Reviewer: Professor of the Department of Physics named after A. M. Fabrikant of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute (Technical University) V. A. Kasyanov

ISBN 5-06-003634-0  State Unitary Enterprise "Publishing House" graduate School", 2001

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Vysshaya Shkola publishing house, and its reproduction (reproduction) in any way without the consent of the publisher is prohibited.

Foreword

The textbook is written in accordance with the current program of the physics course For engineering and technical specialties of higher educational institutions and is intended for students of higher technical educational institutions of full-time education with a limited number of hours in physics, with the possibility of using it in evening and correspondence courses.

small volume study guide achieved through careful selection and concise presentation of the material.

The book consists of seven parts. The first part provides a systematic presentation physical foundations classical mechanics, as well as elements of the special (private) theory of relativity. The second part is about the basics molecular physics and thermodynamics. In the third part, electrostatics, constant electricity and electromagnetism. In the fourth part, devoted to the exposition of the theory of oscillations and will, mechanical and electromagnetic oscillations are considered in parallel, their similarities and differences are indicated, and the physical processes occurring during the corresponding oscillations are compared. The fifth part deals with the elements of geometric and electronic optics, wave optics and the quantum nature of radiation. The sixth part is devoted to the elements of quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids. The seventh part outlines the elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles.

The presentation of the material is carried out without cumbersome mathematical calculations, due attention is paid to the physical essence of phenomena and the concepts and laws that describe them, as well as to the continuity of modern and classical physics. All biographical data are given according to the book by Yu. A. Khramov "Physics" (M .: Nauka, 1983).

To designate vector quantities all figures and text are in bold type, except for the values ​​indicated in Greek letters, which, for technical reasons, are typed in light type with an arrow in the text.

The author expresses his deep gratitude to colleagues and readers, whose kind remarks and suggestions contributed to the improvement of the book. I am especially grateful to Professor V. A. Kasyanov for reviewing the textbook and for his comments.

Introduction

The subject of physics and its relationship with other sciences

The world around you, everything that exists around you and that we discover through sensations, is matter.

Motion is an integral property of matter and the form of its existence. Movement in the broad sense of the word is all kinds of changes in matter - from simple displacement to the most complex processes of thinking.

Various forms of motion of matter are studied various sciences, including physics. The subject of physics, as, indeed, of any science, can be revealed only as it is presented in detail. It is rather difficult to give a strict definition of the subject of physics, because the boundaries between physics and a number of related disciplines are arbitrary. At this stage of development, it is impossible to keep the definition of physics only as a science of nature.

Academician A.F. Ioffe (1880-1960; Russian physicist) * defined physics as a science that studies general properties and the laws of motion of matter and field. It is now generally accepted that all interactions are carried out through fields, such as gravitational, electromagnetic, fields nuclear forces. The field, along with matter, is one of the forms of existence of matter. The inextricable connection between the field and matter, as well as the difference in their properties, will be considered as the course progresses.

*All data are given according to Yu. A. Khramov's biographical guide "Physics" (M.: Nauka, 1983).

Physics is the science of the simplest and at the same time the most general forms of the motion of matter and their mutual transformations. The forms of matter motion studied by physics (mechanical, thermal, etc.) are present in all higher and more complex forms of matter motion (chemical, biological, etc.). Therefore they, being the simplest, are at the same time the most general forms of motion of matter. Higher and more complex forms of the motion of matter are the subject of study of other sciences (chemistry, biology, etc.).

Physics is closely related to the natural sciences. This close connection of physics with other branches of natural science, as academician S. I. Vavilov (1891-1955; Russian physicist and public figure) noted, led to the fact that physics has grown into astronomy, geology, chemistry, biology and other natural sciences with the deepest roots. . As a result, a number of new related disciplines were formed, such as astrophysics, biophysics, etc.

Physics is also closely connected with technology, and this connection has a two-way character. Physics grew out of the needs of technology (the development of mechanics among the ancient Greeks, for example, was caused by the demands of construction and military equipment that time), and technology, in turn, determines the direction of physical research (for example, at one time the task of creating the most economical heat engines caused the rapid development of thermodynamics). On the other hand, the technical level of production depends on the development of physics. Physics is the basis for the creation of new branches of technology (electronic technology, nuclear technology, etc.).

The rapid pace of development of physics, its growing ties with technology indicate the significant role of the physics course in the technical college: this is the fundamental basis for the theoretical training of an engineer, without which his successful activity is impossible.

Units of physical quantities

The main method of research in physics is experience - based on practice, sensory-empirical knowledge of objective reality, i.e., observation of the studied phenomena under precisely taken into account conditions that make it possible to monitor the course of phenomena and repeatedly reproduce it when these conditions are repeated.

Hypotheses are put forward to explain the experimental facts. Hypothesis- this is a scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring experimental verification and theoretical justification in order to become a reliable scientific theory.

As a result of the generalization of experimental facts, as well as the results of people's activities, physical laws - stable repeating objective patterns that exist in nature. The most important laws establish a relationship between physical quantities, for which it is necessary to measure these quantities. The measurement of a physical quantity is an action performed with the help of measuring instruments to find the value of a physical quantity in accepted units. Units physical quantities can be chosen arbitrarily, but then there will be difficulties in comparing them. Therefore, it is advisable to introduce a system of units covering the units of all physical quantities.

To build a system of units, units are arbitrarily chosen for several independent physical quantities. These units are called basic. The remaining quantities and their units are derived from the laws connecting these quantities and their units with the main ones. They're called derivatives.

At present, the International System (SI) is mandatory for use in scientific and educational literature, which is based on seven basic units - meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, candela - and two additional ones - radians and steradians.

Meter(m) is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 s.

Kilogram(kg) - a mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, near Paris).

Second(s) - time equal to 9192631770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.

Ampere(A) - the strength of an unchanging current, which, when passing through two parallel rectilinear conductors of infinite length and negligible cross section, located in vacuum at a distance of 1 m from one another, will create a force between these conductors equal to 210 - 7 N for each meter length.

Kelvin(K) - 1/273.16 part of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

mole(mol) - the amount of substance of a system containing as many structural elements as there are atoms in the 12 C nuclide with a mass of 0.012 kg.

Candela(cd) - light intensity in given direction a source that emits monochromatic radiation with a frequency of 54010 12 Hz, the energy intensity of which in this direction is 1/683 W/sr.

Radian(rad) - the angle between two radii of a circle, the length of the arc between which is equal to the radius.

Steradian(cp) - a solid angle with a vertex in the center of the sphere, cutting out on the surface of the sphere an area equal to the area of ​​a square with a side equal to the radius of the sphere.

To establish derived units, physical laws are used that connect them with basic units. For example, from the formula for uniform rectilinear motion v= s/ t (s – distance traveled, t - time) the derived unit of velocity is 1 m/s.

1 PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS

Chapter 1 Elements of kinematics

§ 1. Models in mechanics. Reference system. Trajectory, path length, displacement vector

Mechanics- a part of physics that studies the laws of mechanical movement and the causes that cause or change this movement. mechanical movement- this is a change over time in the relative position of bodies or their parts.

The development of mechanics as a science begins in the 3rd century. BC e., when the ancient Greek scientist Archimedes (287-212 BC) formulated the law of equilibrium of the lever and the laws of equilibrium of floating bodies. The basic laws of mechanics were established by the Italian physicist and astronomer G. Galileo (1564-1642) and finally formulated by the English scientist I. Newton (1643-1727).

Galileo-Newtonian mechanics is called classical mechanics. It studies the laws of motion of macroscopic bodies whose velocities are small compared to the speed of light c in vacuum. The laws of motion of macroscopic bodies with velocities comparable to the speed c are studied relativistic mechanics, based on special theory of relativity, formulated by A. Einstein (1879-1955). To describe the motion of microscopic bodies (individual atoms and elementary particles), the laws of classical mechanics are inapplicable - they are replaced by the laws whale mechanics.

In the first part of our course, we will study Galileo-Newton mechanics, i.e. consider the motion of macroscopic bodies with velocities much lower than the speed c. In classical mechanics, the concept of space and time, developed by I. Newton and dominating natural science during the 17th-19th centuries, is generally accepted. The mechanics of Galileo-Newton considers space and time as objective forms of the existence of matter, but in isolation from each other and from the movement of material bodies, which corresponded to the level of knowledge of that time.

Mechanics is divided into three sections: I) kinematics; 2) dynamics; 3) static.

Kinematics studies the motion of bodies without considering the causes that determine this motion.

Dynamics studies the laws of motion of bodies and the causes that cause or change this motion.

Statics studies the laws of equilibrium of a system of bodies. If the laws of motion of bodies are known, then the laws of equilibrium can also be established from them. Therefore, physics does not consider the laws of statics separately from the laws of dynamics.

Mechanics to describe the movement of bodies, depending on the conditions of specific tasks, uses different physical models. The simplest model is material point- a body with a mass, the dimensions of which in this problem can be neglected. concept material point- abstract, but its introduction facilitates the solution of practical problems. For example, when studying the movement of planets in orbits around the Sun, one can take them for material points.

An arbitrary macroscopic body or system of bodies can be mentally divided into small interacting parts, each of which is considered as a material point. Then the study of the motion of an arbitrary system of bodies is reduced to the study of a system of material points. In mechanics, one first studies the motion of one material point, and then proceeds to study the motion of a system of material points.

Under the influence of bodies on each other, bodies can be deformed, i.e., change their shape and size. Therefore, another model is introduced in mechanics - an absolutely rigid body. An absolutely rigid body is a body that under no circumstances can be deformed and under all conditions the distance between two points (or more precisely between two particles) of this body remains constant.

Any motion of a rigid body can be represented as a combination of translational and rotational motions. Translational motion is a motion in which any straight line rigidly connected to the moving body remains parallel to its original position. Rotational motion is a motion in which all points of the body move along circles whose centers lie on the same straight line, called the axis of rotation.

The movement of bodies occurs in space and time. Therefore, in order to describe the motion of a material point, it is necessary to know in what places in space this point was and at what moments in time it passed one or another position.

The position of a material point is determined in relation to some other, arbitrarily chosen body, called the reference body. A reference system is associated with it - a set of coordinate systems and clocks associated with the reference body. In the most commonly used Cartesian coordinate system, the position of a point A at a given time with respect to this system is characterized by three coordinates x, y And z or radius vector r drawn from the origin of the coordinate system to given point(Fig. 1).

When a material point moves, its coordinates change over time. In the general case, its motion is determined by the scalar equations

x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t), (1.1)

equivalent to the vector equation

r = r(t). (1.2)

Equations (1.1) and, accordingly, (1.2) are called kinematic equations movements material point.

The number of independent coordinates that completely determine the position of a point in space is called number of degrees of freedom. If a material point moves freely in space, then, as already mentioned, it has three degrees of freedom (coordinates x, y And z), if it moves along some surface, then by two degrees of freedom, if along some line, then by one degree of freedom.

Excluding t in equations (1.1) and (1.2), we obtain the equation for the trajectory of the material point. Trajectory motion of a material point - a line described by this point in space. Depending on the shape of the trajectory, the movement can be rectilinear or curvilinear.

Consider the motion of a material point along an arbitrary trajectory (Fig. 2). Let's start counting the time from the moment when the point was in the position A. Trajectory section length AB, passed by a material point from the moment the time began, is called path length s and is scalar function time:  s = s(t) .Vector r = r -r 0 , drawn from the initial position of the moving point to its position at a given time (increment of the radius-vector of the point over the considered time interval), is called moving.

With rectilinear motion, the displacement vector coincides with the corresponding section of the trajectory and the displacement modulus | r| equal to the distance traveled  s.

§ 2. Speed

To characterize the movement of a material point, a vector quantity is introduced - the speed, which is defined as rapidity movement, as well as direction at this point in time.

Let the material point move along some curvilinear trajectory so that at the moment of time t it corresponds to the radius vector r 0 (Fig. 3). For a short period of time  t point will pass the path  s and will receive an elementary (infinitely small) displacement r.

Average speed vector is the ratio of the increment r of the radius-vector of the point to the time interval  t:

(2.1)

The direction of the average velocity vector coincides with the direction of r. With an unlimited decrease in  t average speed tends to a limiting value, which is called instantaneous speed v:

The instantaneous velocity v, therefore, is a vector quantity equal to the first derivative of the radius-vector of the moving point with respect to time. Since the secant coincides with the tangent in the limit, the velocity vector v is directed tangentially to the trajectory in the direction of motion (Fig. 3). As  decreases t path  s will increasingly approach |r|, so the module of instantaneous velocity

Thus, the module of instantaneous speed is equal to the first derivative of the path with respect to time:

(2.2)

At uneven movement - the instantaneous velocity modulus changes over time. In this case, use the scalar value  v - average speed uneven movement:

From fig. 3 it follows that  v> |v|, because  s> |r|, and only in the case of rectilinear motion

If the expression d s = v d t (see formula (2.2)) integrate over time within the range of t before t + t, then we find the length of the path traveled by the point in time  t:

(2.3)

When uniform motion the numerical value of the instantaneous speed is constant; then expression (2.3) takes the form

The length of the path traveled by a point in the time interval from t 1 to t 2 is given by the integral

§ 3. Acceleration and its components

In the case of uneven motion, it is important to know how quickly the speed changes over time. The physical quantity characterizing the rate of change of speed in absolute value and direction is acceleration.

Consider flat Movement, those. movement in which all parts of the trajectory of a point lie in the same plane. Let the vector v define the speed of the point A at the time t. During the time  t moving point moved to position IN and acquired a speed different from v both in modulus and direction and equal to v 1 = v + v. Move the vector v 1 to the point A and find v (Fig. 4).

Average acceleration uneven movement in the interval from t before t + t called a vector quantity equal to the ratio of the change in speed v to the time interval  t

Instant acceleration a (acceleration) of a material point at time t there will be a limit of average acceleration:

Thus, the acceleration a is a vector quantity equal to the first derivative of the velocity with respect to time.

We decompose the vector v into two components. For this, from the point A(Fig. 4) in the direction of the velocity v, we plot the vector
, modulo equal to v 1 . It is obvious that the vector
, equal
, determines the change in speed over time  t modulo:
. The second component
vector v characterizes the change in speed over time  t towards.

Tangential component of acceleration

i.e., equal to the first time derivative of the modulus of speed, thereby determining the rate of change of speed modulo.

Let's find the second component of acceleration. Let's say the point IN close enough to the point A, so  s can be considered an arc of a circle of some radius r, not much different from a chord AB. Then from the similarity of triangles AOB And EAD follows  v n /AB = v 1 /r, but since AB = vt, That

In the limit at
we get
.

Since , the angle EAD tends to zero, and since the triangle EAD isosceles, then the angle ADE between v and v n tends to be straight. Therefore, for the vectors v n and v are mutually perpendicular. Tax as the velocity vector is directed tangentially to the trajectory, then the vector v n, perpendicular to the velocity vector, is directed to the center of its curvature. The second component of acceleration, equal to

called normal component of acceleration and is directed along the normal to the trajectory to the center of its curvature (which is why it is also called centripetal acceleration).

Full acceleration body is the geometric sum of the tangential and normal components (Fig. 5):

So, tangential acceleration component characterizes rate of change of speed modulo(directed tangentially to the trajectory), and normal acceleration component - rate of change of speed in direction(directed towards the center of curvature of the trajectory).

Depending on the tangential and normal components of acceleration, motion can be classified as follows:

1)
, A n = 0 - rectilinear uniform motion;

2)
, A n = 0 - rectilinear uniform motion. With this type of movement

If initial moment time t 1 =0, and the initial speed v = v T.I. Well physics: [textbook for engineering and technical...

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11th ed., ster. - M.: 2006.- 560 p.

The textbook (9th edition, revised and expanded, 2004) consists of seven parts, which outline the physical foundations of mechanics, molecular physics and thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, optics, quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids, physics atomic nucleus and elementary particles. The question of combining mechanical and electromagnetic oscillations has been rationally resolved. The logical continuity and connection between the classical and modern physics. Given Control questions and tasks for independent solution.

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1. Physical foundations of mechanics.
Chapter 1. Elements of kinematics

§ 1. Models in mechanics. Reference system. Trajectory, path length, displacement vector

§ 2. Speed

§ 3. Acceleration and its components

§ 4. Angular velocity and angular acceleration

Tasks

Chapter 2. Dynamics of a material point and translational motion of a rigid body Force

§ 6. Newton's second law

§ 7. Newton's third law

§ 8. Forces of friction

§ 9. Law of conservation of momentum. Center of mass

§ 10. Equation of motion of a body of variable mass

Tasks

Chapter 3. Work and Energy

§ 11. Energy, work, power

§ 12. Kinetic and potential energies

§ 13. The law of conservation of energy

§ 14. Graphical representation of energy

§ 15. Impact of absolutely elastic and inelastic bodies

Tasks

Chapter 4

§ 16. Moment of inertia

§ 17. Kinetic energy of rotation

§ 18. Moment of force. Equation of dynamics of rotational motion of a rigid body.

§ 19. Angular momentum and the law of its conservation
§ 20. Free axles. Gyroscope
§ 21. Deformations of a rigid body
Tasks

Chapter 5 Elements of field theory
§ 22. Kepler's laws. Law of gravity
§ 23. Gravity and weight. Weightlessness.. 48 y 24. The gravitational field and its intensity
§ 25. Work in the gravitational field. Gravitational field potential
§ 26. Cosmic speeds

§ 27. Non-inertial frames of reference. Forces of inertia
Tasks

Chapter 6
§ 28. Pressure in liquid and gas
§ 29. Continuity equation
§ 30. Bernoull's equation and consequences from it
§ 31. Viscosity (internal friction). Laminar and turbulent regimes of fluid flow
§ 32. Methods for determining viscosity
§ 33. Movement of bodies in liquids and gases

Tasks
Chapter 7
§ 35. Postulates of the special (private) theory of relativity
§ 36. Lorentz transformations
§ 37. Consequences of the Lorentz transformations
§ 38. Interval between events
§ 39. Basic law of relativistic dynamics of a material point
§ 40. The law of the relationship of mass and energy
Tasks

2. Fundamentals of molecular physics and thermodynamics
Chapter 8 ideal gases
§ 41. Research methods. Experienced ideal gas laws
§ 42. Equation of Clapeyron - Mendeleev
§ 43. Basic equation of the molecular-kinetic theory of ideal gases
§ 44. Maxwell's law on the distribution of molecules of an ideal gas according to the velocities and energies of thermal motion
§ 45. Barometric formula. Boltzmann distribution
§ 46. Average number of collisions and mean free path of molecules
§ 47. Experimental substantiation of the molecular-kinetic theory
§ 48. Transport phenomena in thermodynamically nonequilibrium systems
§ 49. Vacuum and methods of obtaining it. Properties of ultra rarefied gases
Tasks

Chapter 9. Fundamentals of thermodynamics.
§ 50. Number of degrees of freedom of a molecule. The law of uniform distribution of energy over the degrees of freedom of molecules
§ 51. The first law of thermodynamics
§ 52. The work of a gas with a change in its volume
§ 53. Heat capacity
§ 54. Application of the first law of thermodynamics to isoprocesses
§ 55. Adiabatic process. Polytropic process
§ 57. Entropy, its statistical interpretation and connection with thermodynamic probability
§ 58. The second law of thermodynamics
§ 59. Heat engines and refrigerators Carnot cycle and its efficiency for an ideal gas
Tasks
Chapter 10
§ 61. Van der Waals equation
§ 62. Van der Waals isotherms and their analysis
§ 63. Internal energy real gas
§ 64. Joule-Thomson effect
§ 65. Liquefaction of gases
§ 66. Properties of liquids. Surface tension
§ 67. Wetting
§ 68. Pressure under the curved surface of a liquid
§ 69. Capillary phenomena
§ 70. Solid bodies. Mono- and polycrystals
§ 71. Types of crystalline solids
§ 72. Defects in crystals
§ 75. Phase transitions of the first and second kind
§ 76. State diagram. triple point
Tasks

3. Electricity and magnetism
Chapter 11
§ 77. The law of conservation of electric charge
§ 78. Coulomb's law
§ 79. Electrostatic field. Electrostatic field strength
§ 80. The principle of superposition of electrostatic fields. dipole field
§ 81. Gauss's theorem for an electrostatic field in vacuum
§ 82. Application of the Gauss theorem to the calculation of some electrostatic fields in vacuum
§ 83. Circulation of the electrostatic field strength vector
§ 84. Potential of an electrostatic field
§ 85. Tension as a potential gradient. Equipotential surfaces
§ 86. Calculation of the potential difference from the field strength
§ 87. Types of dielectrics. Polarization of dielectrics
§ 88. Polarization. Field strength in a dielectric
§ 89. Electrical mixing. Gauss' theorem for an electrostatic field in a dielectric
§ 90. Conditions at the interface between two dielectric media
§ 91. Ferroelectrics
§ 92. Conductors in an electrostatic field
§ 93. Electric capacitance of a solitary conductor
§ 94. Capacitors
§ 95. Energy of a system of charges, a solitary conductor and a capacitor. Electrostatic field energy
Tasks
Chapter 12
§ 96. Electric current, strength and current density
§ 97. External forces. Electromotive force and voltage
§ 98. Ohm's law. Conductor resistance

§ 99. Work and power. Joule-Lenz law
§ 100. Ohm's law for an inhomogeneous section of a chain
§ 101. Kirchhoff's rules for branched circuits
Tasks
Chapter 13
§ 104. Work function of electrons from metal
§ 105. Emission phenomena and their application
§ 106. Ionization of gases. Non-self-sustained gas discharge
§ 107. Independent gas discharge and its types
§ 108. Plasma and its properties
Tasks

Chapter 14
§ 109. Magnetic field and its characteristics
§ 110. Biot-Savart-Laplace law and its application to calculation magnetic field
§ 111. Ampère's law. Interaction of parallel currents
§ 112. Magnetic constant. Units of magnetic induction and magnetic field strength
§ 113. Magnetic field of a moving charge
§ 114. The action of a magnetic field on a moving charge
§ 115. Movement of charged particles in a magnetic field
§ 117. Hall effect
§ 118. Circulation of the vector B of a magnetic field in a vacuum
§ 119. Magnetic fields of the solenoid and toroid
§ 121. Work on moving a conductor and a current-carrying circuit in a magnetic field
Tasks

Chapter 15
§ 122. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (experiments of Faraday
§ 123. Faraday's law and its derivation from the law of conservation of energy
§ 125. Eddy currents (Foucault currents
§ 126. Inductance of the circuit. self induction
§ 127. Currents when opening and closing the circuit
§ 128. Mutual induction
§ 129. Transformers
§130. Magnetic field energy
dachas
Chapter 16
§ 131. Magnetic moments of electrons and atoms
§ 132. Dna- and paramagnetism
§ 133. Magnetization. Magnetic field in matter
§ 134. Conditions at the interface between two magnets
§ 135. Ferromagnets and their properties

§ 136. The nature of ferromagnetism
Tasks
Chapter 17
§ 137. Vortex electric field
§ 138. Displacement current
§ 139. Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field

4. Oscillations and waves.
Chapter 18
§ 140. Harmonic oscillations and their characteristics
§ 141. Mechanical harmonic vibrations
§ 142. Harmonic oscillator. Spring, physical and mathematical pendulums
§ 144. Addition harmonic vibrations same direction and same frequency. beats
§ 145. Addition of mutually perpendicular oscillations
§ 146. Differential equation free damped oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic) and its solution. Self-oscillations
§ 147. Differential equation of forced oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic) and its solution
§ 148. Amplitude and phase of forced oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic). Resonance
§ 149. Alternating current
§ 150. Stress resonance
§ 151. Resonance of currents
§ 152. Power released in the alternating current circuit
Tasks

Chapter 19
§ 153. Wave processes. Longitudinal and transverse waves
§ 154. The equation of a traveling wave. phase speed. wave equation

§ 155. The principle of superposition. group speed
§ 156. Interference of waves
§ 157. standing waves
§ 158. Sound waves
§ 159. Doppler effect in acoustics
§ 160. Ultrasound and its application

Tasks

Chapter 20
§ 161. Experimental production of electromagnetic waves
§ 162. Differential equation of an electromagnetic wave

§ 163. Energy of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic field impulse

§ 164. Radiation of a dipole. Application of electromagnetic waves
Tasks

5. Optics. Quantum nature of radiation.

Chapter 21. Elements of geometric and electronic optics.
§ 165. Basic laws of optics. total reflection
§ 166. Thin lenses. Image of objects using lenses
§ 167. Aberrations (errors) optical systems
§ 168. Basic photometric quantities and their units
Tasks
Chapter 22
§ 170. Development of ideas about the nature of light
§ 171. Coherence and monochromaticity of light waves
§ 172. Interference of light
§ 173. Methods for observing the interference of light
§ 174. Interference of light in thin films
§ 175. Application of light interference
Chapter 23
§ 177. Method of Fresnel zones. Rectilinear propagation of light
§ 178. Fresnel diffraction by a round hole and a disk
§ 179. Fraunhofer diffraction by one slit
§ 180. Fraunhofer diffraction on a diffraction grating
§ 181. Spatial lattice. light scattering
§ 182. Diffraction on a spatial lattice. Wolfe-Braggs formula
§ 183. Resolution of optical instruments
§ 184. The concept of holography
Tasks

Chapter 24. Interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter.
§ 185. Dispersion of light
Section 186. Electronic theory light dispersion
§ 188. Doppler effect
§ 189. Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation

Tasks
Chapter 25
§ 190. Natural and polarized light
§ 191. Polarization of light during reflection and refraction at the boundary of two dielectrics
Section 192. double refraction
§ 193. Polarizing prisms and polaroids
§ 194. Analysis of polarized light

§ 195. Artificial optical anisotropy
§ 196. Rotation of the plane of polarization

Tasks

Chapter 26. Quantum nature of radiation.
§ 197. Thermal radiation and its characteristics.

§ 198. Kirchhoff's law
§ 199. Stefan-Boltzmann laws and Wien displacements

§ 200. Formulas of Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck.
§ 201. Optical pyrometry. Thermal light sources
§ 203. Einstein's equation for the external photoelectric effect. Experimental confirmation of the quantum properties of light
§ 204. Application of the photoelectric effect
§ 205. Mass and momentum of a photon. light pressure
§ 206. The Compton effect and its elementary theory
§ 207. Unity of corpuscular and wave properties of electromagnetic radiation
Tasks

6. Elements of quantum physics

Chapter 27. Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom.

§ 208. Models of the atom by Thomson and Rutherford
§ 209. Line spectrum of the hydrogen atom
§ 210. Bohr's postulates
§ 211. Frank's experiments in Hertz
§ 212. The spectrum of the hydrogen atom according to Bohr

Tasks

Chapter 28
§ 213. Corpuscular-wave dualism of the properties of matter
§ 214. Some properties of de Broglie waves
§ 215. Uncertainty relation
§ 216. Wave function and its statistical meaning
§ 217. The general Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger equation for stationary states
§ 218. The principle of causality in quantum mechanics
§ 219. Motion of a free particle
§ 222. Linear harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics
Tasks
Chapter 29
§ 223. Hydrogen atom in quantum mechanics
§ 224. L-state of an electron in a hydrogen atom
§ 225. Electron spin. Spin quantum number
§ 226. The principle of indistinguishability of identical particles. Fermions and bosons
Mendeleev
§ 229. X-ray spectra
§ 231. Molecular spectra. Raman scattering of light
§ 232. Absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission
(lasers
Tasks
Chapter 30
§ 234. Quantum statistics. phase space. distribution function
§ 235. The concept of Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac quantum statistics
§ 236. Degenerate electron gas in metals
§ 237. The concept of the quantum theory of heat capacity. Phonols
§ 238. Conclusions of the quantum theory of electrical conductivity of metals
! Joseph effect
Tasks
Chapter 31
§ 240. The concept of the zone theory of solids
§ 241. Metals, dielectrics and semiconductors according to zone theory
§ 242. Intrinsic conductivity of semiconductors
§ 243. Impurity conductivity of semiconductors
§ 244. Photoconductivity of semiconductors
§ 245. Luminescence of solids
§ 246. Contact of two metals according to the band theory
§ 247. Thermoelectric phenomena and their application
§ 248. Rectification at a metal-semiconductor contact
§ 250. Semiconductor diodes and triodes (transistors
Tasks

7. Elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles.

Chapter 32

§ 252. Mass defect and binding energy, nuclei

§ 253. Spin of the nucleus and its magnetic moment

§ 254. Nuclear forces. Kernel Models

§ 255. Radioactive radiation and its types Displacement rules

§ 257. Regularities of a-decay

§ 259. Gamma radiation and its properties.

§ 260. Resonant absorption of y-radiation (Mössbauer effect

§ 261. Methods of observation and registration of radioactive radiation and particles

§ 262. Nuclear reactions and their main types

§ 263. Positron. /> -Decomposition. Electronic capture

§ 265. Nuclear fission reaction
§ 266. Chain reaction of fission
§ 267. The concept of nuclear energy
§ 268. The reaction of the fusion of atomic nuclei. The Problem of the Managed thermonuclear reactions
Tasks
Chapter 33
§ 269. Cosmic radiation
§ 270. Muons and their properties
§ 271. Mesons and their properties
§ 272. Types of interactions of elementary particles
§ 273. Particles and antiparticles
§ 274. Hyperons. Strangeness and parity of elementary particles
§ 275. Classification of elementary particles. Quarks
Tasks
Basic laws and formulas
1. Physical foundations of mechanics
2. Fundamentals of molecular physics and thermodynamics
4. Oscillations and waves
5. Optics. The quantum nature of radiation
6. Elements of quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids

7. Elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles
Subject index

Name: Physics course. 1990.

The manual is compiled in accordance with the physics program for university students. It consists of seven parts, which outline the physical foundations of mechanics, molecular physics and thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, optics, quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids, physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles. The manual establishes the logical continuity and connection between classical and modern physics.
Changes have been made to the second edition (1st-1985), control questions and tasks for independent solution are given.

The textbook is written in accordance with the current program of the physics course for engineering and technical specialties of higher educational institutions.
The small volume of the textbook is achieved through careful selection and concise presentation of the material.
The book consists of seven parts. In the first part, a systematic presentation of the physical foundations of classical mechanics is given, and elements of the special (particular) theory of relativity are also considered. The second part is devoted to the fundamentals of molecular physics and thermodynamics. The third part deals with electrostatics, direct electric current and electromagnetism. In the fourth part, devoted to the presentation of oscillations and waves, mechanical and electromagnetic oscillations are considered in parallel, their similarities and differences are indicated, and the physical processes occurring during the corresponding oscillations are compared. The fifth part deals with the elements of geometric and electronic optics, wave optics and the quantum nature of radiation. The sixth part is devoted to the elements of quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids. The seventh part outlines the elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Introduction
The subject of physics and its relationship with other sciences
Units of physical quantities
1. Physical foundations of mechanics.
Chapter 1. Elements of kinematics
§ 1. Models in mechanics. Reference system. Trajectory, path length, displacement vector
§ 2. Speed
§ 3. Acceleration and its components
§ 4. Angular velocity and angular acceleration
Tasks
Chapter 2. Dynamics of a material point and translational motion of a rigid body Force
§ 6. Newton's second law
§ 7. Newton's third law
§ 8. Forces of friction
§ 9. Law of conservation of momentum. Center of mass
§ 10. Equation of motion of a body of variable mass
Tasks
Chapter 3. Work and Energy
§ 11. Energy, work, power
§ 12. Kinetic and potential energies
§ 13. The law of conservation of energy
§ 14. Graphical representation of energy
§ 15. Impact of absolutely elastic and inelastic bodies
Tasks
Chapter 4
§ 16. Moment of inertia
§ 17. Kinetic energy of rotation
§ 18. Moment of force. Equation of dynamics rotary motion solid body.
§ 19. Angular momentum and the law of its conservation
§ 20. Free axles. Gyroscope
§ 21. Deformations of a rigid body
Tasks
Chapter 5 Elements of field theory
§ 22. Kepler's laws. Law of gravity
§ 23. Gravity and weight. Weightlessness 48 y 24. Gravitational field and its intensity
§ 25. Work in the gravitational field. Gravitational field potential
§ 26. Cosmic speeds
§ 27. Non-inertial frames of reference. Forces of inertia
Tasks
Chapter 6
§ 28. Pressure in liquid and gas
§ 29. Continuity equation
§ 30. Bernoull's equation and consequences from it
§ 31. Viscosity (internal friction). Laminar and turbulent regimes of fluid flow
§ 32. Methods for determining viscosity
§ 33. Movement of bodies in liquids and gases
Tasks
Chapter 7
§ 35. Postulates of the special (private) theory of relativity
§ 36. Lorentz transformations
§ 37. Consequences of the Lorentz transformations
§ 38. Interval between events
§ 39. Basic law of relativistic dynamics of a material point
§ 40. The law of the relationship of mass and energy
Tasks

Chapter 8
§ 41. Research methods. Experienced ideal gas laws
§ 42. Equation of Clapeyron - Mendeleev
§ 43. Basic equation of the molecular-kinetic theory of ideal gases
§ 44. Maxwell's law on the distribution of molecules of an ideal gas according to the velocities and energies of thermal motion
§ 45. Barometric formula. Boltzmann distribution
§ 46. Average number of collisions and mean free path of molecules
§ 47. Experimental substantiation of the molecular-kinetic theory
§ 48. Transport phenomena in thermodynamically nonequilibrium systems
§ 49. Vacuum and methods of obtaining it. Properties of ultra rarefied gases
Tasks
Chapter 9. Fundamentals of thermodynamics.
§ 50. Number of degrees of freedom of a molecule. The law of uniform distribution of energy over the degrees of freedom of molecules
§ 51. The first law of thermodynamics
§ 52. The work of a gas with a change in its volume
§ 53. Heat capacity
§ 54. Application of the first law of thermodynamics to isoprocesses
§ 55. Adiabatic process. Polytropic process
§ 57. Entropy, its statistical interpretation and connection with thermodynamic probability
§ 58. The second law of thermodynamics
§ 59. Heat engines and refrigerators Carnot cycle and its efficiency for an ideal gas
Tasks
Chapter 10
§ 61. Van der Waals equation
§ 62. Van der Waals isotherms and their analysis
§ 63. Internal energy of a real gas
§ 64. Joule-Thomson effect
§ 65. Liquefaction of gases
§ 66. Properties of liquids. Surface tension
§ 67. Wetting
§ 68. Pressure under the curved surface of a liquid
§ 69. Capillary phenomena
§ 70. Solid bodies. Mono- and polycrystals
§ 71. Types of crystalline solids
§ 72. Defects in crystals
§ 75. Phase transitions of the first and second kind
§ 76. State diagram. triple point
Tasks
3. Electricity and magnetism
Chapter 11
§ 77. The law of conservation of electric charge
§ 78. Coulomb's law
§ 79. Electrostatic field. Electrostatic field strength
§ 80. The principle of superposition of electrostatic fields. dipole field
§ 81. Gauss's theorem for an electrostatic field in vacuum
§ 82. Application of the Gauss theorem to the calculation of some electrostatic fields in vacuum
§ 83. Circulation of the electrostatic field intensity vector
§ 84. Potential of an electrostatic field
§ 85. Tension as a potential gradient. Equipotential surfaces
§ 86. Calculation of the potential difference from the field strength
§ 87. Types of dielectrics. Polarization of dielectrics
§ 88. Polarization. Field strength in a dielectric
§ 89. Electrical mixing. Gauss' theorem for an electrostatic field in a dielectric
§ 90. Conditions at the interface between two dielectric media
§ 91. Ferroelectrics
§ 92. Conductors in an electrostatic field
§ 93. Electric capacitance of a solitary conductor
§ 94. Capacitors
§ 95. Energy of a system of charges, a solitary conductor and a capacitor. Electrostatic field energy
Tasks
Chapter 12
§ 96. Electric current, strength and current density
§ 97. External forces. Electromotive force and voltage
§ 98. Ohm's law. Conductor resistance
§ 99. Work and power. Joule-Lenz law
§ 100. Ohm's law for an inhomogeneous section of a chain
§ 101. Kirchhoff's rules for branched circuits
Tasks
Chapter 13
§ 104. Work function of electrons from metal
§ 105. Emission phenomena and their application
§ 106. Ionization of gases. Non-self-sustained gas discharge
§ 107. Independent gas discharge and its types
§ 108. Plasma and its properties
Tasks
Chapter 14
§ 109. Magnetic field and its characteristics
§ 110. Law Biot - Savart - Laplace and its application to the calculation of the magnetic field
§ 111. Ampère's law. Interaction of parallel currents
§ 112. Magnetic constant. Units of magnetic induction and magnetic field strength
§ 113. Magnetic field of a moving charge
§ 114. The action of a magnetic field on a moving charge
§ 115. Movement of charged particles in a magnetic field
§ 117. Hall effect
§ 118. Circulation of the vector B of a magnetic field in a vacuum
§ 119. Magnetic fields of the solenoid and toroid
§ 121. Work on moving a conductor and a current-carrying circuit in a magnetic field
Tasks
Chapter 15
§ 122. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (experiments of Faraday
§ 123. Faraday's law and its derivation from the law of conservation of energy
§ 125. Eddy currents (Foucault currents
§ 126. Inductance of the circuit. self induction
§ 127. Currents when opening and closing the circuit
§ 128. Mutual induction
§ 129. Transformers
§130. Magnetic field energy
Tasks
Chapter 16
§ 131. Magnetic moments of electrons and atoms
§ 132. Dna- and paramagnetism
§ 133. Magnetization. Magnetic field in matter
§ 134. Conditions at the interface between two magnets
§ 135. Ferromagnets and their properties
§ 136. The nature of ferromagnetism
Tasks
Chapter 17
§ 137. Vortex electric field
§ 138. Displacement current
§ 139. Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field
4. Oscillations and waves.
Chapter 18
§ 140. Harmonic oscillations and their characteristics
§ 141. Mechanical harmonic oscillations
§ 142. Harmonic oscillator. Spring, physical and mathematical pendulums
§ 144. Addition of harmonic oscillations of the same direction and the same frequency. beats
§ 145. Addition of mutually perpendicular oscillations
§ 146. Differential equation of free damped oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic) and its solution. Self-oscillations
§ 147. Differential equation of forced oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic) and its solution
§ 148. Amplitude and phase of forced oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic). Resonance
§ 149. Alternating current
§ 150. Stress resonance
§ 151. Resonance of currents
§ 152. Power released in the alternating current circuit
Tasks
Chapter 19
§ 153. Wave processes. Longitudinal and transverse waves
§ 154. The equation of a traveling wave. phase speed. wave equation
§ 155. The principle of superposition. group speed
§ 156. Interference of waves
§ 157. Standing waves
§ 158. Sound waves
§ 159. Doppler effect in acoustics
§ 160. Ultrasound and its application
Tasks
Chapter 20
§ 161. Experimental production of electromagnetic waves
§ 162. Differential equation of an electromagnetic wave
§ 163. Energy of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic field impulse
§ 164. Radiation of a dipole. Application of electromagnetic waves
Tasks
5. Optics. Quantum nature of radiation.
Chapter 21. Elements of geometric and electronic optics.
§ 165. Basic laws of optics. total reflection
§ 166. Thin lenses. Image of objects using lenses
§ 167. Aberrations (errors) of optical systems
§ 168. Basic photometric quantities and their units
Tasks
Chapter 22
§ 170. Development of ideas about the nature of light
§ 171. Coherence and monochromaticity of light waves
§ 172. Interference of light
§ 173. Methods for observing the interference of light
§ 174. Interference of light in thin films
§ 175. Application of light interference
Chapter 23
§ 177. Method of Fresnel zones. Rectilinear propagation of light
§ 178. Fresnel diffraction by a round hole and a disk
§ 179. Fraunhofer diffraction by one slit
§ 180. Fraunhofer diffraction on a diffraction grating
§ 181. Spatial lattice. light scattering
§ 182. Diffraction on a spatial lattice. Wolfe-Braggs formula
§ 183. Resolution of optical instruments
§ 184. The concept of holography
Tasks
Chapter 24. Interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter.
§ 185. Dispersion of light
§ 186. Electronic theory of light dispersion
§ 188. Doppler effect
§ 189. Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation
Tasks
Chapter 25
§ 190. Natural and polarized light
§ 191. Polarization of light during reflection and refraction at the boundary of two dielectrics
§ 192. Double refraction
§ 193. Polarizing prisms and polaroids
§ 194. Analysis of polarized light
§ 195. Artificial optical anisotropy
§ 196. Rotation of the plane of polarization
Tasks
Chapter 26. Quantum nature of radiation.
§ 197. Thermal radiation and its characteristics.
§ 198. Kirchhoff's law
§ 199. Stefan-Boltzmann laws and Wien displacements
§ 200. Formulas of Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck.
§ 201. Optical pyrometry. Thermal light sources
§ 203. Einstein's equation for the external photoelectric effect. Experimental confirmation of the quantum properties of light
§ 204. Application of the photoelectric effect
§ 205. Mass and momentum of a photon. light pressure
§ 206. The Compton effect and its elementary theory
§ 207. Unity of corpuscular and wave properties of electromagnetic radiation
Tasks
6. Elements of quantum physics
Chapter 27. Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom.
§ 208. Models of the atom by Thomson and Rutherford
§ 209. Line spectrum of the hydrogen atom
§ 210. Bohr's postulates
§ 211. Frank's experiments in Hertz
§ 212. The spectrum of the hydrogen atom according to Bohr
Tasks
Chapter 28
§ 213. Corpuscular-wave dualism of the properties of matter
§ 214. Some properties of de Broglie waves
§ 215. Uncertainty relation
§ 216. Wave function and its statistical meaning
§ 217. The general Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger equation for stationary states
§ 218. The principle of causality in quantum mechanics
§ 219. Motion of a free particle
§ 222. Linear harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics
Tasks
Chapter 29
§ 223. Hydrogen atom in quantum mechanics
§ 224. L-state of an electron in a hydrogen atom
§ 225. Electron spin. Spin quantum number
§ 226. The principle of indistinguishability of identical particles. Fermions and bosons
Mendeleev
§ 229. X-ray spectra
§ 231. Molecular spectra. Raman scattering of light
§ 232. Absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission
(lasers
Tasks
Chapter 30
§ 234. Quantum statistics. phase space. distribution function
§ 235. The concept of Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac quantum statistics
§ 236. Degenerate electron gas in metals
§ 237. The concept of the quantum theory of heat capacity. Phonols
§ 238. Conclusions of the quantum theory of electrical conductivity of metals by the Josephson effect
Tasks
Chapter 31
§ 240. The concept of the zone theory of solids
§ 241. Metals, dielectrics and semiconductors according to zone theory
§ 242. Intrinsic conductivity of semiconductors
§ 243. Impurity conductivity of semiconductors
§ 244. Photoconductivity of semiconductors
§ 245. Luminescence of solids
§ 246. Contact of two metals according to the band theory
§ 247. Thermoelectric phenomena and their application
§ 248. Rectification at a metal-semiconductor contact
§ 250. Semiconductor diodes and triodes (transistors
Tasks
7. Elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles.
Chapter 32
§ 252. Mass defect and binding energy, nuclei
§ 253. Spin of the nucleus and its magnetic moment
§ 254. Nuclear forces. Kernel Models
§ 255. Radioactive radiation and its types Displacement rules
§ 257. Regularities of a-decay
§ 259. Gamma radiation and its properties
§ 260. Resonant absorption of γ-radiation (Mössbauer effect)
§ 261. Methods of observation and registration of radioactive radiation and particles
§ 262. Nuclear reactions and their main types
§ 263. Positron. Decay. Electronic capture
§ 265. Nuclear fission reaction
§ 266. Chain reaction of fission
§ 267. The concept of nuclear energy
§ 268. The reaction of the fusion of atomic nuclei. The problem of controlled thermonuclear reactions
Tasks
Chapter 33
§ 269. Cosmic radiation
§ 270. Muons and their properties
§ 271. Mesons and their properties
§ 272. Types of interactions of elementary particles
§ 273. Particles and antiparticles
§ 274. Hyperons. Strangeness and parity of elementary particles
§ 275. Classification of elementary particles. Quarks
Tasks
Basic laws and formulas
1. Physical foundations of mechanics
2. Fundamentals of molecular physics and thermodynamics
4. Oscillations and waves
5. Optics. The quantum nature of radiation
6. Elements of quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids
7. Elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles
Subject index

The textbook (9th edition, revised and expanded, 2004) consists of seven parts, which outline the physical foundations of mechanics, molecular physics and thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, optics, quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids, atomic physics nucleus and elementary particles. The question of combining mechanical and electromagnetic oscillations has been rationally resolved. The logical continuity and connection between classical and modern physics is established. Control questions and tasks for independent solution are given.
For students of engineering and technical specialties of higher educational institutions.

ELEMENTS OF KINEMATICS.
Mechanics is a part of physics that studies the patterns of mechanical movement and the causes that cause or change this movement. Mechanical movement is a change over time in the relative position of bodies or their parts.

The development of mechanics as a science begins in the 3rd century. BC, when the ancient Greek scientist Archimedes (287 - 212 BC) formulated the law of equilibrium of the lever and the laws of equilibrium of floating bodies. The basic laws of mechanics were established by the Italian physicist and astronomer G. Galileo (1564-1642) and finally formulated by the English scientist I. Newton (1643-1727).

The mechanics of Galileo - Newton is called classical mechanics. It studies the laws of motion of macroscopic bodies whose velocities are small compared to the speed of light c in vacuum. The laws of motion of macroscopic bodies with velocities comparable to c are studied by relativistic mechanics based on the special theory of relativity formulated by A. Einstein (1879-1955). To describe the motion of microscopic bodies (individual atoms and elementary particles), the laws of classical mechanics are inapplicable - they are replaced by the laws of quantum mechanics.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 2
Introduction 2
The subject of physics and its relationship with other sciences 2
Units of physical quantities 3
1 PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS 4
Chapter 1 Kinematic Elements 4
§ 1. Models in mechanics. Reference system. Trajectory, path length, displacement vector 4
§ 2. Speed ​​6
§ 3. Acceleration and its components 7
§ 4. Angular velocity and angular acceleration 9
Chapter 2 Dynamics of a material point and translational motion of a rigid body 11
§ 5. Newton's first law. Weight. Strength 11
§ 6. Newton's second law 11
§ 7. Newton's third law 13
§ 8. Forces of friction 13
§ 9. Law of conservation of momentum. Center of gravity 14
§ 10. Equation of motion of a body of variable mass 16
Chapter 3 Work and Energy 17
§eleven. Energy, work, power 17
§ 12. Kinetic and potential energies 18
§ 13. Law of conservation of energy 20
§ 14. Graphical representation of energy 22
§ 15. Impact of absolutely elastic and inelastic bodies 23
Chapter 4 Solid Mechanics 27
§ 16. Moment of inertia 27
§ 17. Kinetic energy of rotation 28
§ 18. Moment of force. The equation of dynamics of rotational motion of a rigid body 28
§ 19. Angular momentum and conservation law 29
§ 20. Free axles. Gyroscope 32
§ 21. Deformations of a rigid body 34
Chapter 5 Gravity. Elements of field theory 36
§ 22. Kepler's laws. Law of gravity 36
§ 23. Gravity and weight. Weightlessness 37
§ 24. Gravitational field and tension 38
§ 25. Work in the gravitational field. Gravitational field potential 38
§ 26. Cosmic speeds 40
§ 27. Non-inertial frames of reference. Forces of inertia 40
Chapter 6 Elements of Fluid Mechanics 44
§ 28. Pressure in liquid and gas 44
§ 29. Continuity equation 45
§ 30. Bernoulli's equation and its consequences 46
§ 31. Viscosity (internal friction). Laminar and turbulent regimes of fluid flow 48
§ 32. Methods for determining viscosity 50
§ 33. Movement of bodies in liquids and gases 51
Chapter 7 Elements of special (private) relativity 53
§ 34. Galilean transformations. Mechanical principle of relativity 53
§ 35. Postulates of the special (particular) theory of relativity 54
§ 36. Lorentz transformations 55
§ 37. Consequences of the Lorentz transformations 56
§ 38. Interval between events 59
§ 39. Basic law of relativistic dynamics of a material point 60
§ 40. The law of the relationship of mass and energy 61
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MOLECULAR PHYSICS AND THERMODYNAMICS 63
Chapter 8 Molecular Kinetic Theory of Ideal Gases 63
§ 41. Statistical and thermodynamic methods. Experimental laws of ideal gas 63
§ 42. Equation of Clapeyron - Mendeleev 66
§ 43. Basic equation of the molecular-kinetic theory of ideal gases 67
§ 44. Maxwell's law on the distribution of molecules of an ideal gas according to the velocities and energies of thermal motion 69
§ 45. Barometric formula. Boltzmann distribution 71
§ 46. Average number of collisions and mean free path of molecules 72
§ 47. Experimental substantiation of the molecular-kinetic theory 73
§ 48. Transport phenomena in thermodynamically nonequilibrium systems 74
§ 48. Vacuum and methods of obtaining it. Properties of ultra rarefied gases 76
Chapter 9 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 78
§ 50. Number of degrees of freedom of a molecule. The law of uniform distribution of energy over the degrees of freedom of molecules 78
§ 51. The first law of thermodynamics 79
§ 52. The work of a gas with a change in its volume 80
§ 53. Heat capacity 81
§ 54. Application of the first law of thermodynamics to isoprocesses 82
§ 55. Adiabatic process. Polytropic process 84
§ 56. Circular process (cycle). Reversible and irreversible processes 86
§ 57. Entropy, its statistical interpretation and connection with thermodynamic probability 87
§ 58. The second law of thermodynamics 89
§ 59. Heat engines and refrigerators. The Carnot cycle and its efficiency for an ideal gas 90
Tasks 92
Chapter 10 Real Gases, Liquids, and Solids 93
§ 60. Forces and potential energy of intermolecular interaction 93
§ 61. Van der Waals Equation 94
§ 62. Van der Waals isotherms and their analysis 95
§ 63. Internal energy of a real gas 97
§ 64. Joule-Thomson effect 98
§ 65. Liquefaction of gases 99
§ 66. Properties of liquids. Surface tension 100
§ 67. Wetting 102
§ 68. Pressure under the curved surface of a liquid 103
§ 69. Capillary phenomena 104
§ 70. Solid bodies. Mono- and polycrystals 104
§ 71. Types of crystalline solids 105
§ 72. Defects in crystals 109
§ 73. Heat capacity of solids 110
§ 74. Evaporation, sublimation, melting and crystallization. Amorphous bodies 111
§ 75. Phase transitions I and II of kind 113
§ 76. State diagram. Triple dot 114
Tasks 115
3 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTROMAGNETISM 116
Chapter 11 Electrostatics 116
§ 77. The law of conservation of electric charge 116
§ 78. Coulomb's Law 117
§ 79. Electrostatic field. Electrostatic field strength 117
§ 80. The principle of superposition of electrostatic fields. Dipole field 119
§ 81. Gauss's theorem for an electrostatic field in vacuum 120
§ 82. Application of the Gauss theorem to the calculation of some electrostatic fields in vacuum 122
§ 83. Circulation of the electrostatic field strength vector 124
§ 84. Potential of the electrostatic field 125
§ 85. Tension as a potential gradient. Equipotential surfaces 126
§ 86. Calculation of the potential difference from the field strength 127
§ 87. Types of dielectrics. Polarization of dielectrics 128
§ 88. Polarization. Field strength in a dielectric 129
§ 88. Electrical displacement. Gauss' theorem for an electrostatic field in a dielectric 130
§ 90. Conditions at the interface between two dielectric media 131
§ 91. Ferroelectrics 132
§ 92. Conductors in an electrostatic field 134
§ 93. Electric capacitance of a solitary conductor 136
§ 94. Capacitors 136
§ 95. Energy of a system of charges, a solitary conductor and a capacitor. Electrostatic field energy 138
Tasks 140
Chapter 12 Direct Electric Current 141
§ 96. Electric current, strength and current density 141
§ 97. External forces. Electromotive force and voltage 142
§ 98. Ohm's law. Conductor resistance 143
§ 99. Work and current power. Joule-Lenz Law 144
§ 100. Ohm's law for an inhomogeneous section of a chain 145
§ 101. Kirchhoff's rules for branched circuits 146
Tasks 148
Chapter 13 Electric currents in metals, vacuum and gases 148
§ 102. Elementary classical theory of electrical conductivity of metals 148
§ 103. Derivation of the basic laws of electric current in classical theory electrical conductivity of metals 149
§ 104. Work function of electrons from metal 151
§ 105. Emission phenomena and their application 152
§ 106. Ionization of gases. Non-self-sustained gas discharge 154
§ 107. Independent gas discharge and its types 155
§ 108. Plasma and its properties 158
Tasks 159
Chapter 14 Magnetic Field 159
§ 109. Magnetic field and its characteristics 159
§ 110. Law of Biot - Savart - Laplace and its application to the calculation of the magnetic field 162
§ 111. Ampère's law. Interaction of parallel currents 163
§ 112. Magnetic constant. Units of magnetic induction and magnetic field strength 164
§ 113. Magnetic field of a moving charge 165
§ 114. Action of a magnetic field on a moving charge 166
§ 115. Movement of charged particles in a magnetic field 166
§ 116. Charged particle accelerators 167
§ 117. Hall effect 169
§ 118. Circulation of the vector B of a magnetic field in vacuum 169
§ 119. Magnetic fields of the solenoid and toroid 171
§ 120. Flux of the magnetic induction vector. Gauss' theorem for the field B 172
§ 121. Work on moving a conductor and a current-carrying circuit in a magnetic field 172
Tasks 174
Chapter 15 Electromagnetic Induction 174
§122. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (experiments of Faraday) 174
§ 123. Faraday's law and its derivation from the law of conservation of energy 175
§ 124. Rotation of the frame in a magnetic field 177
§ 125. Eddy currents (Foucault currents) 177
§ 126. Inductance of the circuit. Self-induction 178
§ 127. Currents when opening and closing the circuit 179
§ 128. Mutual induction 181
§ 129. Transformers 182
§ 130. Energy of the magnetic field 183
Chapter 16 Magnetic Properties of Matter 184
§ 131. Magnetic moments of electrons and atoms 184
§ 132. Dia- and paramagnetism 186
§ 133. Magnetization. Magnetic field in matter 187
§ 134. Conditions at the interface between two magnets 189
§ 135. Ferromagnets and their properties 190
§ 136. The nature of ferromagnetism 191
Chapter 17 Fundamentals of Maxwell's theory for the electromagnetic field 193
§ 137. Vortex electric field 193
§ 138. Displacement current 194
§ 139. Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field 196
4 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 198
Chapter 18 Mechanical and electromagnetic vibrations 198
§ 140. Harmonic oscillations and their characteristics 198
§ 141. Mechanical harmonic vibrations 200
§ 142. Harmonic oscillator. Spring, physical and mathematical pendulums 201
§ 143. Free harmonic oscillations in oscillatory circuit 203
§ 144. Addition of harmonic oscillations of the same direction and the same frequency. Beats 205
§ 145. Addition of mutually perpendicular oscillations 206
§ 146. Differential equation of free damped oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic) and its solution. Self-oscillations 208
§ 147. Differential equation of forced oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic) and its solution 211
§ 148. Amplitude and phase of forced oscillations (mechanical and electromagnetic). Resonance 213
§ 148. Alternating current 215
§ 150. Stress resonance 217
§ 151. Resonance of currents 218
§ 152. Power released in the alternating current circuit 219
Chapter 19 Elastic Waves 221
§ 153. Wave processes. Longitudinal and transverse waves 221
§ 154. The equation of a traveling wave. phase speed. Wave Equation 222
§ 155. The principle of superposition. Group speed 223
§ 156. Interference of waves 224
§ 157. Standing waves 225
§ 158. Sound waves 227
S 159. Doppler effect in acoustics 228
§ 160. Ultrasound and its application 229
Chapter 20 Electromagnetic Waves 230
§ 161. Experimental production of electromagnetic waves 230
§ 162. Differential equation of an electromagnetic wave 232
§ 163. Energy of electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic field impulse 233
§ 164. Radiation of a dipole. Application of electromagnetic waves 234
5 OPTICS. QUANTUM NATURE OF RADIATION 236
Chapter 21 Elements of Geometric and Electronic Optics 236
§ 165. Basic laws of optics. Total reflection 236
§ 166. Thin lenses. Image of objects with lenses 238
§ 187. Aberrations (errors) of optical systems 241
§ 168. Basic photometric quantities and their units 242
§ 189. Elements of electronic optics 243
Chapter 22 Light Interference 245
§ 170. Development of ideas about the nature of light 245
§ 171. Coherence and monochromaticity of light waves 248
§ 172. Interference of light 249
§ 173. Methods for observing the interference of light 250
§ 174. Interference of light in thin films 252
§ 175. Application of light interference 254
Chapter 23 Diffraction of Light 257
§ 176. Huygens-Fresnel principle 257
§ 177. Method of Fresnel zones. Rectilinear propagation of light 258
§ 178. Fresnel diffraction by a round hole and a disk 260
§ 178. Fraunhofer diffraction by one slit 261
§ 180. Fraunhofer diffraction by a diffraction grating 263
§ 181. Spatial lattice. Light scattering 265
§ 182. Diffraction on a spatial lattice. Wolfe formula - Braggs 266
§ 183. Resolution of optical instruments 267
§ 184. The concept of holography 268
Chapter 24 Interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter 27 0
§ 185. Dispersion of light 270
§ 186. Electron theory of dispersion of shining 271
§ 187. Absorption (absorption) of light 273
§ 188. Doppler effect 274
§ 189. Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation 275
Chapter 25 Polarization of Light 276
§ 190. Natural and polarized light 276
§ 191. Polarization of light during reflection and refraction at the boundary of two dielectrics 278
§ 192. Double refraction 279
§ 193. Polarizing prisms and polaroids 280
§ 194. Analysis of polarized light 282
§ 195. Artificial optical anisotropy 283
§ 196. Rotation of the plane of polarization 284
Chapter 26 The Quantum Nature of Radiation 285
§ 197. Thermal radiation and its characteristics 285
Section 188 Kirchhoff Law 287
§ 199. Stefan-Boltzmann laws and Wien displacements 288
§ 200. Formulas of Rayleigh - Jeans and Planck 288
§ 201. Optical pyrometry. Thermal light sources 291
§ 202. Types of photoelectric effect. Laws of the external photoelectric effect 292
§ 203. Einstein's equation for the external photoelectric effect. Experimental confirmation of the quantum properties of light 294
§ 204. Application of the photoelectric effect 296
§ 205. Mass and momentum of a photon. Light pressure 297
§ 206. The Compton effect and its elementary theory 298
§ 207. Unity of corpuscular and wave properties of electromagnetic radiation 299
6 ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS OF ATOMS, MOLECULES AND SOLID BODIES 300
Chapter 27 Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 300
§ 208. Models of the atom by Thomson and Rutherford 300
§ 209. Line spectrum of the hydrogen atom 301
§ 210. Bohr's postulates 302
§ 211. Experiments of Frank and Hertz 303
§ 212. The spectrum of the hydrogen atom according to Bohr 304
Chapter 28 Elements of Quantum Mechanics 306
§ 213. Corpuscular-wave dualism of the properties of matter 306
§ 214. Some properties of da Broglie waves 308
§ 215 Uncertainty relation 308
§ 216. Wave function and its statistical meaning 311
§ 217. The general Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger Equation for Stationary States 312
§ 218. The principle of causality in fifth mechanics 314
§ 219. Motion of a free particle 314
§ 220. A particle in a one-dimensional rectangular "potential well" with infinitely high "walls" 315
§ 221. Passage of a particle through a potential barrier. Tunnel effect 317
§ 222. Linear harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics 320
Chapter 29 Elements of Modern Physics of Atoms and Molecules 321
§ 223. Hydrogen atom in quantum mechanics 321
§ 224. 1s-State of an electron in a hydrogen atom 324
§ 225. Electron spin. Spin quantum number 325
§ 226. The principle of indistinguishability of identical particles. Fermions and bosons 326
§ 227. Pauli principle. Distribution of electrons in an atom by states 327
Section 228 Periodic system elements of Mendeleev 328
§ 229. X-ray spectra 330
§ 230. Molecules: chemical bonds, the concept of energy levels 332
§ 231. Molecular spectra. Raman scattering of light 333
§ 232 Absorption. Spontaneous and stimulated emission 334
§ 233. Optical quantum generators (lasers) 335
Chapter 30 Elements of Quantum Statistics 338
§ 234. Quantum statistics. phase space. Distribution function 338
§ 235. The concept of quantum statistics Bose - Einstein and Fermi - Dirac 339
§ 236. Degenerate electron gas in metals 340
§ 237. The concept of the quantum theory of heat capacity. Phonons 341
§ 238. Conclusions of the quantum theory of electrical conductivity of metals 342
§ 239. Superconductivity. Understanding the Josephson Effect 343
Chapter 31 Elements of Solid State Physics 345
§ 240. The concept of the zone theory of solids 345
§ 241. Metals, dielectrics and semiconductors according to zone theory 346
§ 242. Intrinsic conductivity of semiconductors 347
§ 243. Impurity conductivity of semiconductors 350
§ 244. Photoconductivity of semiconductors 352
§ 245. Luminescence of solids 353
§ 246. Contact of two metals according to the band theory 355
§ 247. Thermoelectric phenomena and their application 356
§ 248. Rectification at the metal-semiconductor contact 358
§ 249. Contact of electronic and hole semiconductors (p-n-junction) 360
§ 250. Semiconductor diodes and triodes (transistors) 362
7 ELEMENTS OF THE PHYSICS OF THE NUCLEAR AND ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 364
Chapter 32 Elements of Nuclear Physics 364
§ 251. Size, composition and charge of the atomic nucleus. Mass and charge number 364
§ 252. Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 365
§ 253. Spin of the nucleus and its magnetic moment 366
§ 254. Nuclear forces. Kernel Models 367
§ 255. Radioactive radiation and its types 368
§ 256. Law of radioactive decay. Offset Rules 369
§ 257. Regularities of -decay 370
§ 258 Decay. Neutrino 372
§ 259. Gamma radiation and its properties 373
§ 260. Resonant absorption of -radiation (Mössbauer effect *) 375
§ 261. Methods of observation and registration of radioactive radiation and particles 376
§ 262. Nuclear reactions and their main types 379
§ 263. Positron. Decay. Electronic grip 381
§ 264. Discovery of the neutron. Nuclear reactions under the action of neutrons 382
§ 265. Nuclear fission reaction 383
§ 266. Chain reaction of fission 385
§ 267. The concept of nuclear energy 386
§ 268. The reaction of the fusion of atomic nuclei. The problem of controlled thermonuclear reactions 388
Chapter 33 Elements of Particle Physics 390
§ 269. Cosmic radiation 390
§ 270. Muons and their properties 391
§ 271. Mesons and their properties 392
§ 272. Types of interactions of elementary particles 393
§ 273. Particles and antiparticles 394
§ 274. Hyperons. Strangeness and parity of elementary particles 396
§ 275. Classification of elementary particles. Quarks 397
CONCLUSION 400
BASIC LAWS AND FORMULA 402
INDEX 413.

T.I. Trofimova

WELL

PHYSICS

Seventh edition, stereotypical

RRECOMMENDEDMMINISTRY OF EDUCATION

ROSSIANFEDERATIONS AS A TEACHING AID

FOR ENGINEERING- TECHNICAL SPECIALTIES

INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

GRADUATE SCHOOL

2003

Reviewer: Professor of the Department of Physics named after A.M. Fabrikant of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute ( technical university) V. A. Kasyanov

ISBN 5-06-003634-0

Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Publishing House" Higher School ", 2003

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Vysshaya Shkola publishing house, and its reproduction (reproduction) in any way without the consent of the publisher is prohibited.

FOREWORD

The textbook is written in accordance with the current program of the physics course for engineering and technical specialties of higher educational institutions and is intended for students of higher technical educational institutions of full-time education with a limited number of hours in physics, with the possibility of using it in the evening and in absentia learning.

The small volume of the textbook is achieved through careful selection and concise presentation of the material.

The book consists of seven parts. In the first part, a systematic presentation of the physical foundations of classical mechanics is given, and elements of the special (particular) theory of relativity are also considered. The second part is devoted to the basics of molecular physics and thermodynamics. The third part deals with electrostatics, direct electric current and electromagnetism. In the fourth part, devoted to the presentation of the theory of oscillations and waves, mechanical and electromagnetic oscillations are considered in parallel, their similarities and differences are indicated, and the physical processes occurring during the corresponding oscillations are compared. The fifth part deals with the elements of geometric and electronic optics, wave optics and the quantum nature of radiation. The sixth part is devoted to the elements of quantum physics of atoms, molecules and solids. The seventh part outlines the elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus and elementary particles.

The presentation of the material is carried out without cumbersome mathematical calculations, due attention is paid to the physical essence of phenomena and the concepts and laws that describe them, as well as to the continuity of modern and classical physics. All biographical data are given according to the book by Yu. A. Khramov "Physics" (M .: Nauka, 1983).

For the designation of vector quantities in all figures and in the text, bold type is used, except for the quantities indicated by Greek letters, which, for technical reasons, are typed in the text in light type with an arrow.

The author expresses his deep gratitude to colleagues and readers, whose kind remarks and suggestions contributed to the improvement of the book. I am especially grateful to Professor V. A. Kasyanov for reviewing the textbook and for his comments.

INTRODUCTION

THE SUBJECT OF PHYSICS AND ITS RELATION WITH OTHER SCIENCES

The world around you, everything that exists around us and is detected by us through sensations, is matter.

Motion is an integral property of matter and the form of its existence. Movement in the broad sense of the word is all kinds of changes in matter - from simple displacement to the most complex processes of thinking.

Various forms of motion of matter are studied by various sciences, including physics. The subject of physics, as, indeed, of any science, can be revealed only as it is presented in detail. It is rather difficult to give a strict definition of the subject of physics, because the boundaries between physics and a number of related disciplines are arbitrary. At this stage of development, it is impossible to keep the definition of physics only as a science of nature.

Academician A.F. Ioffe (1880-1960; Russian physicist) defined physics as a science that studies the general properties and laws of motion of matter and field. It is now generally accepted that all interactions are carried out by means of fields, such as gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear force fields. The field, along with matter, is one of the forms of existence of mothers. The inextricable connection between the field and matter, as well as the difference in their properties, will be considered as the course progresses.

Physics is the science of the simplest and at the same time the most general forms of the motion of matter and their mutual transformations. The forms of matter motion studied by physics (mechanical, thermal, etc.) are present in all higher and more complex forms of matter motion (chemical, biological, etc.). Therefore they, being the simplest, are at the same time the most general forms of motion of matter. Higher and more complex forms of the motion of matter are the subject of study of other sciences (chemistry, biology, etc.).

Physics is closely related to the natural sciences. This close connection of physics with other branches of natural science, as Academician S.I. Vavilov (1891-1955; Russian physicist and public figure) noted, led to the fact that physics has grown into astronomy, geology, chemistry, biology and others with the deepest roots. natural Sciences. As a result, a number of new related disciplines were formed, such as astrophysics, biophysics, etc.

Physics is also closely connected with technology, and this connection has a two-way character. Physics grew out of the needs of technology (the development of mechanics among the ancient Greeks, for example, was caused by the demands of construction and military equipment of that time), and technology, in turn, determines the direction of physical research (for example, at one time the task of creating the most economical heat engines caused a stormy development of thermodynamics). On the other hand, the technical level of production depends on the development of physics. Physics is the basis for the creation of new branches of technology (electronic technology, nuclear technology, etc.).

The rapid pace of development of physics, its growing ties with technology indicate the significant role of the physics course in the technical college: this is the fundamental basis for the theoretical training of an engineer, without which his successful activity is impossible.

EUNITS OF PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS

The main research method in physics is experience- based on practice, sensory-empirical knowledge of objective reality, i.e., observation of the phenomena under study under precisely taken into account conditions that make it possible to monitor the course of phenomena and repeatedly reproduce it when these conditions are repeated.

Hypotheses are put forward to explain the experimental facts.

Hypothesis is a scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring verification by experience and theoretical substantiation to become a credible scientific theory.

As a result of the generalization of experimental facts, as well as the results of people's activities, physical laws- stable repeating objective patterns that exist in nature. The most important laws establish a relationship between physical quantities, for which it is necessary to measure these quantities. The measurement of a physical quantity is an action performed with the help of measuring instruments to find the value of a physical quantity in accepted units. The units of physical quantities can be chosen arbitrarily, but then difficulties arise in comparing them. Therefore, it is advisable to introduce a system of units covering the units of all physical quantities.

To build a system of units, units are arbitrarily chosen for several independent physical quantities. These units are called basic. The remaining quantities and their units are derived from the laws relating these quantities and their units with the main ones. They're called derivatives.

At present, the International System (SI) is mandatory for use in scientific and educational literature, which is based on seven basic units - meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, candela - and two additional ones - radians and steradians.

Meter(m) is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 s. Kilogram(kg) - a mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, near Paris).

Second(s) - time equal to 9 192631770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.

Ampere(A) - the strength of an unchanging current, which, when passing through two parallel rectilinear conductors of infinite length and negligible cross-section, located in vacuum at a distance of 1 m from one another, creates a force between these conductors equal to 2⋅10 -7 N for each meter length.

Kelvin(K) - 1/273.16 part of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

mole(mol) - the amount of substance of the system containing the same amount structural elements, how many atoms are contained in the nuclide 12 C with a mass of 0.012 kg.

Candela(cd) - luminous intensity in a given direction of a source emitting monochromatic radiation with a frequency of 540 "10 12 Hz, the energy intensity of which in this direction is 1/683 W / sr.

Radian(rad) - the angle between two radii of a circle, the length of the arc between which is equal to the radius.

Steradian(cp) - solid angle with a vertex in the center of the sphere, cutting out an area from the surface of the sphere, equal to the area a square with a side equal to the radius of the sphere.

To establish derived units, physical laws are used that connect them with basic units. For example, from the formula for uniform rectilinear motion v=st (s- distance traveled, t- time) the derived unit of speed is 1 m/s.