Happened together two Astronomers in a feast
And they argued quite among themselves in the heat.
One kept repeating: the earth, spinning, goes around the Sun;
The other is that the Sun leads all the planets with it:
One was Copernicus, the other was known as Ptolemy.
Here the cook settled the dispute with his grin.
The owner asked: “Do you know the course of the stars?
Tell me, how do you talk about this doubt?”
He gave the following answer: “That Copernicus is right
I will prove the truth, I have not been to the Sun.
Who has seen such a simpleton from cooks,
Who would turn the hearth around the roast?
M. Lomonosov

Lesson 2/8

Subject: Development of ideas about the solar system.

Target: To acquaint students with the formation of mankind's ideas about the structure of the solar system, geocentric and heliocentric systems. Explanation of the loop-like motion of the planets.

Tasks :
1. educational: Continue the formation of ideas about the geocentric and heliocentric systems of the world begun in the course of history and introduce their concepts.
2. nurturing: On the example of the struggle for the heliocentric worldview, show the incompatibility of science and religion. Use the examples of the ascetic destinies of J. Bruno and G. Galileo to form high moral ideas among students. Contributing to the aesthetic education of students, focus on the simplicity and beauty of the heliocentric system of the world.
3. Educational: show how, from the standpoint of heliocentrism, the loop-like motion of the planets was naturally explained and a simple method was obtained for determining the relative distances of the planets from the Sun. To develop the thinking of students and their cognitive interests, it is necessary, firstly, to use a problematic presentation of the material (showing that the improvement of the heliocentric system led it to a very cumbersome scheme, which nevertheless made it possible to predict the visibility conditions of the planets with a certain degree of accuracy, but needed further complication), and, secondly, to make it possible to study the loop-like motion of the planets.

Know:
1st level (standard)
2nd level- the concept of geocentric and heliocentric systems of the structure of the world.
Be able to:
1st level (standard)- find the type of configuration and solve simple problems using the synodic equation.
2nd level- find the type of configuration not only on the drawings, but also with the help of CD-"Red Shift 5.1", solve problems using the synodic equation.

Equipment: Table "Solar system", film "Planetary system", "Astronomy and worldview". PCZN. CD- "Red Shift 5.1" (the principle of finding a celestial object at a given moment in time). Demonstration and commentary of the filmstrips "The Struggle for the Formation of the Scientific Worldview in Astronomy" (I and II fragments) and "The Development of Ideas about the Universe". Film "Astronomy" (part 1, fr. 2 "The most ancient science")

Interdisciplinary communication: Ideas about the earth ancient world and the Middle Ages (history, 5-6 cells). The solar system, its composition; planets, meteors, meteorites (natural science, grade 5). The struggle of the church against advanced science (history, grade 6).

During the classes:

1. Repetition of the material (8-10 min).
A) Questions:

1. planetary configuration.
2. Composition of the solar system.
3. Solution of problem No. 8 (p. 35). [ 1/S=1/T - 1/T s, hence T \u003d (T h. S) / (S + T h) \u003d (1. 1.6) / (1.6 + 1) \u003d 224.7 d]
4. Solution of problem No. 9 (p. 35). [ 1/S=1/T s - 1/T, hence S=(1 . 12)/(12-1)=1.09 years]
5. "Red Shift 5.1" - find the planet for today and characterize its visibility, coordinates, distance (several students can indicate a specific planet - preferably in writing, so as not to take time in the lesson).
6. "Red Shift 5.1" - when will the next confrontation, conjunction of planets: Mars, Jupiter? [opposition: Mars - 12/24/2007, 01/30/2010; Jupiter - 04/14/2008, 07/09/2008, 10/9/2008, conjunction: Mars - 12/5/2008,; Jupiter - 12/23/2007, 01/24/2009]

B) By cards:

	K-1	1. The period of revolution of Saturn around the Sun is about 30 years. Find the time interval between his confrontation. [ 1/S=1/T s - 1/T, hence S=(1 . 30)/(30-1)=1.03 years] 2. Specify the type of configuration in position I, II, VIII. [opposition, inferior conjunction, western elongation] 3. Using "Red Shift 5.1" draw the location of the planets and the Sun at the current time.
	K-2	1. Find the period of revolution of Mars around the Sun, if there is opposition repeated after 2.1 years. [ 1/S=1/T s - 1/T, hence T \u003d (T z. S) / (S- T z ) \u003d (1. 2.1) / (2.1-1) \u003d 1.9 years] 2. Specify the type of configuration in position V, III, VII. [east elongation, superior conjunction, east quadrature] 3. Using "Red Shift 5.1" determine the angular distance from the North Star of the Ursa Major bucket and draw to scale in the figure.
	K-3	1. What is the period of Jupiter's revolution around the Sun if its conjunction is repeated after 1.1 years. [ 1/S=1/T s - 1/T, hence T \u003d (T c. S) / (S-T c) \u003d (1. 1.1) / (1.1-1) \u003d 11 years] 2. Specify the type of configuration in position IV, VI, II. [top connection, west square, bottom connection] 3. Using "Red Shift 5.1" determine the coordinates of the Sun now and 12 hours later and plot to scale in the figure (using the angular distance from Polaris). In what constellation is the Sun now and will it be in 12 hours?
	K-4	1. The period of revolution of Venus around the Sun is 224.7 days. Find the time interval between its conjunctions. [ 1/S=1/T - 1/T s, hence S=(365.25 . 224.7)/(365.25-224.7)=583.9 d] 2. Specify the type of configuration in position VI, V, III. [western quadrature, eastern elongation, superior conjunction] 3. Using "Red Shift 5.1" determine the coordinates of the Sun now and depict its position in the figure after 6, 12, 18 hours. What will be its coordinates and in what constellations will the Sun be located?

B) The rest

1. The synodic period of some minor planet is 730.5 days. Find the sidereal period of its revolution around the Sun. (730.5 days or 2 years)
2. At what time intervals do the minute and hour hands meet on the dial? (1 1/11 h)
3. Draw how the planets will be located in their orbits: Venus - in inferior conjunction, Mars - in opposition, Saturn - western quadrature, Mercury - eastern elongation.
4. Estimate approximately how long Venus can be observed and when (morning or evening) if it is 45 o east of the Sun. (in the evening, about 3 hours, because 45 o / 15 o \u003d 3)

2. New material (20min)

Primary view of the world:
First carved in stone star charts were created 32-35 thousand years ago. Knowledge of the constellations and positions of some stars provided primitive people with orientation on the ground and an approximate determination of the time at night. More than 2000 years before the NE, people noticed that some stars moved around the sky - they were later called "wandering" planets by the Greeks. This served as the basis for the creation of the first naive ideas about the world around us (“Astronomy and worldview” or frames of another filmstrip).
Thales of Miletus (624-547 BC) independently developed the theory of solar and lunar eclipses and discovered the saros. Ancient Greek astronomers guessed the true (spherical) shape of the Earth based on observations of the shape of the Earth's shadow during lunar eclipses.
Anaximander (610-547 BC) taught about an innumerable number of continuously born and dying worlds in a closed spherical Universe, the center of which is the Earth; he was credited with the invention of the celestial sphere, some other astronomical instruments, and the first geographical maps.
Pythagoras (570-500 BC) was the first to call the Universe Cosmos, emphasizing its orderliness, proportionality, harmony, proportionality, beauty. The earth is in the form of a sphere, because the sphere is the most proportionate of all bodies. He believed that the Earth is in the Universe without any support, the stellar sphere makes a complete revolution during the day and night, and for the first time suggested that the evening and morning stars are the same body (Venus). He believed that the stars are closer than the planets.
He proposes a pyrocentric scheme of the structure of the world = In the center is a sacred fire, and around are transparent spheres that enter into each other on which the Earth, the Moon and the Sun with stars are fixed, then the planets. Spheres, rotating from east to west and obeying certain mathematical relationships. The distances to the heavenly bodies cannot be arbitrary, they must correspond to the harmonic chord. This "music of the heavenly spheres" can be expressed mathematically. The farther the sphere is from the Earth, the greater the speed and the higher the tone emitted.
Anaxagoras (500-428 BC) assumed that the Sun was a piece of red-hot iron; The moon is a cold, light-reflecting body; denied the existence of celestial spheres; independently gave an explanation of solar and lunar eclipses.
Democritus (460-370 BC) considered matter to be composed of the smallest indivisible particles - atoms and empty space in which they move; the Universe - eternal and infinite in space; the Milky Way consisting of many distant stars indistinguishable to the eye; the stars are distant suns; The moon - similar to the Earth, with mountains, seas, valleys ... "According to Democritus, there are infinitely many worlds and they are of various sizes. In some there is neither the Moon nor the Sun, in others they are, but they are much larger. Moons and suns may be more than in our world. The distances between the worlds are different, some more, others less. At the same time, some worlds arise, and others die, some are already growing, while others have flourished and are on the verge of death. When the worlds collide with each other, they collapse. Some have no moisture at all, as well as animals and plants. Our world is in its prime" (Hippolytus "Refutation of All Heresy", 220 AD)
Eudoxus (408-355 BC) - one of the greatest mathematicians and geographers of antiquity; developed the theory of planetary motion and the first of the geocentric systems of the world. He selected a combination of several nested spheres, and the poles of each of them were successively fixed on the previous one. 27 spheres, one of them for fixed stars, rotate uniformly around different axes and are located one inside the other, to which fixed celestial bodies are attached.
Archimedes (283-312 BC) first attempted to determine the size of the universe. Assuming the universe to be a sphere bounded by the sphere of fixed stars, and the diameter of the Sun 1000 times smaller, he calculated that the universe could hold 10 63 grains of sand.
Hipparchus (190-125 BC) "more than anyone else proved the relationship of man with the stars ... he determined the places and brightness of many stars so that you could make out whether they disappear or reappear whether they move, whether they change in brightness" (Pliny the Elder). Hipparchus was the creator of spherical geometry; introduced a coordinate grid of meridians and parallels, which made it possible to determine geographical coordinates terrain; compiled a star catalog, which included 850 stars, distributed over 48 constellations; divided the stars by brightness into 6 categories - stellar magnitudes; opened precession; studied the movement of the moon and planets; re-measured the distance to the Moon and the Sun and developed one of the geocentric systems of the world.

Geocentric system of world structure (from Aristotle to Ptolemy).

According to Ptolemy's theory: 1) The earth is motionless and is in the center of the world; 2) the planets rotate in strictly circular orbits; 3) the motion of the planets is uniform.

The first scientifically substantiated theory of the structure of the world was developed (384-322) and published in 355 BC in the book “On the Sky”, summarizing all the knowledge of the predecessors and based on conclusions that could not be verified at that time. Having developed in more detail the teachings of Plato, adopting from him rotating crystal spheres, calculating the radii of the spheres, introducing the sphere of comets (he considered them to be just terrestrial evaporation, self-igniting high above the Earth and having nothing to do with celestial bodies), as sublunar, taking his name of the planets according to the names of the gods: Hermes - Mercury, Aphrodite - Venus, Ares - Mars, Zeus - Jupiter, Kronos - Saturn. Recognizing the sphericity of the Earth, Moon and celestial bodies, refuses the movement of the Earth and puts it in the center, since he believed that the stars would have to describe circles, and not be in place (which was proved only in the 18th century). The system was called geocentric (Gaia - Earth). With the development of astronomy and the acquisition of more accurate knowledge of the motion of the planets, the system was finalized by Hipparchus and finally kinematically developed by 150 AD by an Alexandrian astronomer (87-165) in a work consisting of 13 books “The Great Mathematical Construction of Astronomy” (Almagest). To explain the motion of the planets, using a system of epicycles and deferents, making them harmonic: a complex loop-like motion was represented as the sum of several harmonic movements, expressed by the formula: , where where w n - circular frequency, t - time, A n - amplitude, δ n - initial phase. The epicyclic system of Ptolemy was simple, universal, economical and, despite its fundamental infidelity, made it possible to predict celestial phenomena with any degree of accuracy; with its help it would be possible to solve some problems of modern astrometry, celestial mechanics and astronautics. Ptolemy himself, possessing the honesty of a real scientist, emphasized the purely applied nature of his work, refusing to consider it as cosmological due to the lack of clear evidence in favor of geo- or heliocentric theories of the world.

Heliocentric system of the structure of the world (Copernicus).

The idea to place not the Earth but the Sun in the center of the solar system belongs (310-230) to the first to determine the distance to the Moon, the Sun and their sizes. But the conclusions and evidence that the Sun is larger and the planets are moving around was clearly not enough. "He believes that the fixed stars and the Sun do not change their places in space, that the Earth moves in a circle around the Sun, which is in its center," wrote Archimedes. In the work "On the Sizes and Mutual Distances of the Sun and the Moon", Aristarchus of Samos, accepting the hypothesis of the daily rotation of the Earth, knowing the diameter of the Earth (according to Eratosthenes) and considering the Moon to be 3 times smaller than the Earth, based on his own observations, calculated that the Sun is one, the nearest of the stars - 20 times farther from the Earth than the Moon (actually - 400 times) and more than the Earth in volume by 200-300 times. Only in the Renaissance, the Polish scientist (1473-1543) substantiated the heliocentric system of the structure of the world by 1539 in the book “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres” (1543), explaining the daily movement of the luminaries by the rotation of the Earth and the loop-like movement of the planets by their revolution around the Sun, calculating the distances and periods of revolution planets. However, he left the sphere of fixed stars, pushing it 1000 times further than the Sun.

Confirmation of the heliocentric system of the world.

The heliocentric system was proved in the works of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). - Discovered the phase change of Venus, proving its rotation around the Sun. He discovered 4 satellites of Jupiter, proving that not only the Earth (Sun) can be the center. He discovered the mountains on the moon and determined their height - which means there is no significant difference between the earthly and the heavenly. He observed spots on the Sun and made a conclusion about its rotation. Having decomposed the Milky Way into stars, he concludes that the distances to the stars are different and that no “sphere of fixed stars” exists. The execution of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), the official ban on the teachings of Copernicus by the Church, the trial of Galileo could not stop the spread of Copernicanism. In Austria, Johannes Kepler discovered the motion of the planets, in England, Isaac Newton (1643-1727) published the law of universal gravitation, in Russia, Mikhailo Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) not only ridicules the ideas of geocentrism in poetry, but also discovers the atmosphere on Venus, defends the idea of ​​a multitude inhabited worlds.

III. Fixing the material (8 min).

1. Analysis of the tasks solved in the lesson by the rest of the students of the class (B) those that caused difficulty.
2. Solution .

Outcome:
1) What is the difference between the geocentric and heliocentric systems of the structure of the world?
2) What prominent astronomers do you remember?
3) Ratings

Homework:§8; questions and tasks p. 40, p. 52 p.1-5. A story about a scientist - astronomer (any of those listed in the lesson). Those who did not decide to complete the s / r No. 4. You can give a presentation about any scientist from this lesson, the discoveries of G. Galileo, about one of the systems of the structure of the world, etc.

The lesson was designed by members of the circle "Internet technologies" - Prytkov Denis (10th grade) and Berezutskaya Anya (11th grade)

Changed on 10/21/2009

"Planetarium" 410.05 mb		The resource allows you to install on the computer of a teacher or student full version innovative educational and methodical complex "Planetarium". "Planetarium" - a selection of thematic articles - are intended for use by teachers and students in the lessons of physics, astronomy or natural science in grades 10-11. When installing the complex, it is recommended to use only English letters in folder names.
Demo materials 13.08 mb		The resource is a demonstration materials of the innovative educational and methodological complex "Planetarium".
Planetarium 2.67 mb		This resource is an interactive model "Planetarium", which allows you to study the starry sky by working with this model. To fully use the resource, you must install the Java Plug-in
Lesson	Lesson topic	Development of lessons in the collection of DER	Statistical graphics from the DER
Lesson 8	Development of ideas about the solar system	Topic 15. Evolution of ideas about the system of the world 670.7 kb	Planets of the solar system 446.6 kb Heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus 138.3 kb Geocentric system of Ptolemy 139 kb Deferent and epicycle 128.2 kb

Development of ideas about building peace.

Brinev Vasily Nikolaevich,

teacher MKOU "Troitskaya secondary school"

Korenevsky district, Kursk region.

The idea of ​​the Earth among the ancient Indians.

The earth is flat, located on four elephants, which in turn stand on a huge turtle floating in the water.

The concept of the earth among the Egyptians.

The earth is flat, and the sky is a huge dome spread over the earth. The stars are located on the vault of the dome. The change of the day of the day is the movement of the sun god Ra.

Geocentric system of the world .

In ancient times, it was believed that the Earth is motionless, flat and located in the center of the world. Such a presentation is called anthropocentrism.

Geocentric system of the world .

Pythagoras was the first to express the idea that the Earth has the shape of a ball and is in the Universe without any support.

According to the ideas of the Pythagorean school: in the very center of the Universe is the motionless Earth. Around the Earth revolve, one inside the other, nine spheres. These are the spheres of the Moon, the Sun and the five planets - Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Farthest away is the stellar sphere.

Geocentric world system.

One of the disciples of Pythagoras, Philolaus, argued that in the center of all spheres there is a central fire, which gives light and heat to all other celestial bodies. The earth, like all planets, revolves with its sphere around this fire. The sun also revolves around fire, but unlike the planets, its smooth, shiny surface reflects its light, transmitting it to the planets.

Geocentric system of the world .

The sun is larger than the earth. The moon reflects sunlight. The Milky Way is made up of a huge number of stars.

Geocentric world system.

Aristotle suggested that the earth is spherical. The planets are placed on special spheres that revolve around the Earth.

Geocentric system of the world .

Aristarchus of Samos determined the distance to the Moon, calculated the size of the Sun. The earth, along with other planets, revolves around the sun.

Geocentric system of the world.

Claudius Ptolemy developed the geocentric system of the world. The planets move uniformly epicycle- a small circle, the center of which moves around the Earth along deferent- big circle.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543)

Heliocentric system of the world A .

Copernicus showed that the daily motion of all the luminaries can be explained by the rotation of the Earth around its axis, and the loop-like motion of the planets can be explained by the fact that they, including the Earth, revolve around the Sun.

Heliocentric system of the world.

Giordano Bruno believed that our solar system is not the only one in the universe. He believed that all the stars visible in the sky are like the Sun, and that planets revolve around each of them. The universe is infinite and has no center.

Giordano Bruno (1548 - 1600)

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

Heliocentric system of the world.

Galileo Galilei discovered the phases of Venus. Discovered four satellites of Jupiter, refuting the idea that the Earth is the only center in the world. He discovered and measured the height of mountains on the Moon, observed spots on the Sun. He concluded that no "sphere of fixed stars" exists.

Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630)

Heliocentric system of the world .

Johannes Kepler established the odds of planetary orbits, as well as the pattern of changes in the speed of the planets as they revolve around the Sun.

Pictures: https://www.google.ru/search

Lesson 8, 9 on calendar-thematic planning.

Lesson objectives:

1) educational: a) the formation of knowledge about the contribution of scientists to the creation of a modern scientific picture of the world, b) the formation of knowledge of information that reflects the value of astronomical science and its results, c) the activation of the cognitive activity of students;

2) developing: a) continue the development of intellectual skills to analyze, compare, compare, highlight the main thing, b) form the skills of self-education, that is, work with various sources of educational information, c) continue the formation of information competence; d) to form the skills of working in groups in the media center of the gymnasium.

3) educational: a) the formation of a scientific worldview based on the introduction of knowledge about the modern scientific picture of the world, b) the spiritual and moral education of students on the basis of basic national values, c) the individual and personal development and education of students, d) the education of the student by the subject, the designer of his education, a full source and organizer of their knowledge.

Type of lesson: a lesson in the formation of new knowledge.

Lesson form: multimedia lesson consisting of two standard lessons of 45 minutes each.

Methods: a) subject integration technology and information technology; b) pedagogy of cooperation; c) the reception of going beyond the scope of their academic subject, the use of poetry, literary works; d) form of work: group.

Equipment: a) computer class in the media center of the gymnasium b) multimedia equipment: projector, interactive whiteboard, laser pointer, c) information sources: Internet, special literature on the topic, d) didactic teaching aids: worksheets for creating the basis of a new educational material, a list of topics for presentations with a single plan, presentation protection sheets, posters on different systems of the world, e) a teacher's presentation, f) a model of the planetary system and home-made devices of students, g) tablets with the names of students' roles.

The sequence of stages of the lesson:

1. Organizational;
2. Checking homework;
3. Assimilation and consolidation of new knowledge;
4. Reflection;
5. Information about homework, instruction.

Lesson stage. Time	Receptions. Methods	What are the students doing.	What does a teacher do
1) organizational	Entrance to the lesson: setting for this type of work, type of activity, taking into account the work of the whole class in groups. Exit from the lesson: “The lesson is over, all the best to you! Goodbye!". It is important that the phrase always marks the end of the lesson.	Teacher greeting; report of attendants on absentees Independent division into groups for work in the media center. Selection in groups of responsible persons, conventionally named: a) system administrator b) consultant c) "information collector", d) speaker.	Greeting students; fixing absent; checking the external condition of the classroom; checking the preparedness of students for the lesson; organization of attention and internal readiness of children for the lesson. Determine the goal: the formation of knowledge about the contribution of scientists to the creation of a modern scientific picture of the world. There is a note on the board: the contribution of scientists to the creation of a modern scientific picture of the world.
2) homework check	Oral interrogation on a chain.	The answers of the students who are sitting in their seats. If someone finds it difficult to answer, then the right to answer automatically passes to another student sitting next to him.	Organization of an oral survey in a chain. Demonstration of a model of the planetary system, a device for drawing an ellipse.
3) assimilation and consolidation of new knowledge	Partially search, research teaching methods; heuristic training; independent acquisition of knowledge. Interdisciplinary connections with informatics, literature, poetry. Recordings on the interactive whiteboard. The technique of going beyond the scope of one's subject to create an example of the teacher's morality, the desire to imitate him.	Working with worksheets to create a base for new learning material. They independently decide who submits worksheets from the students of the group for verification. Report of the "information collector" on the progress of work twice for the entire period of the lesson. After the end of the speeches, the comrades hand over the worksheets for verification, taking into account the fact that the grade “excellent” will be given to the students who complete any creative task at home.	Instructions on working with worksheets. Introduction to new material through records No. 1, 2, 3, 4 on the interactive whiteboard. Demonstration of posters on different systems of the world. My poems. Task for the groups: creation of a presentation on a specific topic from each group using a single plan. Fixation of responsible persons in groups. Conversations with “consultants” of the groups, if necessary, theoretical consultations on the topic. Acceptance for verification of worksheets.
4) reflection	Recordings on the interactive whiteboard. Cooperation and partnership between teacher and students. Role play elements.	Presentations from each group are presented by a “system administrator”. The “orator” defends the product of the work, proves his point of view, but also accepts, listens to someone else's. Using their supports, they realize the main moral qualities characteristic of all scientists, help to write them down on the interactive whiteboard to the teacher.	Record number 5 on the interactive whiteboard. Participation in viewing presentations from each group. Fixing the protection results in presentation protection sheets. An unsatisfactory rating is not put. Oral assessment of the work product for a good emotional atmosphere of the lesson. Phrases like “Great job together!”, “Great answer!”, “Good question!”, “You are very attentive today!”, “Very accurate answer! It was nice to hear from you!” The organization of reflection makes it possible to realize the basic national values ​​in a spiritually - moral education students.
5) homework information, briefing	Independent acquisition of knowledge when working with various sources of educational information. The student is the subject, the constructor of his education, the source and organizer of his knowledge. Creating a situation of success for the student.	Mandatory fixation of homework in their notebooks, and not only the traditional assignment, but also the creative assignment. Specific students who create presentations on the topic “F.V. Bessel” receive a plan, but they can change it in agreement with the teacher. Creation by students personal experience in the acquisition of knowledge and the product of their activities;	Homework message: a) traditional assignment: study notes in a notebook and study §8. Make your own notes about F.V. Bessel. b) creative task (optional): 1) find poems about scientists or write your own; 2) create a presentation about F.V. Bessel. More often homework formulated at the beginning of the lesson on organizational stage lesson.

Applications: No. 1. List of questions for oral questioning by chain.

1. How do you understand the expression: “children of the Sun” and “grandchildren of the Sun”? Clarify which bodies belong to them (model of the planetary system, self-made model, drawing of Jupiter).
2. Who created the laws that govern the motion of the planets? What are the formulations of these laws (ellipse drawing device).
3. Which physical law valid for celestial bodies? Who is its author?
4. What body is at the center of our planetary system? How do we know this?

No. 2. Worksheet to create a base for new learning material.

Surname, name of the student, class _____________________________________________________________________________

Lesson topic: “ Development of ideas about the solar system”

The purpose of the lesson: to consider what is the contribution of scientists to the formation of a modern scientific picture of the world.

Task for the lesson:

1. Listen carefully to what your classmates are saying.
2. Answer the questions of a single plan in writing (part of the class works in their notebooks) by filling out the table.

Homework :1. Learn notes in a notebook and explore §8. 2. Make your own notes about F.V. Bessel. 3. Creative work (optional): 1) find poems about scientists or write your own; 2) create a presentation about F.V. Bessel.

No. 3. Recordings on the interactive whiteboard.

No. 1. Page 1. “But most of all I was surprised when, quite by chance, it turned out that he had no idea about the theory of Copernicus and about the structure of the solar system. For a civilized person living in the 19th century not to know that the earth revolves around the sun, it seemed so incredible to me ... ”. (John Watson from the work of A.K. Doyle). Photo of the artists who performed the main characters in the Soviet film (Figure 1).

No. 2. Page 2. Development of ideas about the solar system.

1. Greek scientist Aristarchus of Samos Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci believed that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Photographs of scientists (Figure 2, 3.4).

No. 3. Page 3. 2. Geocentric system of the world of Ptolemy (2nd century AD) Photograph of a scientist (Figure 5.6)(table on the stand).

No. 5. Page 5.

“A sad fate awaits the one who is endowed with talent, but instead of developing and improving his abilities, he exalts himself excessively and indulges in idleness and self-admiration. Such a person gradually loses the clarity and sharpness of the mind, becomes inert, lazy and overgrown with rust of ignorance, corroding the flesh and soul. (Leonardo da Vinci)

Moral qualities of scientists

(notes in the discussion).

No. 4. Poems of own composition.

The sun leads its “children” by the hand, so we call the big planets.
And, of course, he has “grandchildren”. Asteroids, comets, we do not forget.
Many centuries have passed since ancient times, since man saw the world in such a way.
For many famous astronomers, Copernicus was an idol as a scientist.
We will tell you about scientists, how they all developed science.
With their views and boldness of judgments, the scientific world, of course, surprised!

No. 5. Presentation protection sheet.

Group No. _: topic __________________________________________________________

Fig.1 Fig.2

Fig.4

Fig.5 Fig.6

63

There are four stages in the development of our ideas about the picture of the World: I) ancient; 2) medieval; 3) new and 4) newest or modern.

During the first phase, a number of discoveries were made. They should be assessed as the largest, if only because the countdown to what has been done here starts from zero. But not only for this reason. The discoveries, which will be discussed below, made it possible to further establish the scale of the World. Let's dwell briefly on some of them.

Pythagoras (VI century BC) expressed the idea that the Earth and other celestial bodies are balls. Evidence for this was found in antiquity, in particular, by Aristotle in the 4th century BC. (in this regard, the question arises: what data indicate that the Earth is a ball?). Eratosthenes (III century BC) determined the radius of the Earth with amazing accuracy. According to Eratosthenes ( contemporary meaning ).

Task No. 1. Suggest a method for finding the radius of the Earth. How can this be done now, and how could it be done in antiquity?

Hipparchus (II century BC) was the first to make systematic observations of the position of the Sun, Moon and planets in the sky. He determined the radius of the moon, the distance to it and developed a method for predicting the moments of eclipses.

Task No. 2. Suggest a method for determining the distance to the moon.

About a thousand years before our era, the duration of the year and the fact that the year contains a non-integer number of days was established. The latter is very important, since it characterizes the accuracy of its determination and the level of research. Now we know that the duration of the year is the period of rotation of the Earth around the Sun, and the day - around its axis. And it is quite clear that in the general case these periods do not have to be multiples of each other*. However, the nature of these periods was not known at the time. The length of the year was determined by measuring the positions of celestial bodies in the sky. Consequently, these measurements were carried out with such accuracy, which just made it possible to establish that there is a non-integer number of days in a year. (To feel the complexity of this problem, you can set the following task: propose a method for determining the length of the year.). In the 1st century BC. under Julius Caesar, a calendar was developed - it is called the Julian, which, with minor changes, has survived to this day.

This period ends with the creation of the geocentric system of the World, which is commonly called Ptolemaic (II century AD), although the most famous scientists of various generations, such as Plato (V-IV century BC), Aristotle and others, took part in its development. . According to this system, the Earth is at the center of the world. The moon, sun, planets and stars revolve around it. Planets and stars are visible as dots. The stars differ from the planets in that their positions relative to each other do not change, while the positions of the planets change relative to the stars and relative to each other (in Greek, the word "planet" means "wandering"). In Ptolemy's time, five planets were known.

Let us briefly discuss the Ptolemaic system. As a first step, it is natural to accept the simplest picture of the structure of the World, according to which all celestial bodies rotate in circular orbits, say, around the Earth. Generally speaking, such ideas were expressed even before Ptolemy (by the way, the principle of research based on the fact that nature chooses the simplest solutions is very fruitful and will be repeatedly demonstrated in the future). However, already in the time of Ptolemy, facts were known that did not fit into this scheme. The main one is the so-called retrograde motion of the planets. As observations have shown, the planets in the sky draw intricate loop-like trajectories (Fig. 1). It was necessary to explain why the planets move backward at certain periods.

Through our own observations, as well as through the observations of Hipparchus and earlier ideas that uneven movements celestial bodies can be decomposed into the sum of uniform movements in circles, Ptolemy was able not only to explain the backward movement of the planets, but also to give a method by which it was possible to calculate the positions of the planets in advance. Briefly, the essence of Ptolemy's theory is as follows. The motion of the planets in the first approximation can be represented as the sum of two motions. The first is the movement of the planet along a certain circle - the epicycle. In turn, the center of the epicycle, or as we would say now - the leading center - moves along a circle of larger radius, called the deferent (Fig. 2). In fact, in order to explain all the features known at that time in the motion of the planets, Ptolemy had to resort to more complex constructions, but we will restrict ourselves to this simplest scheme.

In the literature, one can sometimes find a categorical assessment that the Ptolemaic system is in principle incorrect and even almost reactionary. In fact, the theory of the structure of natural objects in itself cannot be reactionary. As for the physical content, it was certainly absent from Ptolemy's theory. This is not surprising, because the laws of mechanics were discovered by Newton after about one and a half thousand years. The Ptolemaic system was purely geometric in nature (however, in order to understand the nature of the epicycles, it is proposed below Task #6). It served until the middle of the second millennium and fully satisfied the practical requirements of that time *.

Location of the Earth at the center of the universe modern language means that Ptolemy connected the origin of coordinates with the Earth. From point of view modern physics the choice of reference system, generally speaking, is not fundamental in the sense that natural phenomena can be correctly described in any reference system. It's just that some frames of reference are more preferable, because in these frames of reference the laws of motion of bodies look simpler. So, when describing the motion of a closed system of bodies interacting, say, gravitationally, the coordinate system associated with the center of mass is preferable. In relation to the solar system, we can say that the mass of the Sun is almost 1000 times greater than the total mass of all the planets, and its dimensions are such that the center of mass is located inside the Sun. It is for this reason that the frame of reference associated with the Sun turns out to be the most preferable when considering the motion of the planets.

At the time of Ptolemy, there was almost no observational data that would directly indicate the movement of the Earth around the Sun (he explained the backward movements of the planets with the help of epicycles). Therefore, he naturally adopted the most simple from his (and not only his) point of view, the coordinate system associated with the Earth. Although long before him, in the III century BC. Aristarchus of Samos came to the conclusion that the Sun is the largest body in our system, and therefore it must be in the center, and the Earth revolves around it. However, this idea did not receive due recognition at that time, and the geocentric system of the World of Ptolemy - Aristotle triumphed.

As you know, the era of the dark Middle Ages came to replace the ancient world. The development of all sciences slowed down for more than a thousand years. The geocentric system of the World coincided with the installation of the dominant ideology that the Earth is at the center of the Universe. Therefore, during this period, if anything is done, it is mainly to confirm the orthodox point of view, and vice versa, any attempts to go beyond it are stopped. This period can be characterized by the absence of significant discoveries, although it cannot be said that absolutely nothing was done. At every decent court, there were necessarily scientists involved in the study of celestial bodies, observatories were built, and observational material was accumulated. In particular, at the beginning of the second millennium, a significant deviation of the actual positions of the planets in the sky from those predicted in the framework of Ptolemy's theory was discovered. In general, the foundation was being prepared for subsequent epoch-making discoveries.

New time is usually counted from the 16th-17th centuries, when bourgeois revolutions took place in the Netherlands, and then in England. Capitalism, which replaced feudalism, broke the fetters that fettered the development of productive forces and science. But even earlier, in the 15th century, the era of the great geographical discoveries. The development of new spaces, travel across the ocean, where there are no landmarks other than stars in the sky, stimulated the development of more accurate and simple methods orientation and timekeeping than could be provided by Ptolemy's geocentric system. All this, as well as the accumulated material, paved the way for a revolution in our ideas about the structure of the World, which Nicolaus Copernicus accomplished in the middle of the 16th century. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric system that has now become generally accepted, according to which the Sun is located in the center, and the Earth and other planets revolve around it (by the way, this system of the structure of the solar system is even simpler than the geocentric one, so the principle of the maximum simplicity of the structure of Nature is fully justified here) . The backward movement of the planets in the theory of Copernicus is explained quite naturally (how?).

The discovery of Copernicus is regarded as the first revolution in natural science. It was the beginning of a whole series of landmark discoveries . After Copernicus, in a short time, about a hundred years, there was a qualitative leap in understanding the fundamental principles of the structure of the World around us. About half a century later, I. Kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion, and about half a century later, I. Newton established the laws of mechanics and the law of universal gravitation. To this must also be added the development of mathematics, especially differential and integral calculus. Taken together, these discoveries made it possible not only to calculate with great accuracy the movements of celestial bodies, but also to predict the existence of new planets - Neptune and Pluto. A brilliant confirmation of these ideas was also the return of Halley's comet predicted by Newton.

The invention of the telescope by G. Galileo (beginning of the 17th century) falls on the same epoch. Its further improvement made it possible to make a number of new discoveries. With an accuracy of several percent, the distance to the Sun was determined, that is, the absolute scales of the solar system were established (J. Cassini, early 18th century), and it became possible to find the mass of the Sun. In the 19th century, the distances to the nearest stars were measured (F. Bessel and others).

IN mid-seventeenth century, Newton laid the foundation for spectral research, decomposing sunlight into a spectrum using a trihedral prism. In the last century, it was noticed that there is a connection between the type of spectrum (say, the presence of certain spectral lines) and the chemical composition of the emitting substance. This made it possible to study the chemical composition of the Sun, planets and stars. The striking result of this work was the discovery on the Sun of a new element - helium, the second element in the periodic table. The most amazing thing is that helium was discovered on Earth only after it was discovered in the Sun. This discovery was a brilliant confirmation of the idea of ​​the material unity of the World.

In the second half of the last century, work began on the spectral classification of stars. One of the most important milestones in this direction was the discovery by E. Hertzsprung and G. Ressel at the beginning of our century of the relationship between luminosities, that is, the radiation power of stars, and their spectra. This actually ended the period of accumulation and classification of stellar data. The established relationships between stellar parameters were to be explained by the theory of stellar structure. This ends the third stage.

It should certainly be noted that the invention of photography in the last century played a huge role both at this and at the next stage.

The last, modern stage in the development of our ideas about the structure of nature on a large scale can be characterized by several of the most important points. Formation quantum mechanics made it possible to analyze stellar spectra and determine from them physical condition and quantitative elemental composition of stellar matter. Finally, the development of nuclear physics led to the solution of the main problem of stars - the problem of energy sources (A. Eddington, R. Atkinson, F. Houtermans, G. Bethe, K.-F. Weizsacker). Subsequent development computer science made it possible to calculate in more or less detail internal structure stars. Thus, in the main, the question of what are and how stars are arranged has received its solution, although research on stars has not ended there. They continue into the present. It's safe to say that the stars are a problem that will be dealt with for a long time to come. There are many more discoveries ahead of us. An illustration of this is the discovery of neutron stars.

The second most important area of ​​research is connected with the discovery of the world of galaxies. Spiral nebulae were known in the last century, but only in 1923 E. Hubble reliably determined the distance to one of the nearest galaxies - the Andromeda Nebula. By the 30th year, the dimensions were established Milky Way. In 1922-1924. our compatriot A.M. Friedman, on the basis of the general theory of relativity, created in 1915 by A. Einstein, developed the theory of the expanding universe. In 1929, Hubble discovered the relationship between the speed of receding galaxies and their distance, brilliantly confirming Friedman's theory. The rapid development of this direction began in the 60s after the discovery of relic radiation and quasars. Already in our time, perhaps, one of the most beautiful theories has been created - the theory of the "foamy" structure of the Universe.

What else distinguishes research in our era is the development of equipment beyond the limits earth's atmosphere using spacecraft. The entire range of electromagnetic radiation became available for research - from infrared to gamma. Figuratively speaking, the window through which information comes to us has become much larger. Thanks to this, made whole line major discoveries, but large quantity discoveries ahead. Perhaps in the coming years we will be able to see planets around other stars and, perhaps, learn something about life outside the Earth. It would be the biggest event in the history of mankind.

In conclusion, I would like to dwell on this issue. Tracing the development of science over a long period of time, one can notice a certain correlation between periods of upsurge in science and the needs of a particular era. On the whole, so to speak, statistically this conclusion is hardly subject to doubt. The development of society and productive forces, of course, stimulates the development of science and even almost dictates certain discoveries. At the same time, the development of science can occur relatively independently. A classic example of this is Einstein's creation general theory relativity, which, unlike, say, the special theory of relativity or quantum mechanics, "did not knock on the door."

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Course subject and objectives
The subject of this course is the planets, stars, the Sun as the nearest star and the solar system, the interstellar medium, our Galaxy, other galaxies, the large-scale structure of the universes.

On a large scale
Now it is difficult to say with certainty what prompted a person to become interested in the stars - practical needs or curiosity. Most likely, both, although it is possible that curiosity was

Reliability of knowledge about the megaworld
The question of the reliability of our knowledge about the structure of nature on a large scale occupies a special place. studying space objects, one has to deal with enormous distances and time intervals

Measurement of distances to celestial bodies
The problem of distances in astrophysics is the number one problem. After all, the scale of certain objects depends on its solution, therefore, the structure of these objects and the processes that are involved in explaining

Kepler's laws
Starting from the idea of ​​Copernicus that the planets move in circles, Kepler for a long time tried to choose the parameters of the orbits so that they would satisfy the observational data.

Movement of the Earth around the Sun
There are three facts that directly indicate the movement of the Earth around the Sun. 1. Observations have shown that the angular distance at noon of the Sun from the equator is one

solar system
Task number 10. Estimate the ratio of angular momentum associated with the rotation of Jupiter around the Sun and the Sun around its axis (see tabular data in Appendix 1).

The structure of the bowels of the planets of the zone group
What is the structure of the interior of the planets? The most studied is the Earth, so it is natural to start with a description of the bowels of the Earth. By analogy with the Earth, models of the structure of the CGD are being developed. The internal structure of the bowels

The chemical composition of the Earth
The chemical composition of the crust is studied directly, information about the composition of the Earth's interior is obtained again with the help of seismic waves. How? According to the dependence r(r), as well as the elastic properties of the medium on ra

Age of the Earth
The age of the Earth is a very important parameter. Knowing it allows, in particular, to make a choice between different models of the evolution of the Universe. But how to determine the age of the Earth? The idea is to define it

The internal structure of the giant planets
As already mentioned, it is not possible to directly study the interiors of giant planets (PGs). The main role in their research is played by theoretical methods based on some general data.

Outskirts of the solar system
What is outside the orbit of Pluto? Perhaps there are more planets outside the orbit of Pluto. So, in 1992 and 1993. Two more planets were discovered, the sizes of which turned out to be quite large

Sun surface temperature
The temperature of a radiating body is determined using the laws of radiation (see Appendix 1). The first method is as follows. We get the spectrum of the radiating body. Then, varying T in the formula

Conditions in the depths of the sun
Stars, like planets, are in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium. To see how exactly this assertion holds, we make the following estimates. Suppose first that the

What is the problem? Let us estimate the solar thermal energy reserve ETO. It's obvious that

To approach the solution of the question posed, let us estimate the energy reserve of the Sun. For this, it is necessary to recall the well-known

Sun activity
As already mentioned, the global characteristics of the Sun have remained practically unchanged for several billion years. However, local ones can undergo temporary fluctuations. common cause birth

magnitude
The receiving equipment registers the illumination Em created by one or another star on the Earth, i.e. the amount of energy incident per unit time on a unit area in some

Spectra of normal stars
The spectrum of the star, i.e. the distribution of energy over wavelengths is the most complete characteristic of its radiation. If the spectrum of the star is known, then by integrating over the wavelength, the os

Diagram spectrum - luminosity
At the beginning of our century, Hertzsprung and Ressel established a connection between the differential and integral characteristics of stars by constructing a spectrum-luminosity diagram based on the results of observations (Fig. 27;

Determination of distances to distant stars
Let us digress for a short time from the study of the structure of stars and turn to the problem of distances. Distances to distant stars can be determined using the G-R diagram. Indeed, the spectral type s

Determination of radii and masses of stars
For understanding the GR diagram, the question of the radii and masses of stars is very important. It is not possible to directly measure the radii of stars, because due to the enormous distances, their apparent sizes are approx.

Phenomenological relationship between parameters for MS stars
After the radii and masses of stars were determined from observations, the question arose: is there a relationship between the luminosity of a star, its mass and radius? It turned out that such a connection really exists.

Qualitative consideration of the problem
The relationship between various parameters of stars is obtained above based on empirical data. Let us now pose the following question: what are the models for the structure of stars of various types? It should immediately make a reservation: answer

Mathematical formulation of the problem
Let us formulate equations describing the internal structure of stars. Equilibrium equation (2.3): . (4.13)

Application of similarity methods
The equilibrium equations of a star for a given chemical composition, a specific type of TNR and an energy transfer mechanism can be solved numerically using computers, and thereby calculate the structure of stars

The internal structure of stars
The star is very complex natural object. Therefore, as mentioned above, its structure can be calculated in detail only by using computer methods. However, in this case as well,

white dwarfs
Task number 33. For reasons of similarity, find a qualitative relationship between the radius R u and the mass. MS of a star whose matter obeys the equation of state

Star evolution
The problem of stellar evolution is one of the fundamental problems. It was solved within several decades. There were also wrong ways. Thus, the presence of HP in the GR diagram suggested the idea

Isochrones. Determining the ages of globular clusters
From fig. 42 it can be seen that the position of a particular star on the G-R diagram is determined by its mass and the time elapsed from the moment when the star lit up (in fact, there are other factors that affect

Features of the evolution of close binary stars
Interest in the problem of binary stars is very great. Their studies provide the most reliable information about the masses and radii of stars, as well as additional information that allows you to more deeply check

Physically variable stars
Task number 40. From dimensional considerations, to establish a relationship between the pulsation period of a star and its average density. Hint: Independent dimensional constants that

Final stages of stellar evolution
The final stellar evolution is determined by a number of factors: the mass of the star, its rotation, magnetic field, whether the star is part of a close binary system or not, by the initial chemical composition. In the far

white dwarfs
The very structure of a red giant - a degenerate core in the center and an inflating shell - suggests how white dwarf. If the star sheds the shell, then the remnant will have parameters white

supernovae
Task number 42. From dimensional considerations, find the expansion law for the supernova shell. Hint: assume that a shell extension has consequences

neutron stars
Task No. 45. Estimate the critical values ​​of the mass and radius of a star whose substance consists entirely of neutrons. Directions: 1) accept that n

X-ray pulsars
Above we are talking about radio pulsars. X-ray pulsars (RPs) are also known. That is, objects that emit strictly periodic pulses in the X-ray range. Recording the radiation of one of them

Black holes
Problem No. 50. Calculate the radius rg of a star of mass M, at which light cannot escape from it (J. Michel, P. Laplace). Rate r