopia) . The funeral temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri, in which she left a description of her campaign to Punt, is perhaps the greatest masterpiece of Egyptian architecture. Its builder, Senmut, was the queen's closest adviser and mentor to her youngest daughter, Neferura. After 22 years on the throne of the pharaohs, Hatshepsut was overthrown by Thutmose III. It is not known whether she was killed in the process or (according to Ethiopian tradition) she was exiled. Her tomb does not contain a burial, as does the tomb of Senmut located nearby. At the direction of Thutmose III, the front part of the statues of Hatshepsut was chipped off, and some of the inscriptions with her biography were destroyed.

Queen Hatshepsut as a sphinx.

In ancient Egypt, there was no one common religion, but there was a wide variety of local cults dedicated to certain deities. Most of them were henotheistic in nature (focusing on the worship of one deity while recognizing others), so the Egyptian religion is seen as polytheistic.

The religion of Egypt has gone through a long path of development from fetishism and totemism to polytheism and monotheistic thinking in 3000 years. In Egypt, the concept of monotheism was first formulated - Pharaoh Akhenaten attempted a religious reform, the purpose of which was to centralize Egyptian cults around the sun god Aton.

In different periods, the most revered deities were Ra and later identified with him Amon, Osiris, Isis, Set, Ptah, Anubis.

- Sumer

- Sumer

- Assyria

- Assyria

– Babylonia

- Babylonia

- Babylonia

- Persian kingdom

- persia

- Phenicia

- Palestine

– Legends

- Legends

- Egypt

- Egypt

- Egypt

ancient civilization

Antique civilization is an ancient civilization of the Western type.

According to the legends, the ancestor of the Greeks was the king of Hellenes, therefore the Greeks themselves called themselves Hellenes, and the country Hellas.

Ancient civilization begins to form on the ruins of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization, which died as a result of natural disasters.

As we can see on the map, there are no large rivers in Greece that contributed to the development of their agriculture. But in this area suitable conditions for cattle breeding and winemaking. Proximity to the sea made it possible to contact with big amount other peoples, and therefore fortified city walls appear to protect against enemy raids, and for trade, it contributed to the development of crafts. Thus, the Greek community developed not as an agricultural community, but as an urban one. However, the cities did not unite into a single state, but existed independently, only occasionally creating temporary alliances. This type of independent city of the state was called a policy. In the policy, the population was about 10 thousand people, including slaves, but there were also large policies in which up to 300 thousand inhabitants lived. Athens and Sparta can be considered an example of such large policies.

Full-fledged residents of the policy were only native male residents. They had the right to property, participation in political life. The people's assembly of the citizens of the policy adopted laws, elected senior officials from among its members. If a person seized power in the state illegally, for example, by military means, bypassing the decision of the demos (the population of the policy), then such a person was called a tyrant. However, each city-state had its own nuances of political life. Let us consider in more detail the state structure of Athens and Sparta.

Athenian democracy.

Demos is the people, therefore democracy is the power of the people.

The inhabitants of Athens were divided into 4 unequal categories: Athenians - had all the rights; Meteki - Greeks from other policies - did not have only political rights; foreigners - could only trade, had no political rights and could not acquire property; slaves are completely powerless.

Power in Athens belonged to the people's assembly, which elected a council of elders, as well as 9 archons - senior officials.

However, over time, many impoverished citizens of the policy lost their political rights, falling into long-term slavery. This caused popular discontent. To carry out reforms to overcome it was given to the archon Solon, who abolished debt slavery by redeeming the Athenian slaves at the expense of the state. Under him, the population of the policy was divided into 4 categories according to the property qualification. The political rights of a person and his place in the army depended on the discharge.

Cleisthenes' reforms are also interesting. Under him, the law on ostracism came into force - a special kind of court, when a person could be expelled from the city if 10,000 citizens voted for it. The names of objectionable fellow citizens had to be written on clay tablets (ostraks) - hence the name of the court.

Oligarchy in Sparta.

When it comes to Sparta, we remember the 300 Spatran heroes. Indeed, Sparta is a state of warriors. It was considered shameful for the citizens of the city to engage in anything other than war or training in war. Therefore, in the entire history of Sparta, not a single scientist, philosopher or thinker has been produced. Therefore, while the rest of Greece was at a fairly primitive level of development, Sparta flourished due to successful military campaigns.

Oligarchy - the power of a limited circle of people (these can be noble, rich people or the military). The population of Sparta was divided into the native inhabitants of the Spartis; perieks (literally "living around") - the population of the surrounding lands who paid tribute to Sparta for protection; and helots - slaves. According to the laws of Lycurgus, all the inhabitants of Sparta lived equally modestly, gold and silver coins were abolished.

Ruled in Sparta 2 kings, whose power was inherited. The main role in the administration was played by the council of elders, to which 28 geronts were elected (selected from those who had reached 60 years of age). People's Assembly (over 30 years old) - adopted or rejected the decisions made.

The Peloponnesian military alliance formed around Sparta.

Greco-Persian Wars

The Greco-Persian Wars were a turning point in the history of Greece. Many small Greek cities, often at war with each other, were able to rally in the face of danger and not only withstood the onslaught of the most powerful Persian power, but managed, having defended their independence, to go on the counteroffensive and put a limit to Persian aggression to the west.

In the VI century. BC. Persians conquered many Greek policies. The reason for the war was the assistance provided by warships from Athens and Eretria (on the island of Euboea) to 500 Greek cities in Asia Minor that rebelled against Persian domination. Perhaps the most famous battles of these wars are Marathon and the Battle of Thermopylae.

Marathon (Marathon), an ancient Greek settlement on the plain of the same name in Attica (40 km northeast of Athens), in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bwhich September 13, 490 BC. e. happened. The Greek army (11 thousand people) was built by the commander Miltiades at the entrance to the valley in the phalanx, the reinforced flanks of which were covered by wooded spurs of the mountains and forward notches, which protected them from being bypassed by the Persian cavalry. There were about 20,000 Persians.

The battle at Marathon took place in 490 BC. e. and was crowned with a complete victory for the Athenians and their Plataean allies. The Persians could not withstand the attack of a close formation of heavily armed Greek soldiers, were overturned and put to flight. Herodotus says that they left up to 6,400 corpses on the battlefield, while the Greeks lost only 192 people killed.

Immediately after the battle, a runner was sent to the city of Athens with the joyful news of the long-awaited victory. He ran to the agora and shouted "Victory!" dropped dead to the ground. In memory of this episode, a marathon distance of 42 km 192 m was established at the Olympic Games - the distance from the battlefield to the Athenian agora. However, the rest of the soldiers fled to Athens in order to defend the city in case of a possible attack.

Soon the Persian king Darius I dies and the attacks on Greece temporarily end.

Hostilities resumed in the spring of 480. A huge fleet and land army, consisting both of the Persians themselves and of detachments put up by the conquered peoples that were part of the Achaemenid state, moved led by Xerxes himself. It is impossible not to remember heroic deed King Leonidas and 300 Spartans holding back the troops of Xerxes. The troops of Xerxes attacked the defenders of Thermopylae many times, trying in vain to break through the defenses. Among the Greeks, there was a traitor who showed the enemies a bypass mountain path. Along this path, a detachment of Persians went to the rear of the defenders of Thermopylae. When the Spartan king Leonid, who commanded the forces of the allies, became aware of this, he ordered his troops to retreat, but he himself remained at Thermopylae with a detachment of 300 Spartan warriors. Surrounded on all sides by enemies, the Spartans fought to the last man. Subsequently, a monument was erected on the grave of Leonid and his soldiers with the inscription:

"Traveler, go, raise to our citizens in Lacedemono that, keeping their covenants, here we died with our bones."

Having broken through Thermopylae, the Persians poured into Central Greece. Almost all the Boeotian cities, in which the Persian-minded aristocracy was strong, hastened to submit to Xerxes. Attica was devastated, Athens plundered.

09/28/480 BC there was a naval battle off the island of Salamis, as a result of which the Persian fleet was badly damaged and was forced to retreat.

After Salamis and Plataea, the war had not yet ended, but its character had changed radically. The threat of enemy invasion ceased to weigh on Balkan Greece, and the initiative passed to the Greeks. In the cities of the western coast of Asia Minor, uprisings began against the Persians; the population overthrew the rulers planted by the Persians, and soon the whole of Ionia regained its independence.

The Greco-Persian wars continued until 449 BC, when the Persians recognized the independence of the Greek cities in Asia Minor.

Alexander the Great

The unity of Greece was short-lived. With the outbreak of wars between the Peloponnesian and Athenian alliances, Hellas weakens. Thus, the prerequisites are formed for the conquest of it by a stronger state, which became Macedonia.

When Philip II became the ruler of Macedonia, in which a people related to the Greeks lived, Hellas falls under his rule.

After the death of Philip, his 20-year-old son Alexander becomes king.

Alexander the Great

Born in 356 BC His teacher was the Greek sage Aristotle. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander at the head of the army went on a campaign against the Persian kingdom. Alexander easily captured Syria and Phoenicia. In Egypt, the priests welcomed Alexander as a liberator from the Persian yoke. The largest battle of antiquity took place in 331 BC. near the village of Gaugamela in Mesopotamia. Despite the 20-fold superiority of forces, the Persians were defeated.

Alexander liked many of the orders that he saw at the Persian court, and he began to demand from the freedom-loving Greeks the same obedience that the Persians showed their king, for example, that they resembled him on his knees. This caused discontent. Conspiracies are repeatedly organized against Alexander, assassination attempts are made on the young king.

Alexander planned new campaigns of conquest, but did not have time to carry them out. In June 323 BC. The commander is dying. There are several versions of the causes of death: ranging from sudden fever to poisoning.

After the death of Alexander, his power falls apart.

Ancient Rome

There is a legend about the founding of Rome, associated with the name of the twins Romulus and Remus. When ancient Troy perished, some of the city's defenders managed to escape. Aeneas was at their head. Exhausted fugitives landed on the shore and decided to settle here. It was the coast of Italy, and the region was called Latium. The son of the Trojan Aeneas founded a city in Latium and named it Alba Longa.

Many decades have passed. In the city of Alba Longa, Amulius seized power, overthrowing his brother Numitor. He was afraid of the revenge of his descendants - the children and grandchildren of the deposed brother. To protect himself from this danger, the cruel Amulius ordered to kill his son Numitor, and forced his daughter Rhea Sylvia to become a priestess of the goddess Vesta - a vestal woman who did not have the right to marry. Soon, Rhea Silvia had two twin boys. Their father, according to legend, was the god of war, Mars.

When Amulius found out about this, he became angry and frightened and ordered the execution of Rhea Silvia, and her children to be thrown into the Tiber. The slave put the children in a basket and carried them to the river. At this time, the Tiber overflowed and the water continued to rise. The slave was afraid to enter the water. He put the basket on the shore, near the water, and left.

Soon the flood ended. The water subsided, and the twin fell out of the basket to the ground and began to scream. This cry was heard by a she-wolf who came to the river to get drunk.

She nursed the children with her milk. Then the royal shepherd saw the twins, picked them up and raised them. He named one of the twins Romulus and the other Remus.

Each of the brethren formed for Himself a small detachment. In one of the skirmishes with the shepherds of Numitor, Rem was captured. He was brought to Numitor. He was struck by the courageous appearance of the young man and became interested in his origin. Remus answered Numitor's questions: “We twins used to consider ourselves the sons of the royal shepherd, but now, when the issue of our life and death is being decided, I can tell you something very important. Our birth is shrouded in mystery. I heard incredible things about our upbringing and early childhood: we were fed by animals and birds, which we were thrown to eat - a she-wolf gave us her milk, woodpeckers brought us food when we lay on the banks of a large river.

Numitor began to guess that before him was his grandson, one of Rhea Silvia's children. Soon his hunch turned into certainty. The shepherd who raised the twins, having learned that Rem was captured by Numitor, revealed to Romulus the secret of their birth. Romulus hastened to help his brother. He moved with his detachment to Alba Longa. On the way to him, many residents of the city began to run, hating the cruel, treacherous Amulius. In Alba Longa, an uprising broke out, led by Romulus and Remus. The rebels killed Amulius. The brothers returned power to their grandfather Numitor. They themselves did not want to stay in Alba Longa. Together with many people gathered around them, the brothers decided to found a new city.

However, a quarrel soon broke out between the brothers. The dispute arose over whose name to name the new city, where to start building it and which of them to rule in it. Romulus killed his brother. The city was named after its founder, and Romulus became its first ruler - a rex...

Such is the ancient legend that tells of the founding of the city of Rome.
Later, Roman scientists assured that they were able to accurately calculate and determine the date of the founding of the city of Rome. This event, they say, took place on April 21, 753 BC. e. The ancient Romans celebrated this day every year.

The history of ancient Rome is divided into three periods: royal, republican and imperial.

royal period

Romulus became the first king of Rome. The population of Rome was 300 of his companions and their wives. That is why the Romans considered the family to be of particular value. woman mother enjoyed great respect and rights.

The descendants of the first 300 families of Rome were called patricians (from the Latin "father"). It was the Roman nobility. The people who later moved to Rome were called plebeians. Since Rome was built according to the laws of the Greek policy, only patricians were considered full-fledged residents, the plebeians did not have the right to political life, to property. The royal period ends in 510 BC, when the seventh Roman king, Tarquinius the Proud, was overthrown.

Republican period

After the overthrow of the royal power in Rome, democracy is established following the example of the Greek. The highest governing body was popular assembly, but ultimately all decisions were made by the Senate. The senate included one representative from each patrician clan. The National Assembly elected 2 senior officials - consuls - for a period of 2 years. In case of emergency, it was possible to appoint a dictator for six months, who had emergency powers.

Over time, patrician families became less, and the number of plebeians in Rome increased. Therefore, a new position appeared in the Senate - the plebeian tribune - the defender of the rights of the plebeians. The tribune had the right to veto - to suspend, prohibit the decision of the people's assembly or the Senate. Gradually, the number of plebeians in the Senate begins to grow, they become full citizens. The power of origin is replaced by the power of money.

The centuriate reform contributed a lot to this. According to this reform, the entire population of Rome (both patricians and plebeians) was divided into 5 classes, or categories, according to the property qualification, each class put up a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds) and received the same number of votes in centuriate comitia. There were 193 centuries in total, of which the 1st class (property qualification of at least 100 thousand asses) exhibited 98 centuries, the 2nd (the qualification of 75 thousand asses) - 22 centuries, the 3rd (the qualification of 50 thousand asses) - 20 centuries, 4th (qualification 25 thousand asses) - 22 centuries, 5th class (qualification 11 thousand asses) - 30 centuries, Proletarians (landless population) put up 1 centuria and, accordingly, had 1 vote in the people's assembly. The reform was initiated by Servius Tulia.

In the VI - V centuries BC. Rome begins conquest. The Romans turned the conquered lands into provinces - dependent lands of the Roman people. At the head of the provinces were governors - officials of Rome. Conquest campaigns increased the territory of Rome, but at the same time, ties within the republic were weakened. Rome, arranged according to the principle of the Greek policy, is experiencing numerous civil wars, uprisings of slaves.

An important event was the uprising led by Spatraka.

In 74-73 BC. e. Spartacus and about 70 of his followers revolted. Capturing knives in the kitchen of the gladiator school and weapons in its arsenals, the rebels fled to the Vesuvius caldera near Naples. There they were joined by plantation slaves. Over time, the number of rebels was replenished with new runaway slaves, until, according to some statements, the size of the army reached 90,000 (according to other estimates, only 10,000). Spartacus defeated several Roman legions and almost crossed the Alps, but then changed the direction of his movement. According to one of the literary sources, Spartacus was killed by a soldier from Pompeii named Felix, who after the war on the wall of his house in Pompeii laid out a mosaic image of his battle with Spartacus.

After the battle, the Romans found 3,000 unharmed captured legionnaires in the camp of the vanquished. The body of Spartacus, however, was never found.

Approximately 6,000 captured slaves were crucified along the Appian Way from Capua to Rome.

In the second civil war, three prominent Romans clashed for power: Gnaeus Pompey, Mark Crassus and Julius Caesar. In 60 BC. e. they managed to conclude an alliance between themselves - a triumvirate (an alliance of three husbands). The Senate was ousted from power by the triumvirate. In 53 BC, Crassus died. Pompey entered into an agreement with the Senate and opposed Caesar. A new one starts Civil War, in which Caesar defeats Pompey and becomes the sole ruler.

Julius Caesar

The Roman Empire

Caesar did not become the first emperor, because. in 44 BC was killed on the way to a meeting of the Senate. After his death, a struggle for power begins, in which Caesar's distant relative Gaius Octavian wins. In 29 B.C. he receives from the senate and the popular assembly the title of emperor and the title "August" - exalted.

Octavian August

Although officially all the rulers of this time were titled emperors (imperatores), in history it is customary to divide the imperial period into and, when a number of emperors also demanded the title dominus - “master”.

The period of the principate lasted until 193. The actual power belonged to the emperor, although formally there was both a senate and a popular assembly. Many emperors (Nero, Caligula) became famous for their cruelty and abuse of power. As a result, Rome increasingly began to suffer defeats in wars, and the internal political situation in the country was aggravated. Periods of crisis alternate with periods of relative stability.

In the 3rd century, Rome begins to fall apart. Final stage Rome advances in 284 and is called the dominata. When the republican bodies turned into bureaucratic instances, completely subordinate to the emperor. In the same period, relations close to feudal began to emerge. The lands are concentrated in the hands the richest people- tycoons. Dependent peasants and slaves worked on these lands and became colones - tenants of the land, who gave the magnates part of the crop for the opportunity to work on their land. Colon is much more interested in the results of his labor than a slave.

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine moved the capital to the ancient city of Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople. Constantine converts to Christianity. It was during his reign that persecution of Christians ceased in Rome. In 395, the Roman Empire splits into the Western Empire with its capital in Rome and the Eastern (Byzantium) with its capital in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476, the year the German ruler Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and sent the imperial regalia to Constantinople. This date is considered the end of Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Eastern Roman Empire would last for nearly a thousand years and be destroyed in 1453.

- Ancient Greece

- Ancient Rome

- Ancient Rome

- Ancient Rome

The first stage in the development of mankind, the primitive communal system, takes a huge period of time from the moment of the separation of man from the animal kingdom (about 35 million years ago) until the formation of class societies in various regions of the planet (approximately in the 4th millennium BC). Its periodization is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools (archaeological periodization).

In accordance with it, three periods are distinguished in the most ancient era:

• Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the III millennium BC),
• Bronze Age (from the end of the 4th to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC),
• Iron Age (from 1 thousand BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is subdivided into the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), the New Stone Age (Neolithic) and the Copper Stone Age transitional to Bronze Age (Eneolithic).

A number of scientists divide the history of primitive society into five stages, each of which differs in the degree of development of tools, the materials from which they were made, the quality of housing, and the corresponding organization of housekeeping.

The first stage is defined as the prehistory of the economy and material culture: from the emergence of mankind to about 1 million years ago. This is the time when the adaptation of people to environment was not much different from animal livelihood. Many scientists believe that the ancestral home of man is East Africa. It is here that bones of the first people who lived more than 2 million years ago are found during excavations.

The second stage is a primitive appropriating economy approximately I million years ago - XI millennium BC, i.e. covers a significant part of the Stone Age - the early and middle Paleolithic.

The third stage is a developed appropriating economy. It is difficult to determine its chronological framework, since in a number of areas this period ended in the 20th millennium BC. (subtropics of Europe and Africa), in others (tropics) - continues to the present. Covers the Late Paleolithic, the Mesolithic, and in some areas the entire Neolithic.

The fourth stage is the emergence of a manufacturing economy. In the most economically developed regions of the earth - IX-VIII thousand BC. (Late Mesolithic - Early Neolithic).

The fifth stage is the era of the producing economy. For some areas of dry and humid subtropics - VIII-V millennium BC.

In addition to the production of tools, the material culture of ancient mankind is closely connected with the creation of dwellings.

The most interesting archaeological finds of the most ancient dwellings date back to the early Paleolithic. The remains of 21 seasonal camps have been found in France. In one of them, an oval stone fence was discovered, which can be interpreted as the foundation of a light dwelling.

Inside the dwelling there were hearths and places for making tools. In the cave of Le Lazare (France), the remains of a shelter were found, the reconstruction of which suggests the presence of supports, a roof made of skins, internal partitions and two hearths in a large room. Beds - from the skins of animals (foxes, wolves, lynxes) and algae. These finds date back to about 150 thousand years ago.

On the territory of the USSR, the remains of land dwellings dating back to the early Paleolithic were discovered near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They were an oval layout of specially selected large mammoth bones. Traces of 15 fires located in different parts of the dwelling were also found here.

The primitive era of mankind is characterized by a low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement, the collective appropriation of natural resources and the results of production (primarily the exploited territory), equal distribution, socio-economic equality, the absence of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

An analysis of the development of primitive human society shows that this development was extremely uneven. The process of isolation of our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

• australopithecine man;
• Homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);
• a man of a modern physical appearance (late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic people).

In practice, the appearance of the first Australopithecus marked the emergence of material culture, directly related to the production of tools. It was the latter that became for archaeologists a means of determining the main stages in the development of ancient mankind. The rich and generous nature of that period did not contribute to the acceleration of this process; only with the advent of the harsh conditions of the ice age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills rapidly appear, tools are improved, new social forms are developed.

The mastery of fire, the collective hunting of large animals, adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier, the invention of the bow, the transition from an appropriating to a productive economy (cattle breeding and agriculture), the discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron) and the creation of a complex tribal organization of society - these are the most important stages that mark the path of mankind in the conditions of the primitive communal system.

The pace of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a manufacturing economy. But another feature appeared - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographical environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, ore reserves, etc. advanced faster towards civilization.

A colossal glacier (about 100 thousand years ago), which covered half of the planet and created a harsh climate that affected the flora and fauna, inevitably divides the history of primitive mankind into three different periods: pre-glacial with a warm subtropical climate, glacial and post-glacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of a person: in the pre-glacial - archeoanthropes (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, etc.), in the glacial period - paleoanthrols (Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the late Paleolithic - neoanthropes, modern people.

• Paleolithic
• Mesolithic
• Neolithic
• Eneolithic

The oldest stage in the history of mankind.

Public relations in primitive times

Primitive herd. Ancient people were forced to unite in herds in order to survive. These herds could not be large, no more than 20-40 people. The leader of the primitive herd was the leader, who advanced due to personal qualities. Ancestral community. The process of transformation of the primitive herd into a tribal community is associated with the development of tools. The collective property was the land, most of the tools. Late tribal communities united in phratries, phratries - in tribes. Phratry - ϶ᴛᴏ the original genus, divided into several subsidiaries. The clan was ruled by a council, which included all members of the tribe and an elder chosen by the clan. In case of extreme importance, a tribal council was assembled, consisting of the elders of the tribal clans and military leaders. Emergence of a neighborhood community. The Neolithic revolution dramatically accelerated the pace of development of the human community. The first major social division of labor took place - the separation of agriculture and animal husbandry into separate economic complexes. Truly revolutionary changes occurred due to the appearance of metals - first copper and gold, then bronze, and, finally, mankind learned how to smelt iron. For the manufacture of new, metal tools, artisans-blacksmiths appeared. The invention of the potter's wheel contributed to the development of pottery. With the invention of the loom, the weaving industry developed. Society, acquiring sustainable sources of livelihood, was able to carry out the second major social division of labor - the separation of crafts from agriculture and animal husbandry. All these changes led to the fact that at first large patriarchal families, consisting of several generations of paternal relatives, stand out from the clan. The introduction of iron tools led to the fact that a small family could feed itself, in connection with this, gradually a large patriarchal family breaks up into small families. Gradually, with the isolation of the economic activities of families, the tribal community was replaced by the neighboring community. The primitive neighboring community is characterized by a combination of private property (house, outbuildings, tools) and collective ownership of land. Representatives of all families have already gathered at the council and elected elders to decide the common affairs. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the neighboring community included families not only related by kinship, but also belonging to different clans, connected territorially.

Natural and social in man and the human community of the primitive era. Changes in the way of life and forms of social ties.

The history of mankind as a whole is characterized by the growing dynamics of changes taking place both in various fields social life, and in the complex of interrelations between society and nature.

Traditional for the materialistic traditions of European science was the consideration of history from the point of view of man's conquest of nature. It really acts as a source of resources for the development of civilization. At the same time, a person is in constant interaction with his environment, he himself is its product and an integral part.

Human society and natural communities

The most ancient stone tools appeared about 2.5-3 million years ago. Consequently, at that time in East Africa there were already living creatures with the rudiments of reason.

The origin of the mind is explained by the action of natural laws of evolutionary development, interspecies struggle for survival. The best chances in this struggle were those species that, to a greater extent than others, could ensure their existence in the changing conditions of the natural environment.

Live nature demonstrated an infinite variety of both dead-end and viable variants of evolution. One of them was associated with the formation of rudiments social behavior that showcase many kinds of animals. Uniting in herds (flocks), they could defend themselves and protect their cubs from stronger opponents, get more food. In the interspecific and sometimes intraspecific struggle between herds that needed similar food, those who had better developed communication, the ability to warn each other about the approach of the enemy, and better coordinate their actions on the hunt, won. Gradually, over hundreds of thousands of years, primitive sound signals expressing emotions began to acquire a more and more meaningful character among the predecessors of man.
Hosted on ref.rf
Speech was formed, inseparable from the ability to abstract, abstract thinking, which meant a complication of the structure of the brain.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the appearance and improvement of speech, abstract thinking became the most important factor in the development of the human race itself. It is no coincidence that each new step according to the stage of human evolution, it was associated, on the one hand, with the development of the brain, on the other hand, with the improvement of hunting and fishing tools.

The accumulation of knowledge and practical skills in their application has provided man with decisive advantages in the struggle for survival in comparison with other species. Armed with clubs, spears, acting together, primitive hunters could cope with any predator. The opportunities for obtaining food have expanded significantly. Thanks to warm clothes, mastering fire, acquiring the skill of preserving food (drying, smoking), people were able to settle over a vast territory, felt relative independence from the climate and the vagaries of the weather.

The accumulation of knowledge was not a constantly evolving, progressive process. Many human communities perished due to starvation, disease, attacks by hostile tribes, the knowledge they received was completely or partially lost.

Paleolithic

Approximately 1.0 million - 700 thousand years ago, a period begins, which is called the early Paleolithic (from the Greek "paleo" - "ancient" and "lithos" - "stone"). Excavations in France, near the villages of Shell and Saint-Achel, made it possible to find the remains of caves and ancient settlements, where successive generations of predecessors of modern man lived for tens of thousands of years. Subsequently, such finds were discovered in other places.

Archaeological research has made it possible to trace how the tools of labor and hunting changed. Tools made of bone and sharpened stone (points, scrapers, axes) became more and more perfect and durable. The physical type of a person changed: he more and more adapted to moving on the ground without the help of hands, the volume of the brain increased.

The most important achievement Early Paleolithic was the mastery of the ability to use fire (about 200-300 thousand years ago) to heat the home, cook food, and protect against predators.

Ends the Early Paleolithic, a period of dramatic change natural conditions the existence of primitive people. The onset of glaciers began, approximately 100 thousand years ago, covering almost the entire territory of Russia, Central and Western Europe. Many herds of primitive Neanderthal hunters could not adapt to the new conditions of existence. Between them, the struggle for diminished sources of food intensified.

By the end of the early Paleolithic (about 30-20 thousand years BC), Neanderthals completely disappeared in Eurasia and Africa. A man of the modern, Cro-Magnon type has established himself everywhere.

In the same period of time, under the influence of differences in natural conditions, the main races of people developed.

The Mesolithic era (from the Greek "mesos" - "middle" and "lithos" - "stone") covers the period from the 20th to the 9th-8th millennium BC. It is characterized by a new change in natural conditions, which are becoming more favorable: glaciers are retreating, new territories are becoming available for settlement.

During this period, the population of the Earth did not exceed 10 million people.

In the Mesolithic era, rock art was born and became widespread. In the remains of dwellings of that time, archaeologists find figurines depicting people, animals, beads and other decorations. All this indicates the onset of a new stage in the knowledge of the world. Abstract symbols and generalized concepts that arose with the development of speech acquire, as it were, an independent life in drawings and figurines. Many of them were associated with rituals, rituals of primitive magic. The large role of chance in people's lives gave rise to attempts to improve the situation in hunting, in life. So there was a belief in signs, favorable or unfavorable. Fetishism appeared - the belief that certain objects (talismans) have a special magical power. Among them were figurines of animals, stones, amulets supposedly bringing good luck to their owner. There were beliefs, for example, that a warrior who drank the blood of an enemy or ate his heart acquires special strength. Hunting, treating the sick, choosing a couple (boys or girls) were preceded by ritual actions, among which dance and singing were of particular importance. Mesolithic people knew how to make percussion, wind, stringed and plucked musical instruments.

Particular importance was attached to funeral rituals, which over time became more and more complex. In ancient burials, archaeologists find jewelry and tools that people used during their lifetime, food supplies. This proves that already at the dawn of history there were widespread beliefs in the existence of the other world, where a person lives after death.

Gradually, faith in higher powers was strengthened, which could both help and harm. They were supposed to be appeased by a sacrifice, most often a part of the booty, which had to be left in a certain place. Some tribes practiced human sacrifice.

It was believed that some people have great ability to communicate with higher powers, spirits. Gradually, along with the leaders (they usually became the strongest, most successful, experienced hunters), priests (shamans, sorcerers) began to play a prominent role in the life of primitive tribes. Οʜᴎ usually knew the healing properties of herbs, had some hypnotic abilities and had a great influence on their fellow tribesmen.

The time of the completion of the Mesolithic and the transition to a new stage in the development of mankind can only be determined approximately. Many tribes of the equatorial zone in Africa, South America, on the islands South-East Asia and pool Pacific Ocean, among the natives of Australia, some peoples of the North, the type of economic activity and culture has practically not changed since the Mesolithic. At the same time, in the IX-VIII millennia BC. in some parts of the world, the transition to agriculture and pastoralism begins. This time of the Neolithic revolution (from the Greek "neos" - "new" and "lithos" - "stone") marks the transition from appropriating to producing type of economic activity.

Human and nature

Man around the X millennium BC. has established itself on all continents as the dominant species and in this capacity has ideally adapted to the conditions of its habitat. At the same time, further improvement of hunting tools led to the extermination of many species of animals, the reduction of their livestock, which undermined the foundations of the existence of primitive people. Famine and related diseases, the intensification of the struggle between the tribes for the increasingly poor hunting territories, the reduction in the human population - such was the price of progress.

This first ever crisis in the development of civilization was resolved in two ways:

The tribes living in the harsh climate of the North, desert areas, jungles seemed to freeze in their development and in the knowledge of the world around them. Gradually, a system of prohibitions (taboos) developed, limiting hunting and food consumption. This prevented population growth, hindered the change in lifestyle and the development of knowledge.

In other cases, there was a breakthrough to a qualitatively new level of development. People moved to a conscious impact on the natural environment, to its transformation. The development of agriculture and cattle breeding took place only in favorable natural conditions.

After a successful hunt, live wolf cubs, lambs, kids, calves, wild boars, foals, and deer often ended up in the camps. Initially, they were considered as a food supply, then it became clear that they could live in captivity and give birth. Breeding animals turned out to be much more productive than hunting their wild relatives. It took thousands of years for individual attempts at domestication to lead to the establishment of a new type of economy. During this time, new breeds of domesticated animals arose, most of which, unlike their wild ancestors, could no longer survive in natural environment needed a human to protect them from predators.

The transition to agriculture took place in a similar way. The gathering of edible plants has always played an important role in the life of primitive man. Over time, from observations and experience, the understanding came that plant seeds can be sown near the settlement and, with appropriate care, watering, weeding, get good yields.

Agricultural and pastoral crops

The first agricultural cultures of the 7th-4th millennia BC arose near large rivers, where the mild climate and exceptional soil fertility made it possible to obtain good harvests - on the territory of modern Egypt, Iran, Iraq, India, Central Asia, China, Mexico, Peru.

During this period, the life of people has undergone very significant changes.

For most of the primitive communal era, the existence of people was subordinated to the interests of the struggle for survival. All the time was spent looking for food. At the same time, a person who accidentally strayed from his tribe or expelled from it had no chance of surviving.

The only form of division of labor existed between men, who were mainly engaged in hunting, and women, who remained in the camp and looked after the children, who ran the household, sewing, and cooking.

Over time, the structure of social relations began to become more complex. Thanks to the increased productivity of labor, it became possible to produce more products than was essential for the survival of the tribe. This made it possible to expand the diet, make consumption more diverse. Stable economic ties gradually developed between neighboring settlements. The division of labor deepened. On the one hand, agriculture separated from cattle breeding, on the other hand, handicraft work acquired independent significance (weaving and pottery developed, boats and the first wheeled carts appeared, driven by horses, oxen and donkeys). There was also a division of labor. For example, in some settlements, artisans specialized in weapons, in others - in weaving, in others - in the manufacture of dishes, etc. There was an exchange in kind between the tribes. But with its expansion, there was a need for the existence of a single equivalent of the value of goods, in other words, in money.

The emergence of excess production became the basis not only for the development of trade, but also for the emergence of property inequality. Gradually, the leaders, sorcerers (priests), the most skilled artisans began to accumulate property and valuables. Experienced artisans and healers, whose work was especially highly valued by their fellow tribesmen, began to hide the secrets of their craftsmanship.

Transition from matriarchy to patriarchy

The appearance of property, property, knowledge, labor and professional skills, which were inherited, was closely associated with changes way of life people of the Neolithic era, with the emergence of such a cell of the organization of society as a family.

The most important role in the formation of the family was played by the transition from matriarchy to patriarchy.

In a period when the main source of food was hunting, the century of men turned out, as a rule, to be short. Only the most successful and skillful of them lived to be 25-30 years old.

In these conditions important role women played in the preservation of the family. It was they who gave birth to new generations of hunters (the degree of kinship was determined by the mother), raised children, kept the hearth, organized the life of the tribe, whose members were related by blood ties. This system was called matriarchy.

The work of a farmer, cattle breeder, craftsman did not involve such a risk to life as hunting. Mortality among men decreased, the number of men and women equalized. This played a big role in changing the nature of family relationships.

Fields and cattle pens were usually located near the settlement, and men now worked together with women, doing the most difficult, hard work. The acquired skills and knowledge they passed on to children. This determined the increasing role of men in the tribe. In many nations, it gradually became dominant.

The emerging traditions, customs, and rituals also consolidated the norms of patriarchy͵ ᴛ.ᴇ. special role of men in society.

Neolithic people usually lived in large families (several dozen people), which included blood relatives. Men and women belonging to the same clan could not marry each other. The timing of this prohibition, which avoided the genetic degeneration observed by most tribes, is unknown, but it arose quite a long time ago.

Grown up girls were given in marriage to other clans, and men took wives from them. In other words, women passed from generation to generation, men remained in their family, and it was they who became its permanent core. The degree of relationship was now taken into account in the male line. In some tribes, women were seen as a kind of commodity that one family sold to another.

With such a system of kinship ties, the property created or acquired by the family remained in it. The concept of ownership has emerged. Craftsmen, healers also sought to pass on their knowledge to their family members.

Several clans living in the neighborhood, whose members married each other, constituted a tribe. The head of the tribe was the leader.

Transition to the Eneolithic

With the growth of the population, individual clans settled in undeveloped or conquered territories, and over time, new tribes formed. Related tribes speaking the same language, having similar beliefs, usually maintained close ties with each other. Together they formed alliances of tribes, supporting each other in case of conflicts, in lean years.

Tribes that moved far away from their original territory (those who specialized in cattle breeding were especially inclined to resettle) often lost ties with the center of their origin. Their language developed, words borrowed from new neighbors appeared in it, associated with changing forms of economic activity.

At the same time, a new stage began in the development of agricultural and pastoral tribes: they moved on to the development of metals. In search of new materials for the manufacture of tools, artisans found nuggets of low-melting metals (copper, tin, lead, etc.) and eventually learned to make weapons, tools and jewelry from them. Metals were better and faster to process than stone, they could be used to make more productive tools, better weapons, and armor.

There were still few available reserves of metal, their processing was only the first steps, in connection with this, stone tools were used for a long time. Nevertheless, the time that began with the development of metal (the first metal tools date back to the 7th millennium BC, but they are widely distributed only in the 4th-3rd millennium BC) is called the Eneolithic (copper-stone century). It was marked by the onset of a new stage in the history of mankind, associated with the emergence of the first states.

The oldest stage in the history of mankind. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The oldest stage in the history of mankind." 2017, 2018.

I. Introduction. Historical knowledge, its reliability and sources. Textbook, pp Why study history? - a witness to the past, a lesson for the present, a warning for the future. Credibility problem – it is impossible to reveal the whole truth about an event; Historical sources - p. 6. Conclusion: in order to answer a historical question, the historian relies on the facts stated in the source and evaluates them. On historical development societies and states influence FACTORS OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT: natural and climatic; ethnic - proximity of languages ​​and cultures of ethnic groups; economic - advanced or backward economy; cultural and political - political and state independence, choice of religion

II. The history of Russia is the meaning of learning. Under the influence of the above factors: natural and climatic, geopolitical, religious, a specific social organization has developed in Russia. Its main elements are as follows: 1. The primary economic and social unit is a corporation (community, artel, partnership, collective farm, cooperative, etc.), and not a privately owned entity, as in the West; 2. the state is not a superstructure over civil society, as in Western countries, but the basis and part of civil society; 3. statehood is either rigid or ineffective (“distemper”); 4. the state, society, personality are not divided, not autonomous, as in the West, but are mutually permeable, integral, conciliar; 5. statehood is based on the corporation of the service nobility (team, nobility, nomenklatura, etc.). This social organization was extremely stable and, changing its forms, and not its essence, was recreated after each shock in Russian history, ensuring the viability of Russian society, the internal unity of its historical existence.

Periodization of history is a conditional division of the historical process into certain chronological periods, which have features depending on the chosen basis (criterion) of periodization. 1. Formational approach - Socio-economic formation - p. 8 Formation production method: 5 III. Periodization of world history. (pp. 8-12) 2. Civilization approach - p. 9 Civilization is a stage of the world historical process associated with the achievement a certain level Development Society of Civilizations - 3 Conclusion: p. 11 - do not oppose each other, but complement - HOW? The problem of periodization of history: History of Europe - formations History of Asia, Africa, America - civilizations

4. The oldest stage in the history of mankind. – page Anthropogenesis (from anthropo... and Greek génesis origin), the process of origin and historical evolutionary formation physical type a person, the initial development of his labor activity, speech, as well as society. - the science about it - anthropologyanthropo... Man - natural and social 1. THEORIES: 1) Ch. Darwin - F. Engels - (XIX century) - "LABOR" - based on natural selection 2) GENETIC - denies 3) Two branches: AUSTRALOPITE E K (common ancestor of apes and humans) and SKILLED MAN - modern theory (p. 15)

2. HABITAT: - Consequences for human global climate change- ice age: joint hunting - the emergence of tribal communities (blood relatives, common ancestor, common property, led by elders) - unification of communities into tribes improvement of tools of labor: the first division of labor by sex and age - Melting of the glacier - changing hunting methods - ecological crisis - the search for new ways of existence: artificial breeding of plants and raising animals the second division of labor - according to the ability to do something better than others: cattle breeding, agriculture, handicrafts In addition to the production of tools, the material culture of ancient mankind is closely connected with the creation of dwellings. Conclusion: the transition from an appropriating to a producing economy is the Neolithic revolution

1 stage in the development of mankind, the primitive communal system - from the moment of the separation of man from the animal kingdom (about 35 million years ago) until the formation of class societies in various regions of the planet (approximately in the 4th millennium BC): Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the III millennium BC), the Bronze Age (from the end of the IV to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC), the Iron Age (from the 1st millennium BC). five stages in accordance with the degree of development of tools, the materials from which they were made, the quality of housing, the appropriate organization of housekeeping: Stage I - the prehistory of the economy and material culture: from the emergence of mankind to about 1 million years ago. This is a time when the adaptation of people to the environment was not much different from obtaining a livelihood by animals. Many scientists believe that East Africa is the ancestral home of man. It is here that bones of the first people who lived more than 2 million years ago are found during excavations. OR SO

Stage II - primitive appropriating economy - I million years ago - XI millennium BC, i.e. covers a significant part of the Stone Age - the early and middle Paleolithic. Stage III - a developed appropriating economy. It is difficult to determine its chronological framework, since in a number of areas this period ended in the 20th millennium BC. (subtropics of Europe and Africa), in others (tropics) - continues to the present. Covers the Late Paleolithic, the Mesolithic, and in some areas the entire Neolithic. Stage IV - the emergence of a manufacturing economy. In the most economically developed regions of the earth - IX-VIII thousand BC. (Late Mesolithic - Early Neolithic). Stage V - the era of the productive economy. - VIII-V millennium BC.