I understand that such an article can break the fan, so I will try to bypass sharp corners. I write more for my own pleasure, most of the facts will be from the category taught in school, but nevertheless I will gladly accept criticism and corrections, if there are facts. So:

Ancient Rus'.

It is assumed that Rus' appeared as a result of the merger of a number of East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. The first mentions of us are found in the 830s. First, in the region of 813g. (very controversial dating) some Rosas successfully ran into the city of Amastrida (modern Amasra, Turkey) in Byzantine Palfagonia. Secondly, the ambassadors of the "Kagan Rosov" as part of the Byzantine embassy came to the last emperor of the Frankish state, Louis I the Pious (a good question, however, who they really were). Thirdly, the same Dews ran into Constantinople in 860, without much success (there is an assumption that the famous Askold and Dir commanded the parade).

The history of serious Russian statehood originates, according to official version, in 862, when a certain Rurik appears on the scene.

Rurik.

In fact, we have a rather poor idea of ​​who he was and whether he was at all. The official version is based on the "Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor, who, in turn, used the sources available to him. There is a theory (quite similar to the truth) that Rurik was known as Rorik of Jutland, from the Skjoldung dynasty (a descendant of Skjold, King of the Danes, mentioned already in Beowulf). I repeat that the theory is not the only one.

Where did this character come from in Rus' (specifically, in Novgorod), is also an interesting question, I personally am closest to the theory that he was originally a hired military administrator, moreover, in Ladoga, and he brought the idea of ​​\u200b\u200ba hereditary transfer of power with him from Scandinavia, where it just came into fashion. And he came to power completely by himself by seizing it during a conflict with another military leader of the same kind.

However, in the PVL it is written that the Varangians were still called upon by three tribes of Slavs, unable to resolve the disputed issues themselves. Where did it come from?

Option one- from the source that Nestor read (well, you yourself understand, it would be enough for those who wanted to do fascinating editing from among the Rurikovichs at their leisure. Princess Olga could also do this, in the midst of a conflict with the Drevlyans, who for some reason still did not understand what to break the prince in half and offer a replacement, as always in their memory and done in such cases - a bad idea).

Option two- Nestor could have been asked to write this by Vladimir Monomakh, who was just called by the people of Kiev, and who really did not want to prove the legitimacy of his reign to everyone who was older than him in the family. In any case, somewhere from Rurik, the well-known idea of ​​a Slavic state appears. "Somewhere" because it was not Rurik who took real steps in building such a state, but his successor, Oleg.

Oleg.

Called "prophetic", Oleg took the reins Novgorod Rus in 879 Probably (according to PVL), he was a relative of Rurik (possibly brother-in-law). Some identify Oleg with Odd Orvar (Arrow), the hero of several Scandinavian sagas.

All the same PVL claims that Oleg was the guardian of the real heir, the son of Rurik Igor, something like a regent. In general, in a good way, the power of the Rurikovichs for a very long time was transferred to the "eldest in the family", so that Oleg could be a full-fledged ruler not only in practice, but also formally.

Actually, what Oleg did during his reign - he made Rus'. In 882 he gathered an army and in turn subjugated Smolensk, Lyubech and Kyiv. According to the history of the capture of Kyiv, we, as a rule, remember Askold and Dir (I won’t speak for Dir, but the name “Askold” seems to me very Scandinavian. I won’t lie). PVL believes that they were Varangians, but had nothing to do with Rurik (I believe, because I heard somewhere that not only did they have - Rurik sent them along the Dnieper with the task "capture everything that is badly worth "). The annals also describe how Oleg defeated his compatriots - he hid military paraphernalia from the boats, so that they looked like trade ones, and somehow lured both governors there (according to the official version from the Nikon Chronicle, he let them know that he was there . but he said he was sick, and on the ships he showed them the young Igor and killed them. But, perhaps, they simply inspected the incoming merchants, not suspecting that an ambush was waiting for them on board).

Having seized power in Kiev, Oleg appreciated the convenience of its location in relation to the eastern and southern (as far as I understand) lands compared to Novgorod and Ladoga, and said that his capital would be here. He spent the next 25 years "swearing in" the surrounding Slavic tribes, repelling some of them (Northerners and Radimichi) from the Khazars.

In 907 Oleg undertakes a military campaign in Byzantium. When 200 (according to PVL) boats with 40 soldiers on board each appeared in sight of Constantinople, Emperor Leo IV the Philosopher ordered to block the harbor of the city with stretched chains - perhaps in the expectation that the savages would be satisfied with the robbery of the suburbs and go home. "Savage" Oleg showed ingenuity and put the ships on wheels. The infantry, under the cover of sailing tanks, caused confusion in the walls of the city, and Leo IV hastily paid off. According to the legend, along the way, an attempt was made to slip wine and hemlock into the prince during the negotiations, but Oleg somehow felt the moment and pretended to be a teetotaler (for which, in fact, he was called "Prophetic" upon his return). The ransom was a lot of money, tribute and an agreement under which our merchants were exempt from taxes and had the right to live in Constantinople for up to a year at the expense of the crown. In 911, however, the agreement was renegotiated without exempting merchants from duties.

Some historians, not finding a description of the campaign in Byzantine sources, consider it a legend, but recognize the existence of the treaty of 911 (perhaps there was a campaign, otherwise why would the Eastern Romans bend like that, but without the episode with "tanks" and Constantinople).

Oleg leaves the stage in connection with his death in 912. Why and where exactly is a very good question, the legend tells about the skull of a horse and a poisonous snake (interestingly, the same happened with the legendary Odd Orvar). The circular buckets, foaming, hissed, Oleg left, but Rus' remained.

Generally speaking, this article should be brief, so I will try to summarize my thoughts further.

Igor (r. 912-945). The son of Rurik, took over the reign of Kiev after Oleg (Igor was governor in Kyiv during the war with Byzantium in 907). He conquered the Drevlyans, tried to fight with Byzantium (however, the memory of Oleg was enough, the war did not work out), concluded an agreement with her in 943 or 944 similar to the one Oleg concluded (but less profitable), and in 945 unsuccessfully went for the second time to take tribute all from the same Drevlyans (it is believed that Igor perfectly understood how all this could end, but he could not cope with his own squad, which at that time was not particularly surprising). Husband of Princess Olga, father of the future Prince Svyatoslav.

Olga (r. 945-964)- Igor's widow. She burned the Drevlyansky Iskorosten, thereby demonstrating the sacralization of the figure of the prince (the Drevlyans offered her to marry their own prince Mal, and 50 years before that this could seriously work). She carried out the first positive tax reform in the history of Rus', setting specific deadlines for collecting tribute (lessons) and creating fortified yards for receiving it and standing collectors (graveyards). She laid the foundation for stone construction in Rus'.

Interestingly, from the point of view of our chronicles, Olga never officially ruled, since the death of Igor, his son, Svyatoslav, ruled.

The Byzantines were not allowed such subtleties, and in their sources Olga is mentioned as the archontissa (ruler) of Rus'.

Svyatoslav (964 - 972) Igorevich. Generally speaking, 964 is rather the year of the beginning of his independent reign, since formally he was considered the prince of Kiev from 945. But in practice, until 969, his mother, Princess Olga, ruled for him, until the prince got out of the saddle. From PVL "When Svyatoslav grew up and matured, he began to gather many brave warriors, and he was fast, like a pardus, and fought a lot. On campaigns, he did not carry carts or boilers with him, did not cook meat, but, thinly slicing horse meat, or beast, or beef, and roasted on coals, so he ate, he did not have a tent, but slept, spreading a sweatshirt with a saddle in his head, - all the rest of his soldiers were the same. .. I'm going to you!" In fact, he destroyed the Khazar Khaganate (to the joy of Byzantium), imposed a tribute to the Vyatichi (to his own joy), conquered the First Bulgarian Kingdom on the Danube, built Pereyaslavets on the Danube (where he wanted to move the capital), frightened the Pechenegs and, on the basis of the Bulgarians, quarreled with Byzantium, the Bulgarians fought against she is on the side of Rus' - the vicissitudes of wars are vicissitudes). In the spring of 970, he put up a free army of 30,000 of his own, Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Hungarians against Byzantium, but lost (possibly) the battle of Arcadiopol, and, taking a retreat, left the territory of Byzantium. In 971, the Byzantines already besieged Dorostol, where Svyatoslav organized his headquarters, and after a three-month siege and another battle, they convinced Svyatoslav to take another retreat and go home. Svyatoslav did not get back home - first he got stuck in the winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, and then ran into the Pecheneg prince Kurya, in a battle with whom he died. Byzantium received Bulgaria as a province and minus one dangerous rival, so it seems to me that Kurya was stuck on the doorsteps all winter for a reason. However, there is no evidence for this.

By the way. Svyatoslav was never baptized, despite repeated proposals and the possible breakdown of the engagement with the Byzantine princess - he himself explained this by the fact that the squad would not specifically understand such a maneuver, which he could not allow.

The first prince who gave reigns to more than one son. Perhaps this led to the first strife in Rus', when, after the death of their father, the sons fought for the throne of Kiev.

Yaropolk (972-978) and Oleg (prince of the Drevlyans 970-977) Svyatoslavichi- two of the three sons of Svyatoslav. Legitimate sons, unlike Vladimir, the son of Svyatoslav and the housekeeper Malusha (although it’s still a good question how such a trifle played a role in Rus' in the middle of the 10th century. There is also an opinion that Malusha is the daughter of the same Drevlyansky prince Mal, who executed Igor) .

Yaropolk had diplomatic relations with the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. In 977, during the strife, opposing the brothers, he attacked Oleg's possessions in the land of the Drevlyans. Oleg died during the retreat (according to the chronicle - Yaropolk lamented). In fact, after the death of Oleg and the flight of Vladimir, he became the sole ruler of Rus' somewhere "over the sea". In 980 Vladimir returned with a squad of Varangians, began to take the city, Yaropolk left Kiev with a better fortified Roden, Vladimir laid siege to it, famine began in the city and Yaropolk was forced to negotiate. In place, instead of or in addition to Vladimir, there were two Varangians who did their job.

Oleg - Prince of the Drevlyans, the first successor of Mala. Perhaps he accidentally started a strife by killing the son of the governor Yaropolk, Sveneld, who poached on his land. Chronicle version. Personally, it seems to me (together with Wikipedia) that the brothers would have had enough motives even without the voevoda father burning with a thirst for revenge. Also, perhaps, he laid the foundation for one of the noble families of Maravia - only the Czechs and only the 16th-17th centuries have evidence of this, so believe it or not - on the conscience of the reader.

Short story Rus'. How Rus' was created

Chapter 2. ANCIENT Rus'

§ 1. East Slavic tribes of the VIII-IX centuries.

Tribal unions. By the time the name "Rus" was applied to Eastern Slavs, i.e., by the 8th century, their life has undergone significant changes.

The Tale of Bygone Years notes that on the eve of the unification of most of the East Slavic tribes under the rule of Kyiv, there were at least 15 large tribal unions here. In the Middle Dnieper region lived a powerful union of tribes, united by the name of the glade. The center of the Polyansky lands has long been the city of Kyiv. To the north of the glades lived Novgorod Slovenes, grouped around the cities of Novgorod, Ladoga. To the northwest were the Drevlyans, that is, the inhabitants of the forests, whose main city was Iskorosten. Further, in the forest zone, on the territory of modern Belarus, a tribal union of Dryagovichi, i.e. swamp inhabitants, was formed (from the word "dryagva" - swamp, bog). In the northeast, in the forest thickets between the Oka, Klyazma and Volga rivers, lived the Vyatichi, in whose lands Rostov and Suzdal were the main cities. Between the Vyatichi and the glades, in the upper reaches of the Volga, the Dnieper and the Western Dvina, the Krivichi lived, who later penetrated into the lands of the Slovenes and Vyatichi. Smolensk became their main city. In the basin of the Western Dvina, the Polotsk people lived, who received their name from the Polota river, which flows into the Western Dvina, Polotsk later became the main city of the Polotsk. The tribes that settled along the rivers Desna, Seim, Sula and lived east of the meadows were called northerners or inhabitants of the northern lands; their main city eventually became Chernihiv. Radimichi lived along the rivers Sozh and Seim. To the west of the glades, in the basin of the Bug River, Volynians and Buzhans settled; between the Dniester and the Danube lived the streets and Tivertsy, whose lands bordered on Bulgaria.

The annals also mention the tribes of Croats and Dulebs, who lived in the Danube and Carpathian regions.

All ancient descriptions of the settlement of the East Slavic tribes say that they did not live in isolation from their foreign-speaking neighbors.

Strong East Slavic unions of tribes subordinated the surrounding small peoples to their influence, taxed them with tribute. There were clashes between them, but relations were mostly peaceful and good neighborly. Against an external enemy, the Slavs and their neighbors often acted as a united front.

By the end of the VIII - the beginning of the IX century. the Polan core of the Eastern Slavs is freed from the power of the Khazars.

Economy, social relations of the Eastern Slavs. What was it in the VIII-IX centuries. life of East Slavic tribal unions? It is definitely impossible to talk about them. The chronicler Nestor knew about this in the 12th century. He wrote that the most developed and civilized among all were the meadows, whose customs, family traditions were at a very high level. “And the Drevlyans,” he remarked, “live in an animal way,” these are forest dwellers; Radimichi, Vyatichi and northerners who lived in the forests also left not far from them.

Of course, the Kiev chronicler especially singled out the glades. But there is some truth in his observations. The Middle Dnieper was the most developed region among other East Slavic lands. It is here, on the free black earth lands, in conditions of relatively favorable climate, on the trading "Dnieper" road, the majority of the population was concentrated first of all. It was here that the ancient traditions of arable farming, combined with cattle breeding, horse breeding and gardening, were preserved and developed, iron-making, pottery production was improved, and other crafts were born.

In the lands of the Novgorod Slovenes, with an abundance of rivers, lakes, a well-branched water transport system, oriented, on the one hand, to the Baltic, and on the other, to the Dnieper and Volga "roads", navigation, trade, various crafts that produce products for exchange. The Novgorod-Ilmensky region was rich in forests, fur trade flourished there; Fishing has been an important branch of the economy since ancient times. In the forest thickets, along the banks of the rivers, on the forest edges, where the Drevlyans, Vyatichi, Dryagovichi lived, the rhythm of economic life was slow, here people especially hard mastered nature, winning every inch of land from it for arable land, meadows.

The lands of the Eastern Slavs were very different in terms of development, although people slowly but surely mastered the whole complex of basic economic activities and production skills. But the speed of their implementation depended on natural conditions, on the population, the availability of resources, say, iron ore.

Therefore, when we talk about the main features of the economy of the East Slavic tribal unions, we mean, first of all, the level of development of the Middle Dnieper, which in those days became the economic leader among the East Slavic lands.

Especially intensively continued to improve agriculture - the main type of economy of the early medieval world. Improved tools. A widespread type of agricultural machinery has become a "rall with a skid", with an iron plowshare or a plow. Millstones were replaced by ancient grain grinders, and iron sickles were used for harvesting. Stone and bronze tools are a thing of the past. High level achieved agronomic observations. The Eastern Slavs knew perfectly well the most convenient time for this or that field work and made this knowledge an achievement of all local farmers.

And most importantly, in the lands of the Eastern Slavs in these relatively “calm centuries”, when the devastating invasions of nomads did not really disturb the inhabitants of the Dnieper region, arable land expanded every year. The steppe and forest-steppe lands convenient for agriculture, lying near the dwellings, were widely developed. With iron axes, the Slavs cut centuries-old trees, burned small shoots, uprooted stumps in those places where the forest dominated.

Two-field and three-field crop rotations became common in the Slavic lands of the 7th-8th centuries, replacing slash-and-burn agriculture, in which the land was cleared from under the forest, used to exhaustion, and then abandoned. Manure soil became widely practiced. This made the yields higher, ensuring the life of people more durable. The Dnieper Slavs were engaged not only in agriculture. Near their villages there were beautiful water meadows where cattle and sheep grazed. Local residents raised pigs and chickens. Oxen and horses became the draft force in the economy. Horse breeding has become one of the important economic activities. And nearby were rivers, lakes, rich in fish. Fishing was an important subsidiary trade for the Slavs.

Arable plots were interspersed with forests, which became denser and more severe to the north, rarer and more cheerful on the border with the steppe. Each Slav was not only a diligent and stubborn farmer, but also an experienced hunter.

From spring to late autumn, the Eastern Slavs, like their neighbors the Balts and Finno-Ugric peoples, were engaged in beekeeping (from the word "bort" - a forest beehive). It gave enterprising fishermen a lot of honey, wax, which was also highly valued in the exchange.

The constantly improving economy of the Eastern Slavs eventually led to the fact that a separate family, a separate house, ceased to need the help of the clan, relatives. The unified tribal economy began to gradually disintegrate, huge houses accommodating up to a hundred people began to give way to small family dwellings. Common tribal property, common arable land, lands began to break up into separate plots belonging to families. The tribal community is soldered both by kinship, and by common labor, hunting. Collaboration clearing the forest, hunting for a large animal with primitive stone tools and weapons required great collective efforts. A plow with an iron plowshare, an iron axe, a shovel, a hoe, a bow and arrows, iron-tipped darts, double-edged steel swords significantly expanded and strengthened the power of an individual, an individual family over nature and contributed to the withering away of the tribal community. Now it has become neighborly, where each family had the right to its share of communal property. Thus, the right of private ownership, private property was born, an opportunity appeared for individual strong families to develop large plots of land, to obtain more products in the course of fishing activities, to create certain surpluses, accumulations.

Under these conditions, the power and economic capabilities of tribal leaders, elders, tribal nobility, and warriors surrounding the leaders sharply increased. This is how property inequality originated in the Slavic environment, and especially clearly in the regions of the Middle Dnieper.

Crafts. Trade. The path "from the Varangians to the Greeks". In many ways, these processes were helped by the development of not only agriculture and cattle breeding, but also crafts, the growth of cities, trade relations, because here conditions were also created for the additional accumulation of social wealth, which most often fell into the hands of the wealthy, deepening the property difference between the rich and the poor.

The Middle Dnieper region became a place where crafts in the VIII - early IX centuries. reached great perfection. So, near one of the villages, during archaeological excavations, 25 forge furnaces were found, in which iron was smelted and up to 20 types of tools were made from it.

Every year the products of artisans became more diverse. Gradually, their labor became more and more separated from that of the countryside. Artisans could now support themselves and their families with this labor. They began to settle where it was more convenient and easier for them to sell their products or exchange them for food. Such places, of course, were settlements located on trade routes, places where tribal leaders lived, elders, where religious shrines were located, where many people came to worship. This is how the Eastern Slavic cities were born, which became the center of tribal authorities, and the center of crafts and trade, and the place of religious worship, and the place of defense from the enemy.

Cities were born as settlements that simultaneously performed all these tasks - political, economic, religious and military. Only in this case they had prospects further development and could turn into really large population centers.

It was in the VIII-IX centuries. the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” was born, which not only contributed to the trade contacts of the Slavs with the outside world, but also linked together the East Slavic lands themselves. On this path, large Slavic urban centers arose - Kyiv, Smolensk, Lyubech, Novgorod, which later played such important role in the history of Rus'.

But besides this, the main trade route for the Eastern Slavs, there were others. First of all, this is the eastern trade route, the axis of which was the Volga and Don rivers.

To the north of the Volga-Don route, roads ran from the state of the Bulgarians, located on the Middle Volga, through the Voronezh forests, to Kiev and up the Volga, through Northern Rus', to the Baltic regions. From the Oka-Volga interfluve to the south, to the Don and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, the Muravskaya road, named so later, led. Finally, there were both western and southwestern trade routes that provided the Eastern Slavs with a direct outlet to the heart of Europe.

All these paths covered the lands of the Eastern Slavs with a kind of network, crossed with each other and, in essence, firmly tied the Eastern Slavic lands to the states of Western Europe, the Balkans, the Northern Black Sea region, the Volga region, the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Western and Central Asia.

The Eastern Slavs turned out to be at the average level in terms of the pace of economic, social, political, cultural development. They lagged behind Western countries- France, England. The Byzantine Empire and the Arab Caliphate, with their developed statehood, the highest culture, and writing, were at an unattainable height for them, but the Eastern Slavs were on a par with the Czechs, Poles, Scandinavians, significantly ahead of the Hungarians, who were still at the nomadic level, not to mention the nomadic Turks, Finno-Ugric forest inhabitants or Lithuanians living an isolated and closed life.

Religion of the Eastern Slavs. The religion of the Eastern Slavs was also complex, diverse, with elaborate customs. Like other ancient peoples, in particular the ancient Greeks, the Slavs populated the world with a variety of gods and goddesses. Among them were major and minor, powerful, all-powerful and weak, playful, evil and kind.

At the head of the Slavic deities was the great Svarog - the god of the universe, reminiscent of the ancient Greek Zeus.

His sons - Svarozhichi - the sun and fire - were carriers of light and heat. The sun god Dazhbog was highly revered by the Slavs. This cult was associated with agriculture and was therefore especially popular. The god Veles was revered by the Slavs as the patron saint of domestic animals, it was a kind of "cattle god". Stribog, according to their concepts, commanded the winds, like the ancient Greek Aeolus.

As the Slavs merged with some Iranian and Finno-Ugric tribes, their gods also migrated to the Slavic pantheon.

So, in the VIII-IX centuries. the Slavs revered the sun god Horus, who obviously came from the Iranian tribes. From there, the god Simargl appeared, who was depicted as a dog and was considered the god of the soil, the roots of plants. In the Iranian world, it was the master of the underworld, the deity of fertility.

The only major female deity among the Slavs was Mokosh, who personified the birth of all life, was the patroness of the female part of the economy.

Over time, as the Slavs of princes, governors, retinues, began to advance in the public life of the Slavs, the beginning of great military campaigns, in which the young prowess of the nascent state played, the god of lightning and thunder, Perun, who then becomes the main heavenly deity, comes to the fore more and more among the Slavs. , merges with Svarog, Rod as more ancient gods. This does not happen by chance: Perun was a god whose cult was born in a princely, retinue environment.

Perun - lightning, the highest deity - was invincible. By the 9th century he became the main god of the Eastern Slavs.

But pagan ideas were not limited to the main gods. The world was also inhabited by other supernatural beings. Many of them were associated with the idea of ​​the existence of an afterlife kingdom. It was from there that evil spirits - ghouls - came to people. And the good spirits that protect a person were the coastlines. The Slavs sought to protect themselves from evil spirits with conspiracies, amulets, the so-called "amulets". The goblin lived in the forest, mermaids lived by the water. The Slavs believed that these were the souls of the dead, coming out in the spring to enjoy nature.

The Slavs believed that each house is under the auspices of the brownie, which they identified with the spirit of their ancestor, the ancestor, or shchur, chura. When a person believed that he was threatened by evil spirits, he called on his patron - the brownie, chur - to protect him and said: "Chur me, chur me!"

Already on the eve of the new year (the year for the ancient Slavs began, as now, on January 1), and then the sun turned to spring, the Kolyada holiday began. First, the lights went out in the houses, and then people produced a new fire by friction, lit candles, hearths, glorified the beginning of a new life of the sun, wondered about their fate, made sacrifices.

Another holiday coinciding with natural phenomena, celebrated in March. It was the spring equinox. The Slavs praised the sun, celebrated the rebirth of nature, the onset of spring. They burned effigies of winter, cold, death; Maslenitsa began with its pancakes, reminiscent of the solar circle, festivities, sleigh rides, and various funs took place.

On May 1–2, the Slavs cleaned the young birch with ribbons, decorated their houses with branches with freshly blossomed leaves, again praised the sun god, and celebrated the appearance of the first spring shoots.

Another national holiday fell on June 23 and was called the Kupala holiday. This day was the summer solstice. The harvest was ripening, and people prayed that the gods would send them rain. On the eve of this day, according to the ideas of the Slavs, mermaids came ashore from the water - the "mermaid week" began. Girls these days led round dances, threw wreaths into the rivers. The most beautiful ones were wrapped around with green branches and watered, as if inviting the long-awaited rain to the earth.

At night, bonfires flared up, through which young men and girls jumped, which meant a ritual of purification, which, as it were, was helped by the sacred fire.

On Kupala nights, the so-called abductions of girls were performed, when young people conspired and the groom took the bride away from the hearth.

Births, weddings, and funerals were arranged with complex religious rites. So, the custom of the Eastern Slavs is known to bury with the ashes of a person (the Slavs burned their dead at the stake, placing them in wooden boats; this meant that a person was sailing into the underworld) one of his wives, over whom a ritual murder was committed; the remains of a war horse, weapons, jewelry were placed in the grave of a warrior. Life continued, according to the ideas of the Slavs, beyond the grave. Then a high mound was poured over the grave, and a pagan trizna was performed: relatives and comrades-in-arms commemorated the deceased.

§ 2. The emergence of the state among the Eastern Slavs

The first mention of Rus'. The first state in the lands of the Eastern Slavs was called "Rus". By the name of its capital - the city of Kyiv - scientists subsequently began to call it Kievan Rus, although it itself never called itself that. Just "Rus" or "Russian land". Where did this name come from?

The first mention of the name "Rus" dates back to the same time as the information about the Ants, Slavs, Wends, that is, to the 5th-7th centuries. Describing the tribes that lived between the Dnieper and the Dniester, the Greeks call them Antes, Scythians, Sarmatians, Gothic historians - Rosoman (blond, bright people), and Arabs - Rus. But it is clear that they were talking about the same people.

Years pass, the name "Rus" is increasingly becoming collective for all the tribes that lived in the vast expanses between the Baltic and the Black Sea, the Oka-Volga interfluve and the Polish borderlands. In the ninth century the name "Rus" is mentioned in the works of Byzantine, Western and Eastern authors several times.

860 dated the message of Byzantine sources about the attack of Rus' on Constantinople. All data speak for the fact that this Rus was located in the Middle Dnieper.

From the same time, information comes about the use of the name "Rus" in the north, on the coast of the Baltic Sea. They are contained in the "Tale of Bygone Years" and are associated with the appearance of the legendary and hitherto unsolved Varangians.

The chronicle under 862 reports the calling of the tribes of the Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi and Chud, who lived in the northeastern corner of the East Slavic lands, the Varangians. The chronicler reports on the decision of the inhabitants of those places: “Let's look for a prince who would own us and judge by law. And they went across the sea to the Varangians, to Rus'. Further, the author writes that “those Varangians were called Rus”, just as the Swedes, Normans, Angles, Gotlanders, etc. had their ethnic names. Thus, the chronicler indicated the ethnicity of the Varangians, whom he calls “Rus”. “Our land is great and plentiful, and attire (i.e. management - note auth.) it doesn't. Come reign and rule over us."

The chronicle repeatedly returns to explaining who the Varangians are. The Varangians are aliens, “finders”, and the indigenous population are Slovenes, Krivichi, Finno-Ugric tribes. The Varangians, according to the chronicler, "sit" in the east of the Western peoples along the southern coast of the Varangian (Baltic) Sea.

Thus, the Varangians, Slovenes and other peoples who lived here came to the Slavs and began to be called Rus. “But the Slovenian language and Russian are one,” writes an ancient author. In the future, the clearing, who lived to the south, also began to be called Rus.

Thus, the name "Rus" appeared in the East Slavic lands in the south, gradually replacing the local tribal names. It also appeared in the north, brought here by the Vikings.

It must be remembered that the Slavic tribes took possession in the 1st millennium AD. e. vast expanses of Eastern Europe between the Carpathians and the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. Among them, the names Russ, Rusyns were very common. Until now, in the Balkans, in Germany, their descendants live under their own name "Rusyns", that is, fair-haired people, in contrast to the blonds - Germans and Scandinavians and the dark-haired inhabitants of southern Europe. Part of these "Rusyns" moved from the Carpathian region and from the banks of the Danube to the Dnieper region, as reported by the chronicle. Here they met with the inhabitants of these lands, also of Slavic origin. Other Russes, Rusyns made contacts with the Eastern Slavs in the northeastern region of Europe. The chronicle accurately indicates the "address" of these Varangian Rus - the southern shores of the Baltic.

The Varangians fought with the Eastern Slavs in the area of ​​​​Lake Ilmen, took tribute from them, then concluded some kind of "row" or agreement with them, and at the time of their inter-tribal strife they came here as peacekeepers from outside, neutral rulers. This practice of inviting a prince or king to rule from close, often kindred lands was quite common in Europe. This tradition was preserved in Novgorod and later. Sovereigns from other Russian principalities were invited there to reign.

Based on the message of the chronicle about the Varangians, some scientists, both foreign and Russian, in the XVIII-XX centuries. created and defended the so-called Norman theory origin of the Russian state. Its essence lies in the fact that the state was brought to Rus' from outside by invited princes, that it was created by the Normans, Scandinavians, bearers of Western culture - this is how these historians understood the Varangians. The Eastern Slavs themselves allegedly could not create a state system, which spoke of their backwardness, historical doom, etc. This theory was often used in the West during periods of confrontation between our Motherland and its Western opponents.

Now historians have convincingly proved the development of statehood in Rus' long before the "calling of the Varangians." However, until now, the echo of these disputes is the discussion about who the Varangians are. The Normanists continue to insist that the Varangians were Scandinavians, based on evidence of Rus''s extensive ties with Scandinavia, on the mention of names that they interpret as Scandinavian, in the Russian ruling elite.

However, this version completely contradicts the data of the chronicle, which places the Varangians on the southern shores of the Baltic Sea and clearly separates them in the 9th century. from Scandinavians. Against this is the emergence of contacts between the Eastern Slavs and the Varangians as a state association at a time when Scandinavia, lagging behind Rus' in socio-economic and political development, did not know in the IX century. no princely or royal power, nor state formations. The Slavs of the southern Baltic had both. Of course, the debate about who the Varangians were will continue.

"Military Democracy". In the VIII - the first half of the IX century. among the Eastern Slavs began to take shape social order, which historians call "military democracy". This is no longer a primitive stand with its equality of tribal members, tribal assemblies, leaders chosen by the people, people's tribal militias, but also not a state with its strong central authority, uniting the entire territory of the country and subjugating subjects, who themselves differ sharply in political role in society, according to its material, legal status.

Those who led the tribe, and later the unions of the tribes, who organized raids on near and distant neighbors, collected more and more wealth. The leaders, who were previously chosen due to their wisdom, justice, are now turning into tribal princes, in whose hands all the management of a tribe or an alliance of tribes is concentrated. They rise above society and thanks to their wealth, the support of military detachments, consisting of associates. Next to the prince, the voivode, who is the leader of the tribal army, stands out among the Eastern Slavs. An increasingly significant role is played by the squad, which is separated from the tribal militia, becoming a group of warriors personally devoted to the prince. These are the so-called "children". These people are no longer associated with agriculture, cattle breeding, or trade. Their profession is war. And since the power of tribal alliances is constantly growing, war becomes a permanent occupation for these people. Their prey, for which one has to pay with injury or even life, far exceeds the results of the labor of a farmer, cattle breeder, hunter. The squad becomes a special privileged part in society. The tribal nobility also separates over time - the heads of clans, strong patriarchal families. Stands out and know, whose main quality is military prowess, courage. Therefore, the democracy of the period of formation of the state acquires a military character.

The military spirit permeates the entire structure of life in this transitional society. Brute force, the sword underlie the rise of some and the beginning of the humiliation of others. But the traditions of the old system still exist. There is a tribal assembly - veche. Princes and governors are still elected by the people, but the desire to make power hereditary is already visible. The elections themselves eventually turn into a well-organized spectacle, staged by the princes, governors, and representatives of the nobility themselves. In their hands is the whole organization of management, military force, experience.

The people themselves cease to be united. The main part of the tribe were "people" - "people". This definition means in singular"free man". The Eastern Slavs used the name "smerd" in the same sense. But among the “people”, “smerds”, “howl” began to stand out, who had the right and duty to participate in the army and in people's assembly- "veche". Veche for many years remained the supreme body of tribal self-government and the court. The degree of wealth was not yet the main sign of inequality, it was determined by other circumstances - by those who played the main role in the economy, who was the strongest, most dexterous, and experienced. In a society where heavy manual labor prevailed, such people were men, the heads of large patriarchal families, the so-called "husbands", among the "people" they stood at the highest social level. Women, children, and other members of the family ("servants") were subordinate to "husbands". Already at that time, a layer of people who were in the service appeared in the family - “servants”. At the lower levels of society, there were “orphans”, “serfs” who did not have family ties, as well as the very poor part of the neighboring community, who were called “wretched”, “meager”, “poor” people. At the very bottom of the social ladder were "slaves" engaged in forced labor. Among them, as a rule, were prisoners - foreigners. But, as Byzantine authors noted, the Slavs, after a certain period of time, released them into the wild, and they remained to live as part of the tribe.

Thus, the structure of tribal life in the period of "military democracy" was complex and branched. It clearly marked social differences.

Two Russian state centers: Kyiv and Novgorod. By the end of the VIII - the beginning of the IX century. economic and social processes in the East Slavic lands led to the unification of various tribal unions into strong intertribal groupings.

The centers of such attraction and unification were the Middle Dnieper region, headed by Kiev, and the northwestern region, where settlements were grouped around Lake Ilmen, along the upper reaches of the Dnieper, along the banks of the Volkhov, i.e., near the key points of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." At first, it was said that these two centers began to stand out more and more among other large tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs.

The glades showed signs of statehood earlier than other tribal unions. This was based on the most rapid economic, political, social development the edges. Polyana tribal leaders, and later Kiev princes, held the keys to the entire Dnieper highway, and Kiev was not only a center of crafts, trade, to which the entire agricultural district was drawn, but also a well-fortified point.

Military campaigns to the south and east. The attacks of the Russian army on the Crimean possessions of Byzantium date back to this time. Russ moved on high-speed boats, which could go both on oars and under sails. Thus, they covered huge distances along the rivers, the Black, Azov, Caspian Seas. Vessels were dragged from one reservoir to another by dragging, for which special skating rinks were used.

From the sea, the Rus fought the southern coast of Crimea from Chersonesos to Kerch, stormed the city of Surozh (present-day Sudak) and plundered it.

By the beginning of the IX century. The Polyana lands had already freed themselves from the power of the Khazars and stopped paying tribute to them, but other Russian lands still paid tribute to the Khazaria.

A few years later, the warlike Rus again undertook a campaign to the Black Sea shores. This time, the rich Byzantine port of Amastris, the then “Baghdad” of Asia Minor, became the target of the attack. The Russian army took possession of the city, but then made peace with the local inhabitants and went home.

Both of these campaigns showed that a new powerful power was being born in the Middle Dnieper region, which immediately determined its main military-strategic interests, closely related to trade interests, the protection and reconquest of new trade routes: the Northern Black Sea, Azov, Crimea, Danube.

In 860, Constantinople unexpectedly underwent a fierce attack by the Russian army.

The Rus took the Greeks by surprise. Their intelligence reported that at that time the Byzantine army, led by the emperor, and the fleet had left to fight the Arabs. But the Russians did not have enough strength to take the city - their attempts to climb the walls were repulsed. A siege began, which lasted exactly a week. Then peace negotiations began. The Greeks made concessions: they paid a huge indemnity to the attackers, promised annual cash payments, and gave the Russians the opportunity to freely trade in the Byzantine markets. Peace was concluded between Russia and Byzantium, the countdown of their diplomatic relations began. The Russian prince and the Byzantine emperor at a personal meeting sealed the conditions of this peace. And a few years later, according to the same agreement, Byzantine priests baptized the leader of the Rus and his squad. At the same time, in 864, the Prince of Bulgaria Boris, who was also baptized by Byzantine priests, converted to Christianity.

Shortly thereafter, the Russian army appeared on the shores of the southern Caspian. This was the first campaign known to us to the east along the beaten track that later became: the Dnieper - Chernoe and Sea of ​​Azov- Volga - Caspian Sea.

Events in Novgorod lands. Rurik. At that time, in the northwestern lands of the Eastern Slavs, in the region of Lake Ilmen, along the Volkhov and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, events were brewing that were also destined to become one of the most remarkable in Russian history. A powerful union of Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes was formed here, the unifiers of which were the Priilmensky Slovenes. This unification was facilitated by the struggle that began here between the Slovenes, Krivichi, Mary, Chud and the Varangians, who managed to establish control over the local population for some time. And just as the meadows in the south threw off the power of the Khazars, in the north the union of local tribes threw off the Varangian rulers.

The Varangians were expelled, but "family upon clan arose," as the chronicle tells. The issue was resolved in the same way as it was often resolved in other European countries: in order to establish peace, tranquility, stabilize governance, and introduce a fair trial, the quarreling tribes invited an outside prince.

The choice fell on Varangian princes. Chronicle sources under 862 report that after turning to the Varangians, three brothers arrived from there to the Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands: Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. The first sat down to reign among the Ilmen Slovenes, first on Ladoga, and then in Novgorod, where he "cut down" the fortress; the second - in the lands of the village, on Beloozero, and the third - in the possessions of the Krivichi, in the city of Izborsk.

According to some chronicles, the Novgorodian Slovenes began a struggle against Rurik, which probably flared up after he exceeded his authority as an "arbiter", "a hired sword" and took full power into his own hands. But Rurik crushed the uprising and established himself in Novgorod. After the death of the brothers, he united under his command the entire north and north-west of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands.

Thus, in the East Slavic lands by the 60s. 9th century in essence, two strong state centers were formed, each of which covered vast territories: the middle Dnieper, Polyansky, headed by Kiev, and the northwestern, headed by Novgorod. Both of them stood on the famous trade route, controlled strategically important points, both developed from the very beginning as multi-ethnic state formations.

The rivalry for the leadership of all the Slavic lands between Novgorod and Kiev began almost immediately after the creation of these two state centers. Information has been preserved that part of the Slavic elite, dissatisfied with Rurik, fled to Kyiv. At the same time, Kyiv launched an offensive to the north and tried to win back the lands of the Krivichi with Polotsk from Novgorod. Rurik also waged war for Polotsk. A historic confrontation between the two emerging Russian state centers was brewing.

§ 3. The first Russian princes

Struggle between Novgorod and Kyiv. Prince Oleg. Rurik died in 879, leaving an infant son, Igor. All affairs in Novgorod were taken over either by the voivode or by Oleg, a relative of Rurik. It was he who undertook a campaign against Kyiv, carefully preparing it. He gathered a large army, which included representatives of all peoples subject to Novgorod. There were Ilmenian Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud, Merya, all. Impact force Oleg's troops made up the Varangian squad.

Oleg captured the main city of the Krivichi Smolensk, then Lyubech. Having sailed to the Kyiv mountains and not expecting to take a strong fortress by storm, Oleg went to military stratagem. Having hidden the soldiers in the boats, he sent the news to Askold and Dir, who reigned in Kyiv, that a merchant caravan had sailed from the north, and he asked the princes to go ashore. Unsuspecting Kyiv rulers came to the meeting. Oleg's soldiers jumped out of the ambush and surrounded the people of Kiev. Oleg picked up little Igor and told the Kyiv rulers that they did not belong to the princely family, but he himself "is the prince's family", and Igor is the son of Prince Rurik. Askold and Dir were killed, and Oleg established himself in Kyiv. Entering the city, he declared: "Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities."

So the Novgorod north defeated the Kyiv south. But it was only pure military victory. Both economically, politically, and culturally, the Middle Dnieper region has far outstripped other Eastern Slavic lands. At the end of the ninth century it was the historical center of the Russian lands, and Oleg, having made Kyiv his residence, only confirmed this position. A single Old Russian state arose with its center in Kyiv. It happened in 882.

During this war, Prince Oleg showed himself to be a decisive and treacherous military leader, an outstanding organizer. Having seized the throne of Kyiv and spent about 30 years here (Oleg died in 912), he pushed Igor into the shadows.

Oleg did not complete his military successes on this. Having settled in Kyiv, he imposed a tribute on the territories subject to him - he “set a tribute” to the Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi, other tribes and peoples. Oleg concluded an agreement with the Varangians and undertook to pay them annually 300 silver hryvnias so that there was peace on the northwestern borders of Rus'. He undertook campaigns against the Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi and imposed tribute on them. But here he ran into Khazaria, which considered the northerners and Radimichi their tributaries. Military success again accompanied Oleg. From now on, these East Slavic tribes ceased their dependence on the Khazar Khaganate and became part of Rus'. The Vyatichi remained tributaries of the Khazars.

At the turn of the IX-X centuries. Oleg suffered a sensitive defeat from the Hungarians. At this time, their horde moved along the Black Sea to the west. On the way, the Hungarians attacked the Russian lands. Oleg was defeated and locked himself in Kyiv. The Hungarians undertook a siege of the city, but to no avail, and then a peace treaty was concluded between the opponents. Since then, the Hungarian-Russian alliance began to operate, which lasted for about two centuries.

Having united the East Slavic lands, having defended them from the onslaught of foreigners, Oleg gave the princely power unprecedented authority and international prestige. He now assumes the title of prince of all princes, or grand duke. The rest of the rulers of individual Russian principalities become his tributaries, vassals, although they still retain the rights to rule in their principalities.

Rus' arose as a united East Slavic state. In terms of its scale, it was not inferior to the empire of Charlemagne or the territory of the Byzantine Empire. However, many of its areas were sparsely populated and poorly suited for life. The difference in the level of development of various parts of the state was also too great. Appearing immediately as a multi-ethnic entity, this state was therefore not distinguished by the strength that characterized states where the population was mainly mono-ethnic.

Foreign policy of Rus' in the first half of the X century. Already the first battles with the Khazars and the campaign against the streets and the Tivertsy showed the foreign policy interests of the young state. Rus' sought, firstly, to unite all the Eastern Slavic tribes; secondly, to ensure the security of trade routes for the Russian merchants both to the East and to the Balkan Peninsula; thirdly, to seize the territories important in the military-strategic sense - the mouth of the Dnieper, the mouth of the Danube, the Kerch Strait.

In 907, a huge Russian army, led by Oleg, moved by land and sea to Constantinople. The Greeks closed the harbor with a chain, throwing it from one bank to another, and locked themselves behind the mighty walls of Constantinople. Then the Russians "fought" the whole district, captured huge booty, prisoners, robbed and burned churches. And then Oleg ordered his soldiers to put the boats on wheels and move them around the obstacles set above the water. With a fair wind, the Rus unfolded their sails, and the boats went to the walls of the city. The Greeks were horrified at the sight of this unusual sight and asked for peace.

According to the peace treaty, the Byzantines undertook to pay Rus' a monetary indemnity, and then pay tribute every year, provide Russian ambassadors and merchants coming to Byzantium, as well as representatives of other states, with a certain food allowance. Oleg achieved for Russian merchants the right to free trade in the Byzantine markets. The Russians even got the right to bathe in Constantinople baths as much as they want.

The agreement was sealed during Oleg's personal meeting with Emperor Leo VI. As a sign of the end of hostilities and the conclusion of peace, the Russian Grand Duke hung his shield on the gates of the city. This was the custom of many peoples of Eastern Europe.

In 911, Oleg confirmed his peace treaty with Byzantium. During lengthy embassy negotiations, the first detailed written treaty between Byzantium and Russia was concluded in the history of Eastern Europe. This agreement opens with a meaningful phrase: “We are from the Russian family ... sent from Oleg, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from all who are under his hand - bright and great princes, and his great boyars ...”

The treaty confirmed "peace and love" between the two states. In 13 articles of the agreement, the parties agreed on all economic, political, and legal issues of interest to them, and determined the responsibility of their subjects in case they commit any crimes in a foreign land. One of the articles dealt with the conclusion between Russia and Byzantium of a military alliance. From now on, Russian detachments regularly appear as part of the Byzantine army during its campaigns against enemies.

Russo-Byzantine War 941–944 The work of Prince Oleg was continued by Prince Igor, who ascended the throne at an early age.

After the death of the mighty warrior Oleg, the state he created began to disintegrate: the Drevlyans rebelled, the Pechenegs approached the borders of Rus'. But Igor and the Russian elite managed to prevent the collapse. The Drevlyans were again conquered and subjected to heavy tribute. Igor made peace with the Pechenegs. At the same time, Russian settlers, supported military force, began moving to the mouth of the Dnieper, appeared on the Taman Peninsula, near the Kerch Strait, where a Russian colony was founded. Russian possessions came close to the Khazar borders, to the Byzantine colonies in the Crimea and the Black Sea region.

This caused outrage in Byzantium. In addition, the local merchants demanded that the emperor cancel the benefits for Russian merchants. The aggravation of relations between the two countries led to a new bloody war, which lasted from 941 to 944.

In the summer of 941, a huge Russian army moved by sea and land to Constantinople. The Russians destroyed the suburbs and headed for the capital, but on the outskirts of it they were met by an enemy fleet armed with "Greek fire". Under the walls of Constantinople all day and evening there was a battle. The Greeks sent a burning mixture through special copper pipes to Russian ships. This "terrible miracle", as the chronicle says, struck the Russian soldiers. Flames darted across the water, Russian boats burned in impenetrable darkness. The defeat was complete. But a significant part of the army survived. Russ continued the campaign, moving along the coast of Asia Minor. Many cities, monasteries were captured, a fair number of Greeks were taken prisoner.

However, Byzantium managed to mobilize forces here as well. There were fierce battles on land and at sea. In a land battle, the Greeks managed to surround the Rus and, despite fierce resistance, defeated them. The already battered Russian fleet was defeated. This war continued for several months, and only in the fall did the Russian army return to their homeland.

In 944, Igor gathered a new army and again set out on a campaign. At the same time, the allies of Rus', the Hungarians, raided Byzantine territory and approached the walls of Constantinople. The Greeks did not tempt fate and sent an embassy to meet Igor with a request for peace. A new peace treaty was concluded in 944. Peaceful relations were restored between the countries. Byzantium undertook to continue to pay Rus' an annual monetary tribute and provide military indemnity. Many articles of the old treaty of 911 were confirmed. But new ones appeared, corresponding to relations between Rus' and Byzantium already in the middle of the 10th century, equally beneficial to both countries. The right of duty-free Russian trade in Byzantium was abolished.

The Byzantines recognized the possession of Rus by a number of new territories at the mouth of the Dnieper, on the Taman Peninsula. The Russian-Byzantine military alliance was also improved: this time it turned out to be directed against Khazaria, which was beneficial for Rus', which was striving to free its routes to the East from the Khazar blockade. Russian military detachments, as before, were to come to the aid of Byzantium.

Polyudie. Death of Igor During the reign of Igor, the state of Rus' expanded even more. It included a tribe of streets, with whom Prince Oleg waged an unsuccessful war. Now, like other principalities, they have pledged to pay tribute to Kyiv.

How was the tribute collected from the princedoms subject to the great Kievan prince?

In late autumn, the prince, together with his retinue, traveled around his possessions in order to collect the due tribute from them. This detour was called polyud. In the same way, at first, princes and kings collected tribute in some neighboring countries, where the level of state development was still low, for example, in Sweden. The name "polyudye" comes from the words "to walk among people."

What was the tribute? Of course, in the first place were furs, honey, wax, linen. Ever since the time of Oleg, the main measure of tribute from subject tribes was marten, ermine, and squirrel furs. Moreover, they were taken "from the smoke", that is, from each residential building. In addition, the tribute included food, even clothing. In short, they took everything that could be taken, trying on this or that locality, the type of economy.

Was the tribute fixed? Judging by the fact that the feeding of the prince and his escort was part of the polyudya, requests were often determined by needs, and they, as a rule, could not be counted. That is why during the Polyudia there were frequent violence against the inhabitants, their actions against the princely people. An example of this is the tragic death of Prince Igor.

During the collection of tribute in 945, Igor's soldiers worked violence against the Drevlyans. Having collected tribute, Igor sent the main part of the squad and the convoy back home, and he himself, left with the “small” squad, decided to wander around the Drevlyansk lands in search of prey. The Drevlyans, led by their prince Mal, rebelled and killed Igor's squad. The prince himself was captured and executed by a cruel death: he was tied to two bent trees, and then they were released.

Duchess Olga. Igor's wife remained in Kyiv with her young son Svyatoslav. The newly formed state was on the verge of collapse. However, the people of Kiev not only recognized Olga's rights to the throne in connection with the infancy of the heir, but also unconditionally supported her.

By this time, Princess Olga was in the prime of her physical and spiritual strength. According to one legend, she came from a simple Varangian family and lived near Pskov. Igor saw Olga during his stay in the Pskov land and was captivated by her beauty. At that time, there was no strict hierarchy in the selection of a wife for an heir. Olga became Igor's wife.

From the first steps of her reign, Olga showed herself as a resolute, powerful, far-sighted and stern ruler. She took revenge on the Drevlyans. During the negotiations, the Drevlyansky ambassadors in Kyiv were brutally killed, and then Olga, supported by the governors of Igor Sveneld and Asmud, organized a military campaign in the Drevlyansk lands.

Chapter 4 Ancient Rus' through the eyes of its contemporaries 1. Abul-Feda: “Ruses are a people of Turkish nationality” “Ruses,” said Abul-Feda, “are a people of Turkish nationality, which borders on the Guz from the east (Guz = Cossack? - Auth.), people of the same origin… More Abul-Feda