Theoretical and methodological foundations of modern education

Methodological basis for development modern education is a systematic, integrated approach that determines the solution of this problem in the close unity of the philosophical, sociological, psychological and pedagogical sciences. The possibility of its application to pedagogical objects is based on the important quality of objective reality. An integrated approach allows us to consider various natural and social objects from a certain general point of view. The need for an integrated approach to solving theoretical and practical problems is dictated by life itself and, above all, a high degree integration of social processes, where “everything is connected with everything”, when the solution of one problem depends on the solution of many others, when the problems themselves acquire a systemic, complex character.

In pedagogy, the possibility of applying an integrated approach, as well as modeling, can be considered scientifically proven not only in the study of pedagogical problems, but also in the organization of the process of education and upbringing, which is a special kind of system - a socio-pedagogical system.

With a systematic, integrated approach, learning is seen as a dual activity of a teacher and a student, and the subject of study is the interaction between the teacher and the student.

A complex set of relationships and connections between the teacher and the student is mediated through a system of means, methods and organizational forms of education. In other words, the learning process is a complex of interrelated components united by a common goal of functioning and unity of management. The effectiveness of learning is possible only on the basis of interaction between the teacher and the student. This interaction is indirectly expressed in structural organization learning process.

The development of the existing system of the educational process as an aggregate whole consists in subordinating all elements of this process to common goals or creating the missing ones.

The concept of the educational process. In the theory and practice of education, we often talk about the educational process, which implies two pedagogical components: study and education. In reality, education is more diverse and also includes the development of students, their interaction with the teacher, with each other and with the outside world, creative activity, conditions for organizing learning, regulatory norms, social factors, etc. Therefore, the concept of “educational process".

Educational process - pedagogically justified, consistent, continuous change in the states of subjects of education in a specially organized environment in order to achieve educational results.

Educational results are understood as external and internal products of the activity of participants in the educational process (students, teachers, administrators, parents, etc.). External educational products can be expressed in the form of essays, solved problems, creative works, products of collective labor. Internal - these are personal increments of knowledge, skills, learned methods of action, developed abilities. Educational results are aimed at the personal growth of students in order to ensure their effective life in society.

In the pedagogical literature and teaching practice, there are the concepts of "educational process", "learning process", "formation process", "development process", "pedagogical process", etc. All of them, as a rule, are associated with the concept of the educational process, or are a reflection of its separate sides.

The target component of the educational process is based on the chosen model of education and includes a variety of goals and objectives related to the subjects of education: students, teachers, parents, school, region, state, society, humanity.

The organizational component of the educational process includes a management system to achieve the set and emerging goals; in conjunction with the technological component ensures the achievement, diagnosis and evaluation of the intended results.

Methodological model of the educational process. The needs and interests of an individual student may not coincide with the interests of society, and at the same time, remain culturally consistent. Therefore, the model of the educational process at school should be formed on the basis of a combination of variable and multi-level content of education, reproductive and creative teaching methods, and various types of activities in which schoolchildren are involved.

Issues related to the direction of education, its backbone and activity bases are considered in the methodology of education. In pedagogy, methodology is defined as “the doctrine of the principles, methods, forms and procedures for cognition and transformation of pedagogical reality”*. In a broader sense, methodology is understood as a set of scientific methods of cognition in a particular science, or the doctrine of scientific method at all.

* Zhuravlev V.I. The concept of "methodology" of pedagogical science // Pedagogy / Ed. P. I. Pidkasistogo. - M., 1995, p. 33.

The methodology of education is understood as a system of principles, forms, methods and means of educational activity, as well as the doctrine (theory) about this system.

There is an interconnected hierarchy of methodologies: the methodology of science, the methodology of pedagogy, the methodology of didactics, the methodology of education, the methodology of the educational process, the methodology of educational activities, the methodology of the content of education, etc.

The leading component of education is the educational process, the main component of which, in turn, is educational activity.

The methodological image of the educational process is concentrated in education models. Different educational models can be based on different understandings of the essence of the educational process. Depending on the conceptual meaning of education, an appropriate educational process is designed and built. For example, education can be understood as:

¨ transmission by previous generations to subsequent socially significant experience;

¨ the process of progressive personality changes;

¨ organized interaction of the student with the outside world and with himself.

Let us consider a model of education based on the philosophical premises of the domestic theory of learning, which is based on the idea of ​​the student's interaction with the outside world and himself (the concept of moving into the world).

Modern society faces an increasing number of unresolved problems, therefore it directly and indirectly encourages its institutions to look for ways to solve them through the disclosure of reserves of creative human potential. Under these conditions, an educational model is needed that is focused not so much on retransmitting the past as on constructing a progressive future, on the natural and cultural development of all spheres of human activity. Such a model implies a change in the doctrine of "education as teaching" to the doctrine of "education as creation", which determines the direction of changes in the methodology of modern education.

The philosophical basis of such a model of education is the idea of ​​human entry into the external world through activities that ensure the creation of products that are adequate to the cognizable spheres of the external world. The development of external educational areas is accompanied by the development of the inner world of the subject of education. The student's knowledge of the external world is accompanied by his self-knowledge, which occurs on the basis of reflection of his educational activity.

The creative self-realization of the student as the most important task of education is revealed in three interrelated goals: the creation by the student of educational products in the studied educational areas; mastering the basic content of these areas through comparison with their own results; building an individual educational trajectory in each of the educational areas based on their personal qualities.

Primary in the educational process of this type is the student's knowledge of reality. After receiving the relevant knowledge and experience, the student studies the achievements of mankind in this reality. The activity leading to the creation of educational products reveals and develops the student's abilities, the originality of which contributes to building his individual educational trajectory.

The construction of personal paths and models of education of students in a single general educational process is one of the goals of education. The main goal is to educate people who are capable of creating not only personally, but also socially significant products of activity, able to find productive solutions to multilevel problems that arise in a continuously changing world.

Student image. The primary element of the methodology and theory of learning is the image of the student. It is the image of the student in the dynamics of his development that is the target factor in building the system of his education on the basis of the corresponding didactic or pedagogical theory.

The image of a student as a model of anticipated learning outcomes is a planned result of the student's interaction with the surrounding educational environment.

Cognizing reality, the student performs the following activities: 1) knowledge (development) of objects of the surrounding world and existing knowledge about it; 2) the creation by the student of a personal product of education as the equivalent of his own educational increment; 3) self-organization of previous activities - knowledge and creation.

If we determine the minimum set of student's personal qualities that correspond to his anticipated image, then this will allow us to purposefully design educational programs, choose the best pedagogical technologies, and select the educational material that will help organize the creation of educational products by children.

When students carry out these types of educational activities, the corresponding personality traits, from which the anticipated image of the student is formed:

1) cognitive (cognitive) qualities - the ability to feel the world around us, ask questions, find the causes of phenomena, indicate one's understanding or misunderstanding of the issue, etc .;

2) creative (creative) qualities - inspiration, fantasy, mental flexibility, sensitivity to contradictions; looseness of thoughts and feelings, movements; predictability; having an opinion, etc.;

3) methodological (organizational) qualities - the ability to realize goals learning activities and the ability to explain them; the ability to set a goal and organize its achievement; ability to rulemaking; reflective thinking; communication skills, etc.

Cognitive qualities of the student necessary for him in the process of cognition of the surrounding reality (objects of the external world), distributed in accordance with general educational areas and training courses:

¨ physical and physiological qualities: the ability to see, hear, touch, feel the object under study with the help of smell, taste; developed working capacity, energy;

¨ intellectual qualities: curiosity, erudition, thoughtfulness, ingenuity, logic, "intelligence quotient", meaningfulness, validity, ability to analyze and synthesize, ability to find analogies, use various forms of evidence, inquisitiveness, insight, search for problems, propensity to experiment, ability ask questions, see contradictions, formulate problems and hypotheses, carry out theoretical and experimental studies, own ways to solve various problems, draw conclusions and generalizations;

¨ possession of cultural norms and traditions lived in one's own activity; the ability to argue their knowledge and results; the ability to self-determine in situations of choice, enthusiasm, efficiency of actions;

¨ the ability to indicate your understanding or misunderstanding on any issues that arise; the ability to understand and evaluate a different point of view, to enter into a meaningful dialogue or dispute;

¨ structural and system vision of the studied areas in their spatial and temporal hierarchy; finding connections between objects, their causes, problems associated with them; possession of a general approach to clarifying the essence of any objects and phenomena (nature, culture, politics, etc.), a multi-scientific vision;

¨ the choice of fundamental objects among the secondary ones, the search for subordinate links between them; in[i]nduction of the hierarchy, new functions and relationships of known objects; the ability to find the causes of the origin of the object, the ability to find the meaning of the object, its source; distinction between facts and non-facts about an object;

¨ the presence of a personal understanding of the meaning of each of the studied subjects; possession of basic knowledge, skills and abilities; orientation in the fundamental problems of the studied sciences, non-standard thinking;

¨ the ability to compare cultural and historical analogues with their educational products and the results of classmates, isolate their similarities and differences, redefine or refine their own educational results;

¨ the ability to find the causes of the origin of a cultural and historical object or phenomenon, the ability to determine its structure and structure, find links with related ideal objects, build a system of ideal objects, build their hierarchy based on the formulated principles and criteria; the ability to find systems of connections between a cultural and historical phenomenon and corresponding real objects;

¨ the ability to translate the acquired knowledge into spiritual and material forms, to build on their basis their subsequent activities.

Creative qualities of a student provide the conditions for creating a creative product in the general educational process:

¨ emotional-figurative qualities: inspiration, spirituality, emotional upsurge in creative situations; imagery, associativity, contemplation, imagination, fantasy, daydreaming, romanticism, a sense of novelty, unusual, sensitivity to contradictions, a tendency to creative doubt, the ability to experience internal struggle, the ability to empathize, sign-making, symbol-making;

¨ initiative, ingenuity, ingenuity, readiness to invent; originality, eccentricity, originality, originality, assertiveness;

¨ the ability to generate ideas, produce them both individually and in communication with people, text, other objects of knowledge;

¨ the possession of looseness of thoughts, feelings and movements, combined With the ability to withstand the norms of behavior that are set at school, in the family, in a different social environment;

¨ insight, the ability to see the familiar in the unfamiliar and vice versa; overcoming stereotypes, the ability to enter a different plane or space when solving a problem;

¨ the ability to conduct a dialogue with the object being studied, to choose methods of cognition that are adequate to the object; the ability to determine the structure and structure, to find the functions and relationships of an object with related objects; forecasting changes in the object, the dynamics of its growth or development; creation of new methods of cognition depending on the properties of the object;

¨ predictability, predictability, formulation of hypotheses, construction of versions, patterns, formulas, theories;

¨ possession of non-traditional heuristic procedures: intuition, insight, meditation;

¨ independence, propensity to take risks; the presence of personal results of education that differ from educational standards in depth, topics, opinions that differ from the generally accepted;

¨ experience in realizing their most creative abilities in the form of performing and defending creative works, participating in competitions, olympiads, etc.

Organizational (methodological) qualities of a student are manifested in the organization of the educational activity of the student in its two previous manifestations in cognition and creativity:

¨ the student's knowledge of his individual activity characteristics, character traits, optimal pace and forms of classes in each of the academic subjects and educational areas;

¨ awareness and ability to explain the goals of their studies in certain academic subjects, a clear understanding of how he realizes himself in them;

¨ goal setting (the ability to set goals), the presence of a worthy goal, a program to achieve it, perseverance in bringing things to the end, loyalty to the goal; purposefulness (focus on achieving the goal), sustainability in achieving goals;

¨ the ability to set a learning goal in a given field of knowledge or activity, draw up a plan to achieve it; fulfill the planned plan based on their individual characteristics and existing conditions, get and realize their result, compare it with similar results of classmates;

¨ the ability of rule-making, expressed in the ability to formulate the rules of activity, the system of its laws, to predict the results; semantic vision of the studied processes;

¨ self-organization skills: activity planning, action programming, correction of stages and methods of activity, flexibility and variability of actions, orderliness of activities, feasibility of plans; combinatorial approaches to activities, simultaneous retention in the minds of different alternatives;

¨ introspection, introspection and self-esteem; possession of the methods of reflective thinking - stopping, recalling activities, analyzing its stages, isolating the methods used, searching for contradictions, "removing" the structure of the performed activity; the ability to identify the meaning of the activity, build further plans, compare the results obtained with the goals set, adjust further activities;

¨ the ability to interact with other subjects of education and with the outside world; the ability to defend one's ideas, endure the non-recognition of others, "take a hit"; autonomy, independence, aspiration, determination, communication;

¨ the ability to organize the creativity of others (organizational and pedagogical qualities); joint knowledge and generation of ideas with other students; the ability to organize "brainstorming", to participate in it; comparison and comparison of ideas, dispute, discussion.

The listed groups of students' qualities are open for expansion and clarification. At the same time, these groups represent the minimum comprehensive set of guidelines to ensure a comprehensive educational process. So, for example, an orientation towards the development of only creative qualities will complicate the general educational movement of the student, since without a formed organizational basis, his creativity will remain spontaneous and unformed.

The student's personal qualities are used to formulate the goals of the educational process at its various stages in relation to the courses and individual topics being studied. And the formulated goals can be expressed with the help of specific tasks. For example, the goal of developing the ability to indicate their understanding or lack of understanding on any issues that arise may form the basis of such an assignment for students. elementary school: “Look carefully at the pebble lying on the desk of each of you and write down: 1) what you saw and understood in it; 2) What questions do you have?

The primacy of knowledge of reality. In scientific knowledge, the whole diversity of being is represented, as a rule, by the real world - the world of material objects, and the ideal world - the world of ideas (knowledge). The relationship between the real and the ideal world is manifested in the activity of a person who knows them. For example, a plant related to the real world and the idea of ​​a plant are two different objects for a biologist, nevertheless having a common meaning, which is known to a scientist in the course of his professional activity.

In traditional school education, as objects of knowledge (study), the "knowledge" ideal world prevails - the world of generally accepted ideas, scientific concepts, patterns, theories. The work of students with objects of the real world is insignificant in volume and content, the study of leading educational areas consists, as a rule, in the assimilation of a vast amount of knowledge. In curricula, manuals, and even more so in the direct practice of traditional education, the world of real objects is often replaced by the study of the corresponding concepts and other finished products of knowledge obtained not by students, but by specialists, scientists or authors. educational material. This happens not because of the difficulties of the practical study of real objects or because of the lack of study time for their consideration, but because of the traditional need to maintain a common, if possible unified, structure of the content of educational material, the convenience of its transfer to students and control over assimilation. The pedagogically processed material offered to students for study acts in this case as adapted information about the knowledge of other people - specialists in various fields: scientists, writers, engineers, etc. The study by students of information about other people's knowledge practically leaves them no room to create their own knowledge about the real world.

Thus, in the traditional school education there is no building by students of a personal world of knowledge, which prevents them not only from building individual educational trajectories, but also from creative self-realization in general.

This problem can be solved by changing the methodology of teaching, namely, by using the initial task for students as educational objects of real, not ideal objects of knowledge, as well as by teaching ways of knowing real objects and constructing the acquired knowledge. Studying the object of the real world, the student seeks and creates knowledge about it, that is, he discovers ideal theoretical constructs - facts, concepts, patterns. Realizing the knowledge created by them and the methods of cognition used, the student fixes them in the form of a personal educational product, which then allows them to be used for subsequent knowledge of the real world. The educational activity of the student acts as a link between the ideal and real world - equal attributes of a harmonious person.

Each student, having the opportunity to obtain, discover or construct his own knowledge about a real object, inevitably manifests and develops his personal cognitive abilities. When studying the same real educational objects for all students, students construct subjective images of these objects that do not always coincide with each other and with the generally accepted system of knowledge. Different educational products of cognition of the same object testify not to their fallacy, but to different educational positions and trajectories of students. The subjectivity of cognition means that each student penetrates into the depths of his world, expands the corresponding sphere of his personal potential.

The student, learning real fundamental educational objects, receives a personal educational product, which is then compared with the products of mankind in this field of knowledge - cultural and historical analogues. Only then is the student enriched with "the knowledge of all riches", and the student's result can be included as an element in the general system of knowledge, that is, in the student's general educational product. The teacher organizes various student activities for personal cognition of reality, for comparing a personal educational product with cultural and historical analogues, a student's reflective activity, which he also performs at all stages of learning.

The primacy of the knowledge of reality by the student is ensured by: firstly, the creation by the student of his own educational product, which characterizes the level of his personal educational increment, which has an internal activity source; secondly, the individual educational trajectory of the student, which consists of his educational products, compared with the cultural and historical layer of human knowledge and included in it; thirdly, the realization of the personal educational potential of the student through the identification and development of his individual abilities, which ensured the creation of a personal educational product.

Subjective learning outcomes. Each student, having the opportunity to obtain, discover or construct his own knowledge about the real object being studied, inevitably manifests and develops his personal cognitive abilities. When studying the same educational objects for all students, students construct subjective images of these objects that do not always coincide with each other and with the generally accepted system of knowledge. For example, learning the sunflower - a real educational object, one student formulates the idea of ​​a sunflower as a symbol of the Sun, another - as a source of seeds of new plants, the third - as food for people or animals. Different educational products of cognition of the same object testify not to their fallacy, but to different educational positions and trajectories of students. The subjectivity of cognition means that each student penetrates into the depths of his ideal world, expands the corresponding individual sphere of his personal potential.

Among the many educational objects, there are fundamental ones that have two facets of their manifestation for the subject of his knowledge - real and ideal. Such a fundamental educational object as a tree acts, on the one hand, as the tree itself, that is, a real object, on the other hand, as the idea of ​​a tree, the concept of it. The idea of ​​an object belongs to the ideal world of concepts, it is more universal than a real object, since it is inherent in different objects from different areas. Two real birches have a common idea of ​​a birch, a birch and a pine have a common idea of ​​a tree, a tree and an algae have a common idea of ​​a plant, natural and cultural processes have a common idea of ​​movement, etc. The process of cognition of a fundamental educational object and the results of its cognition (the internal content of education) depend on the individuality of the subject of cognition, his abilities, level of development, applied methods of cognition. This feature is illustrated by the diagram shown in Fig. 1.2. Cognition of the same fundamental object by different subjects С 1 , С 2 ,... С n leads to different ideas of this object revealed by them, which lie in the plane of knowledge. If a fundamental educational object belongs to the real world, then the individual educational products of its cognition P 1 , P 2 ,... P n , belong to the ideal world of knowledge. Ultimately, the study by students of the same real educational objects leads not only to obtaining different individual educational products, but also to individual educational trajectories of students.

Rice. 1.2. Model of subjective cognition of a real educational object

A feature of educational products P 1 , P 2 , ... P n is that they can be true even if they are clearly different from each other. It is unacceptable to say that P 1 is correct, and P 2 is wrong, or vice versa, since in this case it is illegal to transfer the subjective result to the objective (general) level. Error is always subjective and relative, objective errors do not exist, therefore the truth of subjective educational products P 1 , P 2 ,... can only be established within the corresponding knowledge systems, individual for each case. Only the internal logic of these systems can give an answer about the truth or falsity of their individual elements.

The foregoing does not negate the need for a critical discussion of the educational products of students and their testing "for strength". Discussion, dispute or defense by students of their educational products is the basis for the development and cultivation of personal knowledge systems of students, obtained by completing the construction of the initially received educational products to a holistic systemic form.

As a rule, there are less built knowledge systems than student products. As a result of discussion, generalization and classification, some educational products belonging to different students turn out to be elements of one "knowledge" system.

The subjectivity of the results obtained by students serves as a prerequisite for building their individual educational trajectories. The similarities and differences in the subjective educational products of students are natural and necessary, on the one hand, for the self-realization of the individual potential of each student, on the other hand, for subsequent comparative analysis and collective work to identify the originality of the cognitive methods used by students and classify collectively obtained results.

Comparison of educational products P 1, P 2 ... prepares students for the subsequent perception of the relevant cultural and historical analogues(P kia) - generally recognized products of knowledge obtained by scientists and specialists in the study of the same fundamental objects that students studied. Note that the concept of a cultural-historical analogue is broader than the concept of a scientific analogue, since it includes, in addition to scientific, other results of knowledge - artistic, social, religious, handicraft, etc.

It is necessary to talk with students about the diversity of cultural and historical products of cognition of the same objects in the same way as about the diversity of student educational products. In science, art, religion and other spheres of human activity, there is no single knowledge and interpretation about the same real objects and related problems. In traditional curricula, “correct” knowledge is often given as truth, which, on closer examination, turns out to be nothing more than one of the versions or theories on this issue. No science can develop without contradictions and different approaches, theories and ideas about the cognizable, created and transformed reality. In parallel with the materialistic approach, an idealistic one develops, with a logical one - a figurative one, with a practical one - a theoretical one. For example, along with the biblical description of the origin of the world, there are numerous cosmological hypotheses and theories; Simultaneously with Newton's color theory, there is Goethe's color theory. It is also necessary to take into account the limits of applicability of various cultural analogues, reflecting the absoluteness and relativity of knowledge, the principles of correspondence and complementarity in science.

The very education of children is a kind of analogue, a prototype of "adult" professional activity, therefore it includes the main types of human activity and the variety of their results. Pupils, creating individual educational products of cognition of the same objects, model at the level of their development and education similar processes of “big” science or another sphere of adult activity. Such a process is a transition to the acquaintance and comparative assimilation by students of the cultural diversity of universal human products of labor, since children master the “real” methods of activity, which should have not so much an educational and training role as a really effective one in their life.

The assessment of the student's educational results is based on the identification and diagnosis of his internal increment over a certain period of time, which can be determined explicitly, for example, using psychological or other methods, or indirectly through the diagnosis of changes in the student's external educational output. In this case, each of the students is provided with the possibility of an individual educational trajectory for mastering each of the general educational areas with the indispensable comparison of their results with universal human achievements.

Educational activities. In traditional didactics, the learning process is presented as the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities of students. This is explained by the fact that these qualities are easily controlled by outwardly expressed learning attributes - tests, control work, verbal responses. However, a more adequate idea of ​​the educational process should be considered as an interpretation of it as a process of mastering various types of activities by students. Activity is a broader concept, since, in addition to knowledge, skills and abilities, it involves motivational, evaluation and other aspects of learning.

The activity approach constitutes the initial methodological setting of the theory of learning. Various aspects of this approach have been developed in the studies of psychologists and educators L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, S. A. Rubinshtein, V. V. Davydov, V. D. Shadrikov, P. I. Pidkasistoy, G. P. Shchedrovitsky, G.I. Shchukina, T.I. Shamova, N.F. Talyzina and others. The following provisions follow from these studies:

¨ in activity not only the abilities of the trainees are manifested, but in it they are created;

¨ when organizing a certain type of educational activity of students, the abilities and qualities of the individual corresponding to this type are formed.

The activity approach requires a certain form of organization, special content, various ways of working and their sequence, a specially trained teacher, teaching aids. At the same time, three main objects are distinguished: the activity of trainees; activities of educators; interaction between the activities of the student and the teacher.

The content and structure of activities are not unambiguously understood. In the scientific community, there are at least two approaches to the analysis of activity: psychological And methodological. The psychological approach is based on the works of the scientific school of A. N. Leontiev and those close to it. psychological schools. In psychological theory, activity is reduced to the activity of an individual, treated as its attribute, that is, it is believed that the subject performs the activity. From this point of view, education is a system of successive activities. Activity, according to A. N. Leontiev, is a unit of life mediated by mental reflection, the real function of which is that it orients the subject in the objective world*.

* Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M.: Politizdat, 1975. - S. 82.

Activity in this case is a motivated process of using certain means by the student to achieve his own or externally set goal. That is, the subject, process, subject, conditions, methods, results of activity are distinguished.

The activity is broken down into separate actions. The process of activity begins with setting a goal, followed by clarification of tasks, development of a plan, settings, schemes for upcoming actions, after which the student proceeds to substantive actions, uses certain means and techniques, performs the necessary procedures, compares the progress and intermediate results with the goal, makes adjustments in their subsequent activities.

Within the framework of another approach - methodological (G. P. Shchedrovitsky), the origins of which are based on the ideas of Hegel and Marx, the carrier of activity is no longer a separate individual; on the contrary, activity is a substance in itself, which captures individuals and thereby reproduces itself. Such an understanding of activity on the example of language was formulated by the German philosopher and linguist W. Humboldt. It is generally accepted, he said, that a person masters the language; but perhaps it would be more correct to say: language takes possession of a person, language captures a person and makes him move according to his own laws.

Attempts to determine in this case the carrier of activity and its minimum unit lead to a problem: during the search, one always has to go beyond the activities of one person or even interconnected groups of people and mechanisms. “If you take the human social organism, then it is already incomprehensible whether the society is made up of individual people or whether it “manufactures” individual people from the very beginning as elements of its system.<...>It turns out that only one unit "exists" - the entire universe of human activity.

* Shchedrovitsky G.P. Philosophy. The science. Methodology. – M.: Shk. cult, politics. - 1997. - S. 253-254.

Carrying out a system-structural analysis of activity, G. P. Shchedrovitsky comes to a paradoxical conclusion: “a person is a cell within a developing system of activity.” And activity itself is neither a process nor a thing, but is structure. This structure consists of heterogeneous elements included in its own special law of development, implemented with the help of specific mechanisms. The patterns of activity can only be understood when we take this structure as a whole*.

* Ibid, p. 262.

Thus, differences in the interpretation of activity are associated with the concept of a person, his functions and role in relation to activity.

This contradiction becomes especially relevant if we move from general concept activities to the concept of educational activities. Education itself in this case can refer to two different and interrelated entities - an individual student and a set of people, for example, all of humanity. The problem of consideration is the relationship and the relationship between the education of an individual student and the education of all people or some of their community.

External and internal content of the activity. To resolve the above contradiction between the two interpretations of the concept of activity, let us turn to the principle of the dialectical triad and relate it to the educational process. An analysis of the educational process, in which a particular individual (student) and the world around him participates, leads to the conclusion that the content of education must be divided into two similar components: internal and external.

The content of education external to the student is characterized by the educational environment that is offered to him to ensure the conditions for the development of the personality. The internal content of a student's education is an attribute of the developing personality itself. The internal content of a student's education is never a simple reflection of the external, since it is created on the basis of the student's personal experience as a result of his activity. Mastering the external content of education should be combined with the organization of the student's activities in the formation of his internal educational content.

The external content of education is concentrated in the concept "educational area" which also has two components - reality (the subject of study of sciences and related training courses) and knowledge about it (results scientific activity for the study of reality). The external educational domain thus has two interrelated components: the real world and the curricula.

personal understanding educational field leads to an understanding of how educational environment. As a result of interaction with the educational environment, the student acquires experience that he transforms into knowledge. The difference between the student's personal knowledge and external knowledge is the methods of activity he has mastered, understanding the meaning of the environment being studied, self-determination in relation to it, and the student's reflexively fixed personal increment.

In the described interaction of the student with the world, both approaches to activity considered above are integrated. The first of them (psychological) individualizes the educational process, building it on the basis of the student's personal qualities and characteristics. The second (methodological) one includes the student's individuality in the process of general cultural activity, imprinted in the form of generally significant achievements and related activity procedures.

Significant from the standpoint of the personal orientation of learning is the primacy of the psychological approach, providing the student with the opportunity to create educational products before getting acquainted with its cultural and historical counterparts. For example, a first-grader constructs his own types of tabular representation of numbers before the teacher introduces him to ready-made addition and multiplication tables. In this case, the initial neoplasms of the student, which appeared as a result of his activity in constructing numerical tables, will become the personal basis for comparative development tables of Pythagoras and other generally recognized achievements that act as educational standards.

Thus, the integrated psychological and methodological aspect of educational activity is interpreted in two ways:

1) as an activity of the student, organized by him together with the teacher and aimed at creating individual educational products;

2) as the activity of a student and teacher to establish the place and role of student educational products in the activity structure and genesis of universal human subject knowledge.

This approach - from the student's activity in the development of reality, to internal personal increments, and from them to the development of cultural and historical achievements - is the core of the educational process of a personality-oriented type.

The considered model of the educational process ensures the lead, the priority of creating the student's own educational product of the student's activity over the externally given subject content. The inner potencies of the trainee and his abilities are manifested and formed before the corresponding pantries of human experience are opened before him.

The object of primary activity of the learner is directly cognizable reality. Only then is the student enriched with cultural and historical achievements related to this reality, and his own result (product) can be included as an element in the general system of knowledge, i.e. in the total educational product of the student, which is reflexively comprehended by him (Fig. 1.3 ).

Rice. 1.3. Model of educational activity of the student

The structure of educational activities. Educational activity has the following elements: the need and motives for educational activity; external and internal goals; activity programs; information base and educational environment activities; decision-making as a result of the student's self-determination; activity products; activity-important personal qualities.

The source of the main motives for the educational activities of schoolchildren is their need for self-realization (the pentagon at the bottom of the diagram). The direction and nature of self-realization are determined by the individual characteristics of students - personal qualities related to the knowledge of the world around them, self-knowledge, communications and other educational spheres and areas. Educational activities provide students with the opportunity to create educational products in any area of ​​their interests: in nature, society, technology, etc.

Items listed are interconnected and form the system shown in Fig. 1.4.

Rice. 1.4. Functional system of educational activities

The goals of educational activity in relation to the student are divided into external normative and internal subjective (hexagons at the bottom of the scheme on the sides). External goals are set by the teacher in various forms and types, providing, for example, the implementation of educational standards. Internal goals are those that the student has formulated independently or with the help of a teacher in relation to the educational area or object of study.

The child performs an activity, matching it with world culture; from external and internal educational goals, the norms of educational activity are formed, which are the general guidelines for its implementation and the basis for compiling curricula (the upper part of the diagram).

Educational programs in accordance with internal and external goals are divided into general for all and individual for each student. There is a dynamic connection and interaction between the two types of programs: the general program of activities involves the development and inclusion of individual programs, which, in turn, influence the adjustment of the general program. In relation to educational standards, the general education program is based on the federal, national-regional and school components of educational standards, and the individual program is based on the variable part of education, established on the basis of the individual characteristics and personal choice of the student.

The external educational environment and the information basis for educational activities determine the conditions for its implementation and include: fundamental educational objects, cultural and historical analogues of knowledge about them, specially selected educational information necessary manuals, materials, etc.

Self-determination of students and their decision-making in the process of educational activity (the center of the scheme) occurs continuously, since its key element is the educational situation. The creation and awareness of such situations encourages the student and teacher to make decisions about effective ways of their actions. The most important components of such methods are methodological actions: stopping and reflection. Stopping objective activity, that is, activity related to the educational content of the subject, is necessary in order to switch to another activity - reflexive, with the help of which the methodological basis of objective activity is revealed.

external, the materialized form of activity is the educational products of students related to the educational area or course being studied - a question, a hypothesis, an essay, a model, a craft, a drawing, a diagram, etc.; internal - methods of activity learned or mastered by him in the course of creating this product, as well as reflected knowledge about these methods and the nature of all activity, other personal neoplasms.

The result of educational activity is the educational products of students related to the studied areas: sciences, arts, technical fields, communication processes, etc. The creation of an external materialized product, thereby, satisfies the need of students for self-realization and contributes to the development of their respective personal qualities: cognitive, creative, org-activity, etc.

Thus, educational activity is characterized by the following features:

1) is carried out by the subject of activity on the basis of his personal educational potential, individual abilities, motives and goals;

2) causes subjective difficulties and problems in the activity of the subject, due to insufficient knowledge of the methods, means and other conditions necessary for its implementation;

3) leads to the creation of a new educational product for the subject, corresponding to the type of activity carried out by him.

The pace of learning. Educational activity is characterized by such interrelated concepts as the pace of learning and the educational product of the student. The pace of learning, interpreted as the speed or intensity of educational activity, is determined by the individual characteristics of the student: his motivation, developed abilities, level of preparedness, psychological, physiological and other characteristics.

The pace of learning determines one of the main components of the content of education - the educational output of the student. So, with the same time period (t 1 - t 2) set by the teacher to study the fundamental educational object (FOO), the volume of the educational product (V o p) may be greater for the student who studies at a higher pace (Fig. 1.5 ).

Rice. 1.5. Dependence of the volume of the educational product on the pace of learning

The educational products of students differ not only in volume, but also in content. This difference due to individual abilities and the corresponding activities used by students in the study of the same educational object. Thus, the emotional-figurative approach to studying the concept of number in the first grade (“revitalization” of numbers, writing fairy tales about them, drawing a “geometric garden”, traveling through the “number city”) provides a qualitatively different content of the student’s educational product than his solution of logical examples and problems with numbers.

The teacher can and should offer students various types of activities for assimilation: emotional-figurative, logical and others, but, given the priority types of activities individually for each child, children should be allowed to choose these types when studying the same educational objects. In this case, not one common educational trajectory will be provided for all students, differing in the amount of assimilation of given standards, but individual trajectories leading students to create personal educational products that differ both in volume and content.

The externally expressed educational product of a student reflects his personal educational changes or increments. The student's educational product (EP) depends on the achieved knowledge about the studied fundamental educational object (FEO), the development of the student's individual abilities (IS), the assimilation of methods and types of activity (VD). This dependence can be expressed by the formula: OP \u003d f (FOO, IP, VD).

From this formula, the conclusion follows: even with the same knowledge about fundamental educational objects (PHE = const), the educational products of different students are different, since the types of activities they have mastered and the level of their development are different. Thus, thanks to an expanded understanding of the educational product, we come to the need to introduce the concept of an individual educational trajectory with all the ensuing consequences: individual student goal-setting, planning and pace of educational activities, the personal component of the content of education, the choice of optimal forms and methods of teaching, monitoring and evaluation systems.

Organization of the educational process. The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" (Article 15) provides General requirements to the organization of the educational process:

1. Organization of the educational process in educational institution is regulated by the curriculum (a breakdown of the content of the educational program by training courses, by disciplines and by years of study), the annual calendar curriculum and class schedules developed and approved by the educational institution independently. State educational authorities ensure the development of exemplary curricula and programs of courses, disciplines.

2. State authorities, educational authorities and local self-government bodies are not entitled to change the curriculum and curriculum of a civil educational institution after their approval, with the exception of cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

3. The educational institution is independent in choosing the assessment system, form, procedure and frequency of the intermediate certification of students.

4. Mastering the educational programs of the basic general, secondary (complete) general and all types vocational education ends with a mandatory final certification of graduates.

5. Scientific and methodological support of final attestations and objective quality control of graduate training upon completion of each level of education are provided by the state attestation service, independent of educational authorities, in accordance with state educational standards.

6. Discipline in an educational institution is supported on the basis of respect for the human dignity of students, pupils, and teachers. The use of methods of physical and mental violence against students and pupils is not allowed.

7. Parents (legal representatives) of underage students, pupils should be provided with the opportunity to get acquainted with the course and content of the educational process, as well as with the grades of students' progress.

Thus, the educational process in each school and for each student has its own uniqueness and originality, due to the possibility of participating in its design subjects. different levels- from the state to a particular teacher and student.

Summary

Educational process- pedagogically sound, consistent, continuous change in the states of subjects of education in a specially organized environment in order to achieve educational results.

The educational process has target, content, activity, organizational, technological, temporal and other characteristics, each of which is a description of the structural elements of the general educational system.

The methodology of the educational process establishes the structure, content, organization, system of specific methods and forms of educational activities. The main element of the methodology and theory of education is the image of the student in the dynamics of his development, which is the target factor in building the system of his education. The image of a student as a model of anticipated learning outcomes is made up of his personal qualities: cognitive, creative, organizational and other. Personal qualities correspond to certain types of activities in the course of which the student is educated.

There are at least two approaches to understanding activity: psychological (A.N. Leontiev) and methodological (G.P. Shchedrovitsky). In the first case, it is considered that the subject carries out activities. In the second, activity is a substance in itself, which captures individuals and is thereby reproduced. For a student-oriented and at the same time culturally appropriate educational process, the integration of the two named approaches is appropriate:

This approach ensures the lead, the priority of the creation of the student's own educational product over the externally given subject content. The student's abilities are manifested and formed before the corresponding pantries of human experience are opened before him.

Educational activities has the following elements: the need and motives of the student; external and internal goals; activity programs; information base and educational environment of activity; decision-making as a result of the student's self-determination; activity products; activity-important personal qualities.

The study of the same real educational objects leads to different educational outcomes different students, not always coinciding both with each other and with the generally accepted system of knowledge. The subjectivity of the results obtained by students serves as a prerequisite for building their individual educational trajectories.

The simultaneity of the implementation of personal models of education of students in relation to the general educational standards of various levels is the meaning of personality-oriented cultural education.

Questions and exercises

1. Formulate the feelings and sensations that you have as a result of studying this topic. List the main results you have achieved.

2. What do you understand by the educational process? What methodological issues related to it do you consider to be the main ones? What remains unclear? Formulate your questions.

3. What, in your opinion, are the connections between the student's personal qualities, his abilities, activities, individual activities and actions? Explain direct and inverse relationships between them.

4. In this paragraph, a methodological approach to the design of the educational process is formulated - from the activity of the student in the development of reality, to internal personal increments, and from them to the development of cultural and historical achievements. Suggest other possible structural bases of the educational process.

5. List the advantages and disadvantages of students' subjective knowledge of real educational objects.

Education is the most important and reliable way to receive systematic education. Reflecting all essential properties pedagogical process(two-sidedness, focus on the comprehensive development of the personality, the unity of the content and procedural sides), training at the same time has specific qualitative differences.
Being a complex and multifaceted, specially organized process of reflecting reality in the child's mind, learning is nothing more than a specific process of cognition, managed by the teacher. It is the guiding role of the teacher that ensures the full assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by schoolchildren, the development of their mental strength and creative abilities.
Cognitive activity is the unity of sensory perception, theoretical thinking and practical activities. It is carried out at every step in life, in all types of activities and social relationships of students (productive and socially useful work, value-oriented and artistic and aesthetic activities, communication), as well as by performing various subject-practical actions in the educational process (experimenting, designing , solving research problems, etc.). But only in the process of learning, knowledge acquires a clear form in a special educational and cognitive activity or teaching inherent only to a person.
Learning always takes place in communication and is based on a verbal-activity approach. The word is at the same time a means of expressing and cognizing the essence of the phenomenon under study, an instrument of communication and organization of practical cognitive activity of schoolchildren. It is also closely connected with value-oriented activity, which has as its goal the formation of personal meanings and awareness social significance objects, processes and phenomena of the surrounding reality.
Learning, like any other process, is associated with movement. It, like a holistic pedagogical process, has a task structure, and, consequently, the movement in the learning process goes from solving one educational problem to another, advancing the student along the path of cognition: from ignorance to knowledge, from incomplete knowledge to more complete and accurate. Education is not limited to the mechanical "transfer" of knowledge, skills and abilities. This is a two-way process in which teachers and pupils (students) are in close interaction: teaching and learning. At the same time, teaching should be considered conditionally, since the teacher cannot be limited only to the presentation of knowledge - he develops and educates, i.e. carries out a holistic pedagogical activity.
The success of learning is ultimately determined by the attitude of schoolchildren to learning, their desire for knowledge, the conscious and independent acquisition of knowledge, skills, and their activity. The student is not only the object of teaching influences, he is the subject of specially organized cognition, the subject of the pedagogical process.

§ 2. Learning functions
The need for a comprehensive implementation of all components of the content of education and the focus of the pedagogical process on the comprehensive, creative self-development of the student's personality determine the functions of learning: educational, upbringing and developing. At the same time, the educational function is associated with the expansion of volume, the developing function with structural complication, and the educational function with the formation of relationships (V. V. Kraevsky).
educational function. The main meaning of the educational function is to equip students with a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities and use it in practice.
Scientific knowledge includes facts, concepts, laws, patterns, theories, a generalized picture of the world. In accordance with the educational function, they must become the property of the individual, enter the structure of his experience. The most complete implementation of this function should ensure the completeness, systematicity and awareness of knowledge, their strength and effectiveness. This requires such an organization of the learning process that the content of the subject, reflecting the relevant area of ​​scientific knowledge, does not drop out elements that are important for understanding the main ideas and significant cause-and-effect relationships, so that in common system knowledge did not form unfilled voids. Knowledge must be ordered in a special way, acquiring ever greater harmony and logical subordination, so that new knowledge flows from previously learned knowledge and paves the way for mastering the next one.
The end result of the implementation of the educational function is the effectiveness of knowledge, expressed in the conscious operation of them, in the ability to mobilize previous knowledge to obtain new ones, as well as the formation of the most important both special (in the subject) and general educational skills and abilities.

Skill. as a skillful action is directed by a clearly perceived goal, and at the basis of a skill, i.e. automated action, lies a system of established connections. Skills are formed as a result of exercises that vary the conditions of educational activity and provide for its gradual complication. To develop skills, repeated exercises in the same conditions are necessary.
The implementation of the educational function is inextricably linked with the formation of skills in working with a book, reference literature, bibliographic apparatus, organizing independent work, taking notes, etc.
educational function. The educative nature of education is a clearly manifested pattern that operates immutably in any era and in any conditions. The educational function organically follows from the very content, forms and methods of teaching, but at the same time it is also carried out through a special organization of communication between the teacher and students. Objectively, training cannot but bring up certain views, beliefs, attitudes, personality traits. The formation of personality is generally impossible without the assimilation of a system of moral and other concepts, norms and requirements.
Training always educates, but not automatically and not always in the right direction, so the implementation of the educative function requires educational process, the selection of content, the choice of forms and methods, proceed from the correctly understood tasks of education at one stage or another of the development of society. The most important aspect of the implementation of the educational function of learning is the formation of motives for learning activities that initially determine its success.

developmental function. Just as the educative function, the developing nature of learning objectively follows from the very nature of this social process. Properly delivered education always develops, however, the developmental function is carried out more effectively with a special focus on the interaction of teachers and students for the comprehensive development of the individual. This special focus of education on the development of the student's personality has been consolidated in the term "developmental education".
In the context of traditional approaches to the organization of learning, the implementation of the developmental function, as a rule, comes down to the development of speech and thinking, since it is the development of verbal processes that most clearly expresses general development student. However, this understanding of the direction of learning, which narrows the developmental function, loses sight of the fact that both speech and the thinking associated with it develop more efficiently with the corresponding development of the sensory, emotional-volitional, motor and motivational-need spheres of the personality. Thus, the developmental nature of education implies an orientation towards the development of the personality as an integral mental system.
Since the 60s. in pedagogical science, various approaches to the construction of developmental education are being developed. L. V. Zankov substantiated a set of principles for the development of thinking in the learning process: an increase in the proportion of theoretical material; learning at a fast pace and at a high level of difficulty; providing students with awareness of the learning process. A. M. Matyushkin, M. I. Makhmutov and others developed the foundations of problem-based learning. I. Ya. Lerner and M. N. Skatkin proposed a system of developing teaching methods; V. V. Davydov and D. B. Elkonin developed the concept of meaningful generalization in teaching; I. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina and others substantiated the theory phased formation mental actions. The unifying idea of ​​the ongoing scientific research and pedagogical practice of developmental education is the idea of ​​the need to significantly expand the sphere of developmental influence of education. The full-fledged intellectual, social and moral development of the individual is the result of the educational and upbringing functions implemented in the unity.

§ 3. Methodological foundations of teaching

The fundamental provisions that determine the overall organization, the selection of content, the choice of forms and methods of teaching, follow from the general methodology of the pedagogical process. At the same time, since learning is directly related to the organization of students' cognitive activity, special consideration of its methodological foundations is necessary.
Some foreign teaching concepts
Widespread in teaching practice The United States and many European countries received behavioral theories.
Behaviorists identify the mental life of man and animals, reduce all complex life activity to the formula "stimulus reaction". From this point of view, the process of learning is the art of controlling stimuli in order to evoke or prevent certain responses. And the learning process is a set of reactions to stimuli and stimulus situations. The development of consciousness is identified with the formation of students' reactions.
Thus, the conscious activity of a person in the learning process is explained not by mental, but by physiological processes. The conscious activity of students is replaced by purely reflex activity. Behaviorists see the difference between a person and highly organized animals in the fact that a person, in addition to motor ones, also has verbal reactions, and also that secondary - verbal - stimuli can act on him, that a person, in addition to biological ones, can also have secondary needs. , somehow: ambition, self-interest, etc.

Pragmatists reduce learning only to the expansion of the student's personal experience so that he can adapt as best as possible to the existing social order. Education can only contribute to the manifestation of what is inherent in a person from birth, so the goal of education, like education, is to teach a child to live. And that means adapting to environment, satisfy personal interests and needs without focusing on the social environment in accordance with the subjectively understood benefit. The founder of pragmatism, J. Dyoi, wrote that the environment educates, but life teaches.
In accordance with these methodological grounds, pragmatists deny the need for the formation of systematic knowledge, skills, and therefore deny the scientific substantiation of curricula and programs, diminish the role of the teacher, relegating him to the role of assistant, consultant. The main mechanism and, accordingly, the method of obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities is "learning through doing", i.e. implementation of practical tasks, exercises. Modern pragmatists believe that learning is a purely individual, "intimate" process (Ruggi and others).
Behaviorism and pragmatism are the most common concepts of learning that attempt to explain the mechanisms of learning. Most of the theories that outright reject both physiological and psychological foundations educational process, reduce learning to the processes taking place in the soul of the student. The acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities is not explained in any way, and if it is explained, then through such concepts as intuition, insight, discretion, mind, etc. Existentialism and neo-Thomism already known to us adjoin these directions. They belittle the role of education, subordinate intellectual development to the education of the senses. The explanation of such a position comes from the assertion that it is possible to know only individual facts, but without their awareness, the relationship of patterns.
Materialistic theory of knowledge and the learning process
The understanding of the methodological foundations of the learning process is facilitated by the correlation of teaching as the activity of a student, which is a specific type of knowledge of the objective world, and the knowledge of a scientist.
The scientist learns objectively new, and the student - subjectively new, he does not discover any scientific truths, but assimilates scientific ideas, concepts, laws, theories, scientific facts already accumulated by science. The path of the scientist's knowledge lies through experiment, scientific reflections, trial and error, theoretical calculations, etc., while the student's knowledge proceeds more rapidly and is greatly facilitated by the mastery of the teacher. The scientist learns the new in its original form, so it may be incomplete, and the student learns a simplified material, didactically adapted to the age-related learning opportunities and characteristics of the students. In addition, educational cognition necessarily involves the direct or indirect influence of the teacher, and the scientist often dispenses with interpersonal interaction.
Despite the rather significant differences in the cognition of a student and a scientist, these processes are basically similar, i.e. have the same methodological basis. Cognition begins with sensations, with sensory familiarization with the material. This position was substantiated by F. Bacon in his sensationalist theory: all knowledge must begin with sensory perception and end with rational generalization. This theory is based on the teaching theory of Ya. A. Comenius, it also predetermined the cornerstone of his didactics - the "golden rule": if any objects can be perceived by several senses at once, let them be immediately covered by several senses.
The materialistic theory of knowledge shows that what is displayed does not depend on our consciousness and is determined by the ascent from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice. Cognition itself without the dialectics of its development is nothing; the interconnection of processes, elements within a single whole is expressed in cognition. But the very essence of the dialectic of knowledge lies in its contradictory nature.
Drivers of the learning process
The learning process as a specific process of cognition should be considered in its contradictory nature - as a process of constant movement and development. In this regard, the teacher must proceed from the fact that the process of learning a student cannot be reduced to memorizing ready-made knowledge, that it does not have this straightness once and for all, a constant mechanical movement on the way to the truth, that it has big and small jumps, recessions, unexpected turns of thought, possible insights. Knowledge, figuratively speaking, is woven from contradictions. Strict logical reasoning, induction and deduction, meaningful and formalized, coexist in it.
The main contradiction is the driving force of the learning process because it is inexhaustible, as the process of cognition is inexhaustible. M. A. Danilov formulates it as a contradiction between the cognitive and practical tasks put forward by the course of education and the current level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students, their mental development and relationships. The contradiction becomes the driving force of learning if it is meaningful, i.e. meaningful in the eyes of students, and the resolution of the contradiction - clearly recognized by them as a necessity. The condition for the formation of contradiction as the driving force of learning is its proportionality with the cognitive potential of students. No less important is the preparedness of the contradiction by the very course of the educational process, its logic, so that students not only "grab", "sharpen" it, but also independently find a way to solve it. Once put forward and accepted by the students, the cognitive task turns into a chain of internally connected tasks that cause the students' own desire to cognize the new, the unknown and to apply this cognition in life. The ability to see the cognitive task and the desire to find its solution lies the secret of successful learning and mental development of students.

§ 4. The activities of the teacher and students in the learning process

The purpose and structure of the teacher's activity

The process of teaching students at school takes place under the guidance of a teacher. The purpose of its activity is to manage the active and conscious cognitive activity of students. The teacher sets tasks for students, gradually complicating them and thereby ensuring the progressive movement of the child's thoughts along the path of cognition. The teacher creates the necessary conditions for the successful flow of teaching: selects the content in accordance with the goals; thinks over and applies various forms of organization of training; uses a variety of methods by which content becomes the property of students.
Management of the learning process involves the passage of certain stages in accordance with the given structure of the pedagogical process and the pedagogical activity: planning, organization, regulation (stimulation), control, evaluation and analysis of results.

The planning stage 0 in the teacher's activity ends with the preparation of calendar-thematic or lesson plans, depending on what tasks are to be solved: strategic tactical or operational. Drawing up plans is preceded by long painstaking work. It includes: analysis of the initial level of preparedness of students, their learning opportunities, the state material base and methodological equipment, their personal professional capabilities; determination of specific educational, educational and developmental tasks, based on the didactic purpose of the lesson and the formation of the class as a team; selection of content: thinking through the forms and methods of conducting a lesson, specific types of work, etc.

The organization of students' activities includes setting a learning task for students and creating favorable conditions for its implementation. In this case, such techniques are used as instruction, distribution of functions, presentation of an algorithm, etc. Modern didactics recommends the rules for setting cognitive tasks (M. A. Danilov):
the cognitive task should follow from the subject content in order to preserve the system of knowledge and the logic of science;
should be considered actual level student development and
their training to create real conditions for the task;
the task should contain the information necessary for the development of the mind, imagination, creative processes;
to the implementation of the subject activity of students must be disposed (create positive motivation);
it is necessary to teach students how to solve a problem, equip them with the necessary methods, first together with the teacher, then in collective work, gradually transferring them to a plan of independent individual actions.
Teaching involves the regulation and correction of the learning process on the basis of continuous monitoring, i.e. obtaining information about the progress of students' learning and the effectiveness of the techniques and methods of their own activities. the results of ongoing monitoring, carried out in the form of simple observation, oral and written surveys, checking class and home independent work, and using other techniques and methods, are taken into account by the teacher both directly in this lesson and in the future. This can be a slowdown or acceleration of the pace of educational work, a decrease or increase in the volume of proposed types of work, changes in the order of presentation of the material, leading questions and additional clarifications, prevention of difficulties, etc. A special place at this stage of the teacher's activity is occupied by stimulating the activity and independence of students.
The regulation and correction of the learning process with the use of incentives is provided not only by a well-thought-out assessment system that involves encouraging, encouraging, instilling confidence in one's own abilities and learning abilities, passion for prospects, censure, etc., but also using a system of marks that works especially in the initial and middle classes. Great stimulating opportunities are laid down both in the forms and methods of pedagogical activity (educational discussions, conferences, discussions of abstracts, pair-group teaching methods, mutual checks, etc.).
The final stage of training, as well as the pedagogical process as a whole, is the analysis of the results of the decision pedagogical task. It is carried out from the standpoint of achieving the unity of educational, educational and developmental goals, as well as the methods and conditions for their achievement. In this case, it is necessary to proceed from the requirements of the principle of optimality, given that the required result can be achieved by overloading both students and teachers. The analysis should reveal the causes of deficiencies in learning and the foundations for success, outline ways for further pedagogical interaction within the learning process.

The activities of students in the learning process

Teaching as a specific type of activity has its own structure, patterns of development and functioning. The possibility of its implementation is due to the ability of a person to regulate his actions in accordance with the goal.
The purpose of the teaching is the knowledge, collection and processing of information about the surrounding world, ultimately expressed in knowledge, skills, a system of relationships and general development.
The most important component of the doctrine are motives, i.e. those motives that the student is guided by, carrying out certain educational actions or educational activities in general. And in order for the doctrine to arise, there must be motives in the learning situation that move the student towards the gnostic goal - to master certain knowledge and skills. The student is motivated to learn not by one, but by a number of motives of various properties, each of which does not act in isolation, but in interaction with others. The doctrine, therefore, has a multi-motivated character.

The whole variety of motives for the educational activity of schoolchildren can be represented by three interrelated groups.
1. Directly motivating motives based on the emotional manifestations of the personality, on positive or negative emotions: brightness, novelty, entertaining, external attractive attributes; interesting teaching, attractive personality of the teacher; desire to receive praise, reward (directly as the task is completed), fear of getting a negative mark, punishment, fear of the teacher, unwillingness to be the object of discussion in the class, etc.
2. Perspective-motivating motives based on understanding the significance of knowledge in general and the subject in particular: awareness of the worldview, social, practical significance of the subject, certain specific knowledge and skills; linking a subject with a future independent life (entering an institute, choosing a profession, starting a family, etc.); expectation in the future of receiving an award, a developed sense of duty, responsibility.
3. Intellectual and motivating motives based on obtaining satisfaction from the process of cognition itself: interest in knowledge, curiosity, the desire to expand one's cultural level, master certain skills and abilities, enthusiasm for the process of solving educational and cognitive problems, etc.
Among the intellectually motivating motives, cognitive interests and needs occupy a special place. The objective basis for the development of the cognitive interests of schoolchildren is a high level of education with its truly scientific content and pedagogically expedient organization of active and independent cognition.
It is customary to distinguish levels of cognitive interest and, accordingly, to determine the paths and create conditions for its formation (G.I. Shchukina). The lowest elementary level of cognitive interest is expressed in attention to specific facts, knowledge - descriptions, actions according to the model. The second level characterizes the interest in dependencies, cause-and-effect relationships, in their independent establishment. The highest level is expressed in interest in deep theoretical problems, creative activity in the development of knowledge. The formation of the highest level of cognitive interest gives grounds to speak about the presence of a cognitive need.
Cognitive interest is formed in the learning process through the subject content of the activity and the emerging relationships between the participants in the educational process. This is facilitated by the widespread use of the factor of novelty of knowledge, elements of problematic learning, the involvement of data on modern achievements science and technology, showing the social and personal significance of knowledge, skills and abilities, organizing independent work of a creative nature, organizing mutual learning, mutual control of students, etc.

The next component of learning is learning activities. (operations) performed in accordance with a conscious purpose. They appear at all stages of solving a learning problem and can be external (observable) and internal (unobservable). The external ones include all types of objective actions (writing, drawing, setting up experiments, etc.), perceptual actions (listening, looking, observing, touching, etc.), symbolic actions associated with the use of speech. K. internal - mnemonic actions (memorizing the material, its ordering and organization), imagination (imergetic) and thinking (intellectual) actions.
The main tool of knowledge is thinking. Therefore, taking into account its relationship with other cognitive processes and without diminishing their role in organizing the learning of schoolchildren, the main attention in the process of managing their activities should be given to the development of mental actions and specific mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, generalization, etc.).
The integral structural components of learning are the actions of monitoring, evaluating and analyzing the results. Self-control, self-assessment and self-analysis that students carry out in the learning process are formed on the basis of observing similar teaching actions of the teacher. The formation of these actions is facilitated by the methods of involving students in observing the activities of their peers, the organization of mutual control, mutual evaluation and mutual analysis of the results of activities based on established criteria.
§ 5. The logic of the educational process and the structure of the learning process
In the traditional practice of teaching, the logic of learning from the perception of specific objects and phenomena to the formation of ideas and from the generalization of specific ideas to concepts has become firmly established and has become virtually universal. This logic, natural for learning in primary school, is also used in organizing the education of adolescents and older students. Meanwhile, both in theory and in practice, the need to apply in teaching both inductive-analytical and deductive-synthetic logic of the educational process in their close interaction has been convincingly proved. The essence of this decision lies in the fact that almost simultaneously with the perception of specific objects and phenomena, those scientific concepts and principles are introduced, due to which the perception of specific material becomes deeper and more meaningful. This does not contradict the fundamental scheme of cognition: from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice, which determines the structure of the process of acquiring knowledge.

Sensory cognition ("living contemplation") 0. Sensory cognition is based on primary cognitive processes: sensation and perception.
Perception. - the process of reflection in the mind of a person of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.

Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties.
When organizing perception as a purposeful activity, i.e. observation, it is necessary to proceed from the fact that the visual analyzer has the highest throughput. However, in training, the throughput is regulated not by the analyzer itself, but by the brain, therefore, as established in experiments and confirmed by experience, it is necessary to give two units of explanation for one unit of information to be learned, additional information.
The perception of information in the learning process is influenced by many factors, in particular, the frequency of information transfer, speed (tempo), the mental state of the student, day of the week, class hours, etc. The content of perception also depends on the task assigned to the student, on the motives of his activity and attitudes. , as well as emotions that can change the content of perception.
To manage the process of perception, it is essential that it depends on the characteristics of the student's personality, his interests, worldview, beliefs and orientation in general. The dependence of perception on past experience and the content of the entire mental life of a person, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperception.

Abstract thinking (understanding, comprehension, generalization). Perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of perceived objects and phenomena. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. correlate with a certain group, class of objects, generalize it in a word.
Understanding the information being communicated. is carried out through the establishment of primary, largely generalized connections and relationships between objects, phenomena and processes, the identification of their composition, purpose, causes and sources of functioning. Understanding is based on establishing links between new material and previously studied material, which, in turn, is the basis for a deeper and more versatile understanding of educational material.
Understanding the information being studied requires the use of general educational skills based on such methods of mental activity, which are based on complex mental operations: analysis and synthesis, comparison and comparison, classification and systematization, etc. Understanding the educational material is accompanied by the formation of certain attitudes towards it in students , understanding of its social, including practical, meaning and personal significance. Comprehension directly develops into the process of generalization of knowledge.
Generalization. characterized by the allocation and systematization of common essential features of objects and phenomena. This is a higher level of abstraction from the concrete than comprehension, the moment of transition from understanding the meaning to defining the concept. Scientific concepts are always abstract, since they fix an abstraction from specific objects and phenomena. Operating with scientific concepts at the stage of generalization of knowledge leads to the establishment of links between them, to the formation of judgments. And the comparison of judgments leads to conclusions, to independent conclusions and evidence.
Generalization completes (mostly) learning if the inductive-analytical path is chosen. With deductive-synthetic logic, on the contrary, generalized data in the form of concepts, definitions, theories, laws are introduced at the beginning of the study of the topic or in the process of studying it.

Application of knowledge (practice). The necessary structural components of the assimilation process are closely interconnected consolidation and application of knowledge. Consolidation involves re-comprehension and repeated reproduction of what is being studied in order to introduce new material into the structure of the student's personal experience. It naturally requires the use of memory mechanisms, but cannot be reduced to the mechanical memorization of facts, definitions, methods of proof, etc. Fixing efficiency, i.e. the value, strength and effectiveness of knowledge is tested by practice. The application of knowledge is based on the process of back ascension from the abstract to the concrete, i.e. specification. Concretization as a mental operation is expressed in the ability to apply abstract knowledge to the solution of specific practical tasks, to special cases of educational and cognitive activity. In educational practice, concretization begins with the ability to give an example. In the future, this thinking ability is revealed through the ability to solve more difficult task without the help of a teacher, through the use of knowledge in situations of extracurricular activities.
The application of knowledge can be carried out in various forms and activities, depending on the specifics of the content of the material being studied. These can be exercises for educational purposes, laboratory work, research assignments, work at the school site, in the workshop, etc.

§ 6. Types of training and their characteristics
Historically, the first known type of systematic learning is the method of finding truth by asking leading questions, widely used by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates and his students. It was called the method of Socratic conversation. The teacher (as a rule, a philosopher) aroused curiosity, cognitive interest of the student by posing the question, and himself, orally reasoning, in search of an answer, led the student's thought along the path of knowledge. To maintain the interest of the teaching reasoning, the teachers interspersed with the formulation of most often rhetorical questions. Socratic conversations were held with one or more students.
The first type of collective organization of cognitive activity is dogmatic teaching, which became widespread in the Middle Ages. He is characterized by teaching Latin, since the main content of education was the development of religious scriptures. The main activities of the students were listening and rote learning. A distinctive feature of this type of education was the separation of form from content.
Dogmatic teaching was replaced by explanatory and illustrative teaching. due to the wide involvement of visualization in the educational process. Its methodological basis is the theory of sensationalism (F. Bacon, J. Locke and others). The founder of this type of education is Ya. A. Comenius. The main goal of this training is the assimilation of knowledge and their subsequent application in practice, i.e. formation of skills and abilities. Explanatory-illustrative training requires deeper mental activity, but reproducing thinking. This is passive-contemplative education, which still occupies a large place in the traditional school. The main task of the teacher is to present the material so that the students understand and assimilate it. Explanatory-illustrative training is economical in terms of the time required to master knowledge, but it is not developmental and ultimately prepares the performer, but not the creator.
In the early 20s. of the present century, as a result of the search for ways to improve explanatory and illustrative education, a new type of education has emerged - independent acquisition of knowledge under the guidance of a teacher-consultant (Dalton plan, brigade-laboratory method, project method, etc.). What was common in different approaches was that at the introductory lesson the teacher posed the problem, indicated the literature, instructed the students, and scheduled the deadlines for completing the task. In the future, the students carried out an independent search for answers to the questions posed by reading books, setting up laboratory work, performing practical tasks, etc. At the end of the stages (several days, weeks, and even months), the teacher checked the assignments, summarized knowledge and gave new assignments. In its pure form, this type of training had many drawbacks: systematic knowledge was not ensured, the course of learning was practically not controlled, and due to the passive position of the teacher, training did not fulfill all the functions assigned to it.
B. Skinler (1904) - American psychologist, leader of modern behaviorism. He put forward the concept of "operant", reinforced learning.
Programmed learning is a special kind of self-acquisition of knowledge. Its methodological basis is the theory of animal learning based on the general behavioral concept (B. Skinper). Mechanically transferring it to a person, B. Skinper formulated the following principles of programmed learning:
presentation of information in small portions;
setting a test task to control the assimilation of each piece of information;
presentation of the answer for self-control;
giving instructions depending on the correctness of the answer. The fourth point may vary depending on the structure of programs, which is linear or branched.
In accordance with the linear construction of programs, students work on all portions of information (frames, bits, doses, steps) that are to be assimilated, according to a single scheme, in one direction: A, - \- Ad- \ -, etc. A branched program involves the choice by students of their individual path of advancement along the path of knowledge, depending on the level of preparedness:
When justifying programmed learning, a cybernetic approach can also be used, according to which learning is considered as a complex dynamic system that is controlled on the basis of direct (sending commands) and feedback from the control center - the teacher - and the controlled object - the student. There are internal and external feedback, where the internal receipt of information by the student himself (evaluation of the answer), and the external receipt of information by the teacher about the progress of the students' learning.
With programmed learning, direct and feedback is carried out using special tools, i.e. programmed benefits different kind and teaching machines. The benefits include programmed textbooks, programmed collections of exercises and tasks, control tasks test type, programmed additions to the usual textbook. TO technical means programmed learning include learning machines for feeding educational information, tutor machines, controller machines.
The positive side of programmed learning is that it allows you to establish a strong external and internal feedback, i.e. receive information about the results of learning; it develops independence, opens up the opportunity for each student to work at his own pace and rhythm.
At the same time, it does not reveal the very course of learning, does not stimulate creativity, and has limitations in its application, including due to the difficulties of material support.
The algorithmization of the learning process is closely related to programmed learning, which, like programming, has as its basis the cybernetic approach.
Algorithmization of learning involves the identification of algorithms for the activity of the teacher and the mental activity of students. An algorithm is a generally accepted prescription for performing elementary operations in a certain sequence to solve any of the problems belonging to a certain class, for example: how to solve a problem, how to parse a sentence, how to find GCD, LCM in mathematics, etc.
The activity of the teacher in the algorithmization of the activities of students, i.e. dividing it into a number of interrelated elements consists of the following operations:
identify the conditions necessary for the implementation of training activities;
highlight the learning activities themselves;
to determine the way of communication between teaching and learning activities. Algorithmic learning increases the proportion of independent work of students and contributes to the improvement of the management of the educational process, equips students with the means to control their mental and practical actions.
Modern trends in the development of education, including those associated with the expansion of the network of private, largely elite schools, determine the formation as an independent type of differentiated and individual education.

§ 7. Modern theories of learning (didactic concepts)

To date, two main theories of learning have developed: associative (associative-reflex) and activity. The associative theory of learning took shape in the 17th century. Its methodological foundations were developed by J. Locke, who proposed the term "association". The associative theory of learning received its final form in the class-lesson system of Ya. A. Comenius.
The main principles of this theory are as follows: the mechanism of any act of learning is association; any training has its basis in visibility, i.e. relies on sensory cognition, therefore enriching the student's consciousness with images and ideas is the main task of educational activity; visual images are not important in themselves: they are necessary insofar as they ensure the advancement of consciousness to generalizations based on comparison; The main method of associative learning is exercise.
Associative theories underlie the explanatory-illustrative teaching that dominates the modern traditional school. In many respects, this is the reason that school graduates do not receive a full-fledged education, namely: they do not develop experience in creative activity, the ability to independently acquire knowledge, and the willingness to freely engage in any managerial field of activity.
Realizing the limitations of explanatory and illustrative teaching, modern pedagogical science focuses not on passive adaptation to the existing level of development of students, but on the formation of mental functions, the creation of conditions for their development in the learning process. Of enduring methodological significance is the idea of ​​such a construction of training that would take into account the "zone of proximal development" of the individual, i.e. focused not on the current level of development, but on the level of tomorrow that a student can achieve under the guidance and with the help of a teacher (L. S. Vygotsky).
For mental development, as established by the studies of D. N. Bogoyavlensky and N. A. Menchinskaya, even a complex and mobile system of knowledge is not enough. Students must master those mental operations with the help of which knowledge is acquired and operated on. N. A. Menchinskaya pays great attention to the development of learning, which is characterized by the generalization of mental activity, economy, independence and flexibility of thinking, semantic memory, the connection of visual-figurative and verbal-logical components of thinking; the development of learning, according to N. A. Menchinskaya, is a reliable way to increase the efficiency of the process of mastering knowledge and learning in general.
A fairly effective concept of increasing the developmental function of traditional education was proposed by L. V. Zankov. His didactic system, focused on junior schoolchildren, gives a developing effect when working with adolescents and older students, subject to the following principles: building education at a high level of difficulty (subject to a clearly distinguishable measure of difficulty); fast pace of learning the material (of course, within reasonable limits); the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge; students' awareness of the learning process. The search for ways to improve learning, which is based on associative theories, is aimed at identifying ways and conditions for the development of cognitive independence, activity and creative thinking students. In this regard, the experience of innovative teachers is indicative: the enlargement of didactic units of assimilation (P. M. Erdniev, B. P. Erdniev), the intensification of learning based on the Principle of visibility (V. F. Shatalov, S. D. Shevchenko, etc.), advanced learning and commenting (S. N. Lysenkova), increasing the educational potential of the lesson (E. N. Ilyin, T. I. Goncharova and others), improving the forms of organization of learning and interaction between teachers and students in the lesson (I. M. Cheredov , S. Yu. Kurganov, V. K. Dyachenko, A. B. Reznik, N. P. Guzik, etc.), individualization of education (I. P. Volkov, etc.). Associative learning theories that are not initially developmentally oriented creativity students, oppose theories based on the activity approach. These include the theory of problem-based learning (A. M. Matyushkin, M. I. Makhmutov, etc.), the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P. Ya. Galperin, N. F. Talyzina, etc.), the theory of learning activity (V V. Davydov, D. B. Elkonin and others).
The theory of problem-based learning is based on the concepts of "task" and "action", i.e. that fully characterizes the activity approach. A problem situation is a cognitive task, which is characterized by a contradiction between the students' knowledge, skills, attitudes and the requirement. The significance of the cognitive task lies in the fact that it arouses in students the desire to independently search for its solution by analyzing the conditions and mobilizing their knowledge. A cognitive task causes activity when it is based on previous experience and is the next step in the study of the subject or in the application of the learned law, concept, technique, method of activity.
Problem situations can be classified within any subject according to their focus on acquiring a new one (knowledge, methods of action, opportunities to apply knowledge and skills in new conditions, changes in attitudes); according to the degree of difficulty and severity (depending on the preparedness of students); by the nature of the contradictions (between worldly and scientific knowledge). In a problem situation, the very fact of its vision by students is important, so it must be distinguished from problematic issues, for example: why does a nail sink, but a ship made of metal does not?
The activity of students in problem-based learning involves the passage of the following stages:
discretion of the problem, its formulation (for example, 2 + 5 x3 = 17; 2 + 5x3 = 21);
analysis of conditions, separation of the known from the unknown; putting forward hypotheses (options) and choosing a solution plan (either based on known methods, or searching for a fundamentally new approach);
implementation of the solution plan;
finding ways to check the correctness of actions and results. Depending on the degree of participation of the teacher in independent learning
The student's claim distinguishes several levels of problematic learning. The first level is characterized by the participation of the teacher in the first three stages; for the second - on the first and partially on the second; for the third, which approaches the activities of a scientist, the teacher only directs the research search.
The role of the teacher in problem-based learning is as follows:
finding (thinking about) a way to create a problem situation, enumeration of possible options for solving it by the student;
leadership of students' perception of the problem;
clarification of the problem statement;
helping students analyze conditions;
assistance in choosing a solution plan;
consulting in the decision process;
help in finding ways of self-control;
analysis of individual errors or a general discussion of the solution to the problem.
Problem-based learning contributes to the development of mental abilities, independence and creative thinking of students, it ensures the strength and effectiveness of knowledge, since it is emotional in nature, causes a feeling of satisfaction from knowledge. At the same time, it has limitations in its application, since it is uneconomical, although it can be used at all stages of explanatory and illustrative education. In its pure form, problem-based learning is not organized at school, and this is understandable: a significant part of knowledge must be learned based on traditional teaching methods (factual information, axioms, illustrations of certain phenomena, etc.).
The theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, developed by P. Ya. Galperin and developed by N. F. Talyzina, mainly concerns the structure of the process of mastering knowledge. The success of assimilation in accordance with this theory is determined by the creation and understanding by the student of the indicative basis of actions, a thorough acquaintance with the very procedure for performing actions. The authors of the concept under the experimental conditions found that the ability to manage the learning process is significantly increased if students are consistently carried out through five interrelated stages: preliminary familiarization with the action, with the conditions for its implementation; the formation of an action in a material (or materialized with the help of models) form with the deployment of all the operations included in it; formation of action in the external plan as external speech; formation of action on inner speech; the transition of action into deep convoluted thought processes. This mechanism of transition of actions from the external plan to the internal one is called internalization. This theory gives good results if it is really possible to start with material or materialized actions during training. About Us better side has proven itself in the training of athletes, operators, musicians, drivers and specialists in other professions, its use in school is limited by the fact that training does not always begin with subject perception.
The theory of learning activity comes from the teachings of L. S. Vygotsky on the relationship between learning and development, according to which learning plays its leading role in mental development primarily through the content of acquired knowledge. The authors of the theory emphasize that the developmental nature of educational activity is due to the fact that its content is theoretical knowledge. However, the educational activity of schoolchildren should be built not as the knowledge of a scientist, which begins with a consideration of the sensory-concrete variety of particular types of movement of an object and leads to the identification of their universal internal basis, but in accordance with the method of presenting scientific knowledge, with the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete (B V. Davydov).
In accordance with the theory of learning activity, students should not form knowledge, but certain types of activities, in which knowledge is included as a certain element. "A person's knowledge is in unity with his mental actions (abstraction, generalization, etc.)," ​​writes V.V. Davydov, "consequently, it is quite acceptable to use the term "knowledge" to simultaneously denote both the result of thinking (reflection of reality) and the process its receipt (i.e. mental actions) "".
The deductive-synthetic logic of building the educational process follows from the theory of educational activity, which is realized when the following points are taken into account:
all concepts constituting a given academic subject or its main sections should be assimilated by children by considering the conditions of their origin, due to which they become necessary (i.e., concepts are not given as ready-made knowledge);
the assimilation of knowledge of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance with more particular and specific knowledge, the latter must be derived from the abstract as from its basis;
this stems from the orientation towards clarifying the origin of concepts and corresponds to the requirement of ascent from the abstract to the concrete;
when studying the subject-material sources of certain concepts, students must first of all discover the genetically original, universal connection that determines the content and structure of the entire object of these concepts. For example, for the object of all the concepts of school mathematics, such a universal connection is the general ratio of quantities; for school grammar - the relationship of form and meaning in a word;
this connection must be reproduced in special subject, graphic or letter models that allow studying its properties in a "pure form". For example, general relationship children can represent quantities in the form of literal formulas, convenient for further study of the properties of these relations; the structure of the word can be depicted using special graphic schemes;
schoolchildren need to specifically form such objective actions, through which they can identify in the educational material and reproduce in models the essential connection of the object, and then study its properties. For example, in order to identify the connection underlying the concepts of integer, fractional and real numbers, children need to form special actions to determine the short ratio of quantities;
students should gradually and in a timely manner move from objective actions to their implementation in the mental plane (according to V.V. Davydov).
The implementation of these conditions, according to supporters of the theory of learning activity, is the most important way to form the theoretical thinking of students as an important ability of a creative person.
The opponents of the authors of the theory of learning activity point to the absolutization of the deductive-synthetic path of cognition and, accordingly, the diminishing of the role of the logic of the educational process from the particular to the general. Modern didactics also does not accept a narrow interpretation of knowledge, i. only as an element of activity, since the theory of learning activity does not take into account the general logic of building goals and the content of education, where the formation of knowledge is singled out as a particularly important goal. In addition, it is not taken into account that knowledge exists objectively not only in the mind of the individual, but also in the form of information stored in books, "computer banks", etc., which becomes the property of the individual in the process of cognitive activity.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How are the processes of cognition and learning related? What
their similarities and differences?
2. Describe the main functions of the learning process.
3. Expand the features of the structure of the teacher's activity and the activity of students.
4. What is the logic of the educational process and what is the mechanism of the process of mastering knowledge?
5. Name the main types of training and their characteristic features.
6. What is the fundamental difference between associative and activity learning theories?

7. What does it mean to optimize the learning process?

1

The socio-economic changes that have taken place in our country are causing a tendency to reassess many aspects of the worldview and theoretical-cognitive consideration of the problems of the formation of a person, his preparation for life in an integrating multidimensional society based on a complex balance of interests. Associated with this is the activated last years search for conceptually new approaches that determine the strategy and tactics for the entry of domestic education into the international educational space. The problems addressed to the structural restructuring of the education system, its institutional and organizational components, as well as the search for indicators and measures of its quality, are widely discussed. academic mobility, mutual recognition of credits, diplomas, etc. Theorists note significant disagreements in the positions presented in the national educational systems of developed European and former socialist countries that have taken a course towards Europeanization and positioning their educational policy in terms of globalization, inter- and transnationalization, pedagogical innovation . Overcoming discrepancies is conceived along the path of “pulling up”, transforming, bringing the Russian system into line with international practice; at best, the thesis is put forward about the need for "twinning", "coupling" of programs (programme articulationis). The Russian State Educational Standards for Higher Professional Education of the third generation have not been put into effect, the methods of constructing their content are not the subject of interested discussions of specialists.

An analysis of the existing State Educational Standards allows us to conclude that such classical theories of selection of the content of education as encyclopedism, didactic formalism, didactic utilitarianism, exemplarism remain important (in the logic of the concept of "pars pro toto" - a part instead of a whole, but not a model representative fragment). It seems that they do not fully meet the modern requirements for the quality of qualifications obtained, as well as the dynamics of general scientific trends.

Domestic policy in the field higher education should be aimed at training a specialist with a fundamental and at the same time flexible professional thinking, based on a willingness to constantly improve the level of social and professional competence, the ability to transform and creatively apply already acquired and independently acquired knowledge in relation to the changing requirements of the labor market. The modern system of vocational training should overcome the fragmentation, fragmentation and duplication of the content presented in the current educational standards, focus on developing the ability to generate ideas and broadly transfer existing knowledge and methods of action to a new topical problem field. At the same time, a specialist focused on achieving personal and professional success must constantly determine and reflexively redefine his place in the professional continuum, which requires the presence of certain methodological and compensatory competencies, the prerequisites for the formation of which can be laid down in the design and plots of the educational program. Therefore, we propose an approach to the selection and design of the content of an educational standard in the humanities, based on the idea that:

- the “content concept” can be applied to most topics and sections of other humanitarian disciplines, developed and meaningfully supplemented in relation to their specifics, presented in the form of expanding information blocks and flows;

All scenarios, plots and phenomena should be studied in their historical and cultural context and dynamics, while determining the state regarding the influence of the predominant methodological vector (essential, functionalist, systemic, synergetic, or combinations thereof);

Theoretical knowledge should be acquired interactively through situational exercises and other interaction options that reflect the specifics of the concept application within a particular social and humanitarian discipline;

Having mastered the fundamental "concept of content", the student can independently build a personal educational trajectory, determining the level of mastery of subordinated subject concepts, systematize them, build a sequence of referring to previously mastered "concepts" and "scenarios".

The educational technology proposed for development is based on a set of methodological approaches presented in the theory of frames as a form of representation of scientific knowledge (M. Minsky), the concepts of personal orientation of the educational process, the concepts of didactic improvement and reconstruction of educational material based on the idea of ​​transfer, the theory of interaction in the educational process.

This approach is expected to:

Substantiate and propose for use in the mass educational practice of universities that are part of the Bologna process, a conceptual approach to the formation of the content of the state educational standard, based on the principle of cross-disciplinary concentration of a repeating "core" of information and its subject expansion and concretization in the relevant sections of the humanities;

By “condensing information” and assimilation of the algorithm (“scenario”) in the fundamental concept, reduce classroom time spent on studying the content of the humanities and increase the level of responsibility and independence of students in building their own educational trajectory;

To promote the formation of an enterprising specialist who adapts to the conditions of a dynamic labor market through professional thinking, characterized by consistency, flexibility, efficiency, and the ability to see a newly updated problem in a broad social, historical, ideological and methodological context.

The specific tasks to be solved by the proposed approach are the following:

1. definition of a recurring “core” (at the level of functions, properties, processes, characteristics, paradigms, etc.) in the subject content of humanitarian and social education, correlating them with the possibility of recalculation into credit units;

2. identifying topics and sections of specific courses that can be superimposed with a universal concept of content in the logic of changing general scientific methodologies, developing their interactive methodological support (including multimedia tools, case method, situational exercises, etc.);

3. definition of specific topics and sections of the educational standard of the humanities and social disciplines that are not included in the framework of the concept and require a different structuring of educational information and ways to master them;

4. development of an expanding "fundamental concept" of the subject content of information blocks, presenting them in a form structured for independent development (historical-culturological, problematic, analytical, search, review, self-testing and other types and options of teaching aids and methodological support);

5. development of an accounting system educational achievements student in accordance with the idea of ​​stimulating independence in determining a personal educational trajectory and encouraging creative participation.

In the proposed approach, the student, by minimizing the duplication of content, its fundamentalization and the constant expansion of knowledge in the subject area:

A hierarchical system of paradigm ideas about cross-cultural foundations and a single methodological key of humanitarian practice is being formed,

Fundamental interrelations and dependencies are established that accompany the movement of scientific thought,

An individual style of professional thinking is developed, which determines the success of further activities.

Students' knowledge in the subject area is repeatedly updated at the theoretical and practical level and systematized. A specific way of thinking is being developed, built on the creative and productive transfer of already existing components of competence to solving newly emerging problems of a cognitive and practical nature, a susceptibility to the indirect influence of the information and training field and methodologically significant contexts of professional activity is formed.

The proposed idea can be developed in any of its parts at any level of specification in relation to the specifics of the current educational policy, strategy and tactics. In addition, this approach, due to its universality and taking into account common general methodological trends, can form the conceptual basis for the transition to the creation of educational standards for the humanities, not limited by domestic requirements and research. It allows you to consider national characteristics humanities in the context of global trends and respect the achievements of Russian humanities as a contribution of the dominant subject of European civilization.

Bibliographic link

Fedotova O.D. METHODOLOGICAL BASES FOR CREATING INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS OF HIGHER SCHOOL: FROM CONNECTION TO UNITY // Contemporary Issues science and education. - 2006. - No. 4.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=469 (date of access: 02/01/2020). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"

In any theory, its various "floors" are distinguished - levels, each of which has its own strictly defined purpose. Understanding the relationship between these levels allows you to consciously use various types of knowledge and optimally organize scientific research, i.e. master the methodology of science.

Methodology is a theoretical landmark in the sciences of education. The most important tasks of science methodology - assistance to the researcher in the organization of scientific research, the formation of his special skills in the field of research work, as well as assistance to the teacher-practitioner in understanding his professional and personal position.

Meanwhile methodology - This "a system of principles and methods for organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities"[BES]. Prominent psychologist S.L. Rubinshtein wrote that “questions of big theory, correctly posed and correctly understood, are at the same time practical issues of great importance. theoretical problems it means seeing them in relation to the concrete questions of life."

There are other definitions of methodology as "the doctrine of the method of scientific knowledge and transformation of the world" [BES]. IN contemporary literature under methodology they understand, first of all, the methodology of scientific knowledge, i.e. the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific and cognitive activity. The methodology of science characterizes components of scientific research :

its object,

subject of analysis,

research tasks,

The totality of research tools needed to solve them,

and also forms an idea of ​​the sequence of movement of the researcher in the process of solving research problems.

These definitions of methodology do not contradict each other. Moreover, they reflect the process of gradual development of the field of methodological reflection, the awareness of researchers of their own activities, the removal of such reflection beyond the scope of individual experience. Based on this, methodology of pedagogical science should be considered as a set of theoretical provisions on pedagogical knowledge and the transformation of reality.

Any methodology performs regulatory, normative functions. This, in fact, is its purpose. But methodological knowledge can act either in descriptive (descriptive), either in prescriptive (normative) form, i.e. in the form of prescriptions, direct instructions for activity (E.G. Yudin).

Descriptive methodology how the doctrine of the structure of scientific knowledge, the laws of scientific knowledge serves as a guide in the research process, and prescriptive aimed at regulating activity. IN normative methodological analysis dominated constructive tasks related to the development of positive recommendations and rules for the implementation of scientific activities. Descriptive analysis having dealt with a retrospective description of already implemented processes of scientific knowledge.

In understanding the methodology of education, one can single out two aspects :

First, the methodology of education is understood as systematic presentation of leading ideas(philosophical, psychological, pedagogical, etc.), which become the guiding principles in scientific and practical activities and in the formation of the content of the study; it is precisely this understanding of the methodology of education that is meant when one speaks of the methodological foundations of a separate study or of the methodological foundations of a teacher's professional position;

Secondly, the methodology of education is normative knowledge about the ways of organizing scientific research in education, its program, logic, main characteristics, methods for assessing the quality of research work.

Education methodology- this is the doctrine of the psychological and pedagogical knowledge itself, the laws of its development, the principles of the approach and methods of obtaining it, the categorical apparatus, the foundations and structure of the psychological and pedagogical theory.

Methods of pedagogical research in contrast to the methodology - it is themselves ways of studying pedagogical phenomena, receiving scientific information about them in order to establish regular connections, relationships and build scientific theories. All their diversity can be divided into groups : theoretical research methods ,methods empirical knowledge pedagogical phenomena(methods of studying pedagogical experience, experimental methods, methods of pedagogical testing, mathematical and statistical methods .

In accordance with the logic of scientific research, the development of research methods . She represents a complex of theoretical and empirical methods, the combination of which makes it possible to explore such a complex and multifunctional object as the educational process with the greatest reliability. The use of a number of methods makes it possible to comprehensively study the problem under study, all its aspects and parameters.

Functions of methodology in the science and practice of education. Under function understood connection of any component with the system, its purpose, role in this system. Accordingly, the significance of methodology is most fully revealed by its functions in the theory and practice of education, as well as in the professional activities of a teacher.

Education methodology performs various functions.

cognitive function consists in obtaining a system of new knowledge. Their content includes knowledge about the ways and means of improving the efficiency and quality of psychological and pedagogical research, about the patterns and trends in the development of psychological and pedagogical sciences in their inseparable connection with the practice of education, about methods for assessing the quality of research work, the rules for carrying out scientific activities, methods of constructing and substantiation of theories and concepts of educational activity.

Critical function allows the teacher to realize the need to transform pedagogical reality, since the knowledge gained demonstrates the gap between what is at the moment and what is necessary for successful development education systems. Having identified "blank spots" in the psychological and pedagogical sciences, the methodology of education offers ways to eliminate them.

Realizing reflective function. the methodology of education, as it were, rises above the psychological and pedagogical sciences and looks at them from above; At the same time, she is not interested in educational practice, but in how scientists explore reality - a kind of self-knowledge process is going on. The main methodological skill of a teacher is the ability to comprehend one's activity (to reflect on one's activity) in terms of psychological and pedagogical sciences.

The most important regularity of the methodology of education is the internal dependence and interconnection of the goal, content, philosophical and general scientific attitudes, principles and means of research.

In the structure of methodological knowledge, E. G. Yudin singles out four levels : philosophical, general scientific, concrete scientific and technological. Content first , higher, philosophical level of methodology constitute general principles of cognition and the categorical structure of science as a whole. Methodological functions are performed by the entire system of philosophical knowledge.

Second level - general scientific methodology - represents theoretical concepts that apply to all or most scientific disciplines.

Third level - concrete scientific methodology , i.e. a set of methods, principles of research and procedures used in a particular scientific discipline. The methodology of a particular science includes both problems specific to scientific knowledge in a given area and questions put forward at higher levels of methodology, such as, for example, problems of a systematic approach or modeling in pedagogical research.

Fourth level - technological methodology - make up methodology and research technique, i.e. a set of procedures that ensure the receipt of reliable empirical material and its primary processing, after which it can be included in the array of scientific knowledge. At this level, methodological knowledge has a clearly expressed normative character.

All levels of methodology form a complex system within which there is a certain subordination between them. At the same time, the philosophical level acts as the substantive basis of any methodological knowledge, defining worldview approaches to the process of cognition and transformation of reality.