The weather in France is determined by several climatic zones. In the west of the country, due to the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, summers are rainy and cool, and winters are mild and wet.
In the central part of the country, summers are hotter, winters are colder, in Lorraine and Alsace the temperature often drops below zero, and in Strasbourg and Nancy there are severe frosts.
The Mediterranean climate of the south provides warm winters with positive temperatures and hot summers, when the air warms up to +30 degrees and above. The velvet season on the Cote d'Azur is August and September, the exhausting heat of July has already receded, and the water in the sea is the warmest. Excursions will be more comfortable in April and May, or September-October.
The relief of the country is predominantly flat, the mountains of the Pyrenees in the south of the country and the Alps in the southeast serve as the natural frontiers of France. Large navigable rivers flow through the country: Garonne, Loire, Seine. About a third of the country's territory is occupied by forests; oak, hazel, cork, and spruce grow in the north.
In the south, a Russian tourist will be happy to see palm trees and tangerine plantations.
In sea waters near the borders of France, cod, herring, tuna, flounder, mackerel are found.
The fauna of the country is represented by wolves, bears, foxes, badgers, deer, hares, squirrels, snakes and mountain goats are found in the mountains. Birds - familiar to us dove, pheasant, hawk, thrush, magpie, snipe.
shopping
Nobody manages to return from France without purchases. Shopping in a country recognized as the birthplace of chic and elegance is a special pleasure. France is the center of fashion, winemaking, perfumery, cooking and cosmetics, here you want to buy everything at once.
But do not shop in tourist centers. It is wiser to visit large shopping malls or department stores.
Clothing stores with affordable prices - Naf Naf, Kookai, Cote a Cote, C&A, Morgan, shoes - Andre.
Wine, cognac, cheese gift sets, macaroons will be excellent edible French gifts for relatives and friends. Traditional souvenirs and purchases - the image of the Eiffel Tower on magnets, key rings, decorative panels; berets and silk scarves; Baccarat crystal or Brea glassware.
Connoisseurs of fine aromas go to the town of Grasse, not far from Cannes, where the world-famous Fragonard perfume factory with a 400-year history is located, producing fragrant oils for perfumes. Tours are held at the factory, during which those who wish can purchase wonderful perfumes, fragrant soaps and other aromatic products.
Limoges, the capital of the Limousin province, is famous for its carpets and high quality porcelain.
Sales held in France are popular, when the initial cost of the goods is significantly reduced. Twice a year, usually on the second Wednesday of January and the last Wednesday of June, prices collapse by 40-70%. This feast for shopaholics lasts about 5 weeks. During the rest of the year, mass sales are not allowed in France.
France allows non-residents to return up to 20.6% VAT (33% on luxury goods). Refund conditions: purchase of goods in the same store in the amount of 185€ to 300€, depending on the store; registration when buying a bordereau (inventory for export); leaving the EU within three months after purchase. On the day of departure from France, you need to present the purchased goods and the border at the customs office. You will receive the money when you return home by transfer to a credit card or by check in the mail. You can also do this at the airport at an authorized bank or Tax Free for tourists kiosk.
In large cities, shops are open from 10.00 to 19.00. except Sunday. Provincial stores are usually closed on Monday. There is a lunch break here - from 12.00 to 14.00, or from 13.00 to 15.00.
Grocery stores and bakeries are open in the mornings on weekends and public holidays.
Cuisine and food
The French are unsurpassed gourmets, their cuisine is one of the most refined and beloved in the whole world. A French chef is a priori considered a culinary virtuoso, he will always add something of his own to a standard recipe, beat it so that you will forever remember the taste and aroma of the dish.
Each region of France is famous for its distinctive dishes. Normandy cheese and Calvados have made this region world-famous. Brittany will offer the traveler pancakes made from buckwheat flour stuffed with cheese, meat or eggs, in Toulouse you will try beans baked in a pot, in the south-west of the country you will enjoy goose liver pate - foie gras. One of the traditional French dishes - soup of fish and seaweed bouybesse - you will appreciate in Marseille. In Rouen you will be delighted with Andouille sausages and roast duck. In Le Havre, you can pay tribute to excellent biscuits, and in Honfleur, omelettes and snails in wine sauce. Despite regional differences, a side dish of vegetables and root vegetables - artichokes, asparagus, lettuce, beans, eggplant, peppers, spinach - will certainly lend itself to all main courses. And, of course, each meal is accompanied by the famous delicious French sauces, the recipes of which are up to 3000 here.
An integral part of the local cuisine is various seafood - oysters, lobsters, lobsters. At oyster farms in the south of France, at a price of 8€ per dozen, they will offer you the most delicious, juicy and fresh shellfish, and so that you can appreciate their specific taste, they will be served bread with butter, lemon and white wine of a certain variety.
The hallmark of France is cheese, there are more than 1,500 of its varieties. Hard and soft, cow, sheep, goat, aged and with mold - French cheese is always of the highest quality and with a delicious taste.
Omelettes and cheese soufflé are popular, which are prepared with various fillings and seasonings: herbs, ham, mushrooms.
The iconic dish of French cuisine is onion soup. It has nothing to do with boiled onions, as many who have not tried this wonderful dish imagine. This is a thick, fragrant soup in meat broth with croutons baked in cheese and fragrant seasonings.
As the first dish in France, soup-puree of all kinds of vegetables is traditionally served.
For dessert, you will be offered open fruit or berry cakes, the famous creme brulee - cream baked with caramel crust, soufflé and, of course, the famous croissants.
In the southern regions, each meal is accompanied by a glass of table wine. In the north and in big cities, many prefer beer. Popular strong drinks are calvados, cognac, absinthe.
In many establishments, eating and drinking at the counter (au comptoir) is cheaper than at the table (a salle), you will understand this from the prices on the menu. A meal at outdoor tables is 20% more expensive than indoors.
Lunch in cafes and restaurants lasts from 12.00 to 15.00, dinner from 19.00 to 23.00. Complex meals (menu of the day) in Chinese establishments cost 10 €, in cafes from 19 €, in restaurants 30 €.
A meal bill often says service compris, which means that the cost of service is already included. If there is no such inscription, then the waiter must be thanked with an amount of 5-10% of the bill.
Unfortunately, tourists are often cheated, so check your bill before paying.
Helpful information
Russian citizens will need a Schengen visa to visit France.
The official currency of the country is the euro.
Capital banks are closed on weekends and holidays, and on weekdays they are open from 10 am to 5 pm. Banks in the province are open from Tuesday to Saturday. Exchange offices will serve you on any day except Sunday.
The amount of imported and exported currency is not limited, but the amount over 7500 € (or other monetary equivalent) must be declared. The most favorable exchange rate at the Bank de Franct and at points with a No commission sign.
If you transferred any currency to euro, then the return exchange is possible only for the amount of 800€. For the exchange of dollars into euros, a large commission is taken - from 8 to 15%.
It is allowed to import into the country 1 liter of strong alcohol, 2 liters of wine, no more than 200 cigarettes, 500 grams of coffee, 50 ml of perfume or 250 ml of toilet water, 2 kg of fish and 1 kg of meat. All food must have an expiration date. If you are bringing medication with you, a prescription is a must. Personal jewelry weighing up to 500 grams is not indicated in the declaration, but if the weight of jewelry exceeds this norm, all jewelry must be declared.
It is forbidden to export objects of cultural and historical value without special permission, pornographic publications, weapons, ammunition, drugs. You can not export endangered species of animals and plants.
Electricity in France is standard - 220 volts, European-style sockets.
Museums in France are closed on Mondays. National museums are closed on Tuesdays.
Time in France is 2 hours behind Moscow time.
Accommodation
As in all Western European countries, France has adopted a five-star service rating system. In any, even the most modest hotel, you will be provided with a standard set of services and decent service. The average "troika" will cost from 40 to 100 € per night, depending on the region and proximity to attractions.
Pensions are popular in the country, often found in countryside or small towns. This is an ideal and inexpensive place for a family holiday.
Fans of antiquity and the exotic can choose grand hotels located in former palaces and ancient castles. Exquisite interiors and food from the best French restaurants will make you feel like a real aristocrat.
Bed and breakfast B&Bs will be appreciated by budget travelers.
Students can stay in youth hotels or university dormitories, but a room here must be booked in advance.
Tourists traveling by car can stay in comfortable campsites, which are necessarily equipped with a shower, laundry, and some have a cafe, pool and bike rental.
Connection
There are countless payphones in France, which you can use by purchasing a Telecarte card at the post office or at any tobacconist. Payphones that accept coins - point-phone - have also been preserved. If you need to call home, dial 00, then the country code (Russian code 7), the code of the desired city and the subscriber's phone number.
Emergency telephones:
- Ambulance - 15
- Fire Department - 18
- Pan European Rescue Service - 112
Any information you need can be obtained by calling reference number 12. Reference service in Russian - 01-40-07-01-65.
Wi-Fi points are everywhere - on the streets, in cafes, bars, at the post office, transport stations.
Transport
France has a well-developed air and rail connection. High-speed trains, although not cheap, are very comfortable and significantly save time. If you plan to travel a lot by train, purchase an InterRail pass that gives you unlimited travel.
The local taxi has two tariffs - A (0.61 € / km) is valid from 7 am to 7 pm from Monday to Saturday, tariff B (3 € / km) - at night and on weekends and holidays. Separately paid landing in a taxi - 2.5 € and each piece of luggage - 1 €. Taxis are found at special parking lots or ordered by phone.
Efficient public transport, in particular buses and trams. The schedule is strictly observed, all equipment is modern and comfortable.
Renting a car will cost from 50 € per day, the driver must be over 21 years old and have a driving experience of more than a year. To arrange a rental, you will need international rights and a credit card on which a certain amount is blocked as a deposit, usually 300 €. The most budget car rental companies are easyCar and Sixti.
Safety and rules of conduct
The rate of violent crime in France is relatively low, but there is a lot of theft of personal property. Be especially vigilant in places with a high concentration of pickpockets - at the airport, on public transport, in museums, in crowded places near attractions. Large amounts of cash and valuables are recommended to be left in the hotel safe. If you are traveling by car - do not put things in the front seat. It is dangerous to carry bags over your shoulder - they can be pulled off by thieves moving on high-speed motorcycles.
Dormitory areas are safe at all times, except for some, populated mainly by immigrants from Africa and Arab countries.
It will be very helpful to learn at least a few frequently used words in French before the trip. Most French people are sure that a decent foreigner should be able to explain himself in their native dialect. It is not uncommon for local residents to defiantly not understand the English spoken to them.
There are always a lot of police on the streets. They will always come to the aid of a traveler suffering from an attack of topographic inferiority.
The country has introduced a strict ban on smoking in public places.
How to get there
Daily from Moscow, St. Petersburg and major cities Russia has several flights to Paris. Charles de Gaulle International Airport is located 25 kilometers from Paris, in 45 minutes and 30 € you will reach the French capital. A more economical way is by train or bus.
Traveling by train will cost more and take two days. In addition, you will have to go with a transfer in Germany or Belgium.
There are many inexpensive, up to 80 €, bus routes to France, but such a journey is not very comfortable, in addition, crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland and Germany can take a lot of time.
France (fr. France), the official name of the French Republic (fr. Republique française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]) is a state in Western Europe. The capital is the city of Paris. The name of the country comes from the ethnonym of the Germanic tribe of the Franks, despite the fact that the majority of the population of France is of mixed Gallo-Romance origin and speaks the language of the Romance group.
The population is 64.7 million people (January 2010), including about 90 percent French citizens. Believers are predominantly Catholics (over 76 percent). The legislature is a bicameral parliament (the Senate and the National Assembly). Administrative-territorial division: 27 regions (22 metropolises and 5 overseas regions), including 101 departments (96 in the metropolis and 5 overseas departments).
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The flag of France (French drapeau tricolore or drapeau bleu-blanc-rouge, drapeau français, less often le tricolore, in military jargon - les couleurs) is the national emblem of France in accordance with the 2nd article of the French constitution of 1958. It consists of three vertical equal-sized stripes: blue - at the pole edge, white - in the middle, and red - at the free edge of the cloth. The ratio of the flag's width to its length is 2:3. Entered into use May 20, 1794. |
| Origin of flowers. The blue banner has been used since the time of Clovis I, the first Frankish king, and was associated with the color of the vestments of Saint Martin of Tours, the patron saint of France. According to legend, the saint shared his cloak (blue) with a beggar at Amiens, and Clovis, after the adoption of Christianity around 498, changed the white banner to blue in his honor. White color in the period from 1638 to 1790. was the color of the royal flag and some naval banners. From 1814 to 1830, it was also the color of the flags of the royal army. The white color symbolizes France and everything that is connected with the divine order, with God (hence the choice of this color as the main emblem of the kingdom - according to the official doctrine, the power of the king was of divine origin). During the reign of Hugh Capet and his descendants, the kings of France had a red oriflamme in honor of St. Dionysius, since he was the legendary founder of the abbey, which since the time of Dagobert I was especially revered. |
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The current emblem became the symbol of France after 1953, although it does not have any legal status as an official symbol. Since 2003, all public administrations have used the Marianne logo against the background of the French flag. |
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Emblem of France |
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Political system
France is a sovereign unitary democratic republic. The current Constitution, adopted on October 4, 1958, regulates the functioning of the authorities of the Fifth Republic: it establishes a republican presidential-parliamentary form of government (Constitution of the French Republic, section 2). The head of state is the president, who is elected for a five-year term. The head of government is the prime minister. The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President in consultation with the Prime Minister. Legislative power is vested in a bicameral parliament elected by popular vote. The Constitution of the French Republic was revised several times under the following articles:
presidential elections based on universal direct suffrage (1962),
introduction of a new section of the Constitution on the criminal liability of members of the government (1993),
the introduction of a single session of parliament and the expansion of the competence of the referendum (1995),
adoption of provisional measures regarding the status of New Caledonia (1998),
creation of the Economic and Monetary Union, equal access of men and women to elective mandates and elective functions, recognition legal law International Criminal Court (1999),
reduction of the term of the presidential mandate (2000),
Head of State Penal Reform, Constitutional Abolition of the Death Penalty, New Caledonia Autonomy Reform (2007),
reform on the renewal of the state structure and the establishment of a balance in the distribution of powers (2008).
There is also a Constitutional Council in France, which consists of 9 members and monitors the correctness of the elections and the constitutionality of laws amending the Constitution, as well as laws submitted to it for consideration.
Legislature
Legislative power in France belongs to the Parliament, which includes two chambers - the Senate and the National Assembly. The Senate of the Republic, whose members are elected by indirect universal suffrage, consists of 321 senators (since 2011 there have been 348), 305 of whom are from the mother country, 9 from the overseas territories, 5 from the territories of the French Community and 12 from French citizens living abroad. Senators are elected for six-year terms (since 2003, and until 2003 for 9 years) by an electoral college consisting of deputies of the National Assembly, general councilors and delegates from municipal councils, while the Senate is renewed by half every three years. The last elections to the Senate took place in September 2008. Following the results of the elections held in September 2008, the 343 members of the Senate are distributed as follows:
Faction "Union for a Popular Movement" (UMP):151
Socialist faction: 116
Faction "Centrist Union": 29
Communist, republican and civic faction: 23
Faction "European Democratic and Social Association": 17
According to the results of the elections on June 10 and 17, 2007, the National Assembly has 577 deputies, distributed as follows:
Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) faction: 314 (plus 6 joining)
Socialist Radical and Civic Faction: 186 (plus 18 who joined)
Left Democratic and Republican Caucus: 24
New centrist faction: 20 (plus 2 joiners)
Not a member of any faction: 7
The National Assembly, whose deputies are elected on the basis of direct universal suffrage for a term of 5 years, consists of 577 deputies, 555 of whom represent the metropolis, and 22 from the overseas territories. Members of the National Assembly are elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term. The last elections to the National Assembly took place in June 2007. In addition to their function - control over the activities of the government, both chambers develop and adopt laws. In case of disagreement, the final decision rests with the National Assembly.
executive power
In the Fifth Republic, the prime minister is in charge of day-to-day domestic and economic policy and also has the power to issue general decrees. He is considered responsible for government policy (Article 20). The Prime Minister directs the activities of the government and enforces laws (Article 21). The Prime Minister has his own website: www.premier-ministre.gouv.fr.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic. The approval of his candidacy by the National Assembly is not required, since the National Assembly has the right to declare a vote of no confidence in the government at any time. Usually the Prime Minister represents the party that has the most seats in the National Assembly. The prime minister draws up a list of ministers in his cabinet and submits it to the president for approval.
The Prime Minister initiates the adoption of laws in the National Assembly and ensures their implementation, he is also responsible for national defense. The Prime Minister countersigns the acts of the President, replaces him as chairman in the councils and committees determined by Article 15 of the Constitution. Since May 17, 2007, the government has been headed by François Fillon (member of the Union for a Popular Movement party).
Judicial branch
The judicial system of France is regulated in the VIII section of the Constitution "On the judiciary". The President of the country is the guarantor of the independence of the judiciary, the status of judges is established by organic law, and the judges themselves are irremovable.
French justice is based on the principles of collegiality, professionalism, independence, which are provided by a number of guarantees. The 1977 law established that the costs of administering justice in civil and administrative cases are borne by the state. This rule does not apply to criminal justice. Also an important principle is the equality before justice and the neutrality of judges, the public hearing of the case and the possibility of a double hearing of the case. The law also provides for the possibility of cassation appeal.
The judicial system of France is multi-stage, and it can be divided into two branches - the judicial system itself and the system of administrative courts. The lowest level in the system of courts of general jurisdiction is occupied by tribunals of small instance. Cases in such a tribunal are heard personally by a judge. However, each of them has several magistrates. The Tribunal of Small Instance hears cases with insignificant sums, and the decisions of such courts are not subject to appeal.
In criminal cases, this court is called the police tribunal. These tribunals are divided into chambers: civil cases and the correctional court. The Court of Appeal always decides collectively. The civil-legal part of the Court of Appeal consists of two chambers: for civil and social cases. There is also a Chamber of Commerce. One of the functions of the indictment chamber is the function of a disciplinary court in relation to officers of the judicial police (officers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, military gendarmerie, etc.). There is also a gendarmerie chamber for minors. Each department has a jury. In addition, special-purpose judicial bodies operate in France: commercial courts and military courts. At the top of the system is the Court of Cassation. In France, there is a separate branch of administrative justice. The prosecutor's office is represented by prosecutors at courts of different levels. The Attorney General with deputies is attached to the Court of Appeal. The Prosecutor's Office at the Court of Cassation includes the Prosecutor General, his first deputy and deputies who are subordinate to the Minister of Justice.
Local government
The system of local governments in France is built in accordance with the administrative-territorial division. It is represented by communes, departments and regions where there are elected bodies.
The commune has about 36 thousand people, is managed by the municipal council and the mayor, who is the executive authority. The council manages the affairs of the commune, makes decisions on issues affecting the interests of its citizens on all social problems: manages property, creates the necessary social services.
The department is the basic unit of the administrative-territorial division of France. Departments are divided into internal (96) and overseas departments. The jurisdiction of the departmental Council includes the adoption of the local budget and control over its execution, the organization of departmental services, property management. The executive body of the department is the chairman of the general council.
The largest unit in the administrative division of the country is the region. Each region has established economic and social committees and a regional loan committee. The region has its own accounting chamber. The regional council elects its own chairman, who is the executive power in the region.
Armed forces and police
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Overall, France is one of the few countries in the armed forces which has an almost full range of modern weapons and military equipment of its own production - from small arms to strike nuclear aircraft carriers.
France is the host country nuclear weapons. The official position of the French government has always been to create a "limited nuclear arsenal at the minimum necessary level." To date, this level is four nuclear submarines and about a hundred aircraft with nuclear missiles.
The republic has a contract system of service and there is no military duty. The military personnel, which includes all units, is about 270 thousand people. At the same time, according to the reform launched by the President of the Republic, Nicolas Sarkozy, 24% of employees, mainly in administrative positions, should be dismissed from the army.
Foreign policy and international relations
Currently, France is one of the most important actors in world politics, it can undoubtedly be called a "great power" modern world, and this assumption is based on the following principles:
France determines its own foreign policy. Political independence is based on military force (primarily on nuclear weapons);
France influences the adoption of international political decisions through international organizations (due to the status of a permanent member of the UN Security Council, a leading role in the EU, etc.);
France is trying to play the role of world ideological leader (declaring itself the "standard-bearer" of the principles of the French Revolution in world politics and the defender of human rights throughout the world);
The special role of France in certain regions of the world (primarily in Africa);
France remains the center of cultural attraction for a significant part of the world community.
France is one of the founding countries of the European Union (since 1957) and now plays an active role in determining its policies.
France hosts the headquarters of such organizations as UNESCO (Paris), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (Paris), Interpol (Lyon), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) (Sevres).
France is a member of many world and regional international organizations:
the United Nations since 1945;
a permanent member of the UN Security Council (that is, has the right to veto);
member of the WTO (since 1995, before that a member of the GATT);
since 1964 member of the Group of Ten;
the initiating country in the Secretariat of the Pacific Community;
member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank
member of the Indian Ocean Commission;
associate member of the Association of Caribbean States;
Founder and leading member of the Francophonie since 1986;
in the Council of Europe since 1949;
member of the OSCE;
member of the Big Eight.
Among the main directions of French foreign policy are the following:
activities within the European Union;
policy in the Mediterranean region (North Africa and the Middle East);
establishing bilateral relations with individual countries;
conducting policies within the organization of the Francophonie;
activities in NATO.
Activities in NATO
France was part of NATO (since 1949), but under President de Gaulle in 1966, she withdrew from the military part of the alliance in order to be able to pursue her own independent security policy. During the tenure of President J. Chirac, the actual participation of France in the defense structures of NATO increased. After N. Sarkozy became president on May 16, 2007, France returned to the military structure of the Alliance on April 4, 2009. The full return of France to the military structure is due to NATO's support for European defense initiatives - the EU European Security and Defense Policy (ESDP), as part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The return of France to NATO is not a whim of N. Sarkozy, but a response to the changed world situation. France's policy towards NATO, starting with F. Mitterrand, had a successive character.
France took an active part in the settlement of the Georgian-Ossetian conflict that escalated in August 2008. At a meeting between the presidents of Russia and France - Dmitry Medvedev and Nicolas Sarkozy - during negotiations in Moscow on August 12, 2008, a plan was signed to resolve the military conflict, called the Medvedev-Sarkozy Plan.
Administrative division
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France is divided into 27 regions (régions), of which 22 are on the European continent, one (Corsica) is on the island of Corsica, and another five are overseas. The regions do not have legal autonomy, but they can set their own taxes and approve the budget. 27 regions are divided into 101 departments (départements), which consist of 342 districts (arrondissements) and 4039 cantons (cantons). France is based on 36,682 communes. The division into departments and communes is comparable to the division of Russia into regions and districts. The department of Paris consists of a single commune. Each of the five overseas regions (Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Reunion, Mayotte) consists of a single department. The region of Corsica (including 2 departments) has a special status of an administrative-territorial entity, which differs from other regions of the metropolis (continental France). It has independent governing bodies that are not subordinate to the center. In 2003, a referendum on the unification of the 2 departments of Corsica failed. All these regions are part of the European Union. |
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It can also be said that the French Republic includes: |
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Story
Ancient World and Middle Ages
France in the prehistoric period was the site of the oldest sites of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons. During the Neolithic period, there were several prehistoric cultures rich in monuments in France. Prehistoric Brittany was culturally linked to neighboring Britain, and a large number of megaliths have been discovered on its territory. In the period of the late Bronze and early Iron Ages, the territory of France was inhabited by the Celtic tribes of the Gauls, the south-west of modern France - by the Iberians, tribes of unknown origin. As a result of the gradual conquest, which was completed in the 1st century. BC e. As a result of the Gallic War of Julius Caesar, the modern territory of France became part of the Roman Empire as the province of Gaul. The population was Romanized and by the 5th century spoke folk Latin, which became the basis of modern French.
In 486, Gaul was conquered by the Franks under the leadership of Clovis. Thus, the Frankish state was established, and Clovis became the first king of the Merovingian dynasty. In the 7th century, the power of the king was significantly weakened, and majordoms had real power in the state, one of whom, Charles Martell, managed to defeat the Arab army in 732 at the Battle of Poitiers and prevent the conquest of Western Europe by the Arabs. The son of Charles Martell, Pepin the Short, became the first king of the Carolingian dynasty, and under the son of Pepin, Charlemagne, the Frankish state reached its highest peak in history and occupied most of the territory of present-day Western and Southern Europe. After the death of the son of Charlemagne - Louis the Pious - his empire was divided into three parts. In 843, according to the Treaty of Verdun, the West Frankish kingdom was formed, headed by Charles the Bald. It occupied approximately the territory of modern France; in the 10th century, the country began to be called France.
Subsequently, the central government significantly weakened. In the 9th century, France was regularly raided by the Vikings, in 886 the latter besieged Paris. In 911, the Vikings established the Duchy of Normandy in northern France. By the end of the 10th century, the country was almost completely fragmented, and the kings had no real power outside their fiefs (Paris and Orleans). The Carolingian dynasty in 987 was replaced by the Capetian dynasty, named after its first king, Hugo Capet. The reign of the Capetians is notable for the crusades, religious wars in France itself (first in 1170 the Waldensian movement, and in 1209-1229 - the Albigensian wars), the convening of parliament - the Estates General - for the first time in 1302, as well as the Avignon captivity of the popes, when the Pope of Rome was arrested in 1303 by King Philip IV the Handsome, and the popes were forced to remain in Avignon until 1378. In 1328, the Capetians were replaced by a side branch of the dynasty known as the Valois dynasty. In 1337, the Hundred Years War with England began, in which at first success accompanied the British, who managed to capture a significant part of the territory of France, but in the end, especially after the appearance of Joan of Arc, a turning point occurred in the war, and in 1453 the British capitulated.
The period of the reign of Louis XI (1461-1483) is the actual cessation of the feudal fragmentation of France and the transformation of the country into an absolute monarchy. In the future, France constantly sought to play a prominent role in Europe. So, from 1494 to 1559, she fought the Italian Wars with Spain for control of Italy. At the end of the 16th century, Calvinist Protestantism became widespread in predominantly Catholic France (Protestants in France were called Huguenots). This sparked religious wars between Catholics and Protestants, which culminated in 1572 on St. Bartholomew's Night in Paris, a massacre of Protestants. In 1589, the Valois dynasty ended, and Henry IV became the founder of a new Bourbon dynasty.
New time and revolution
In 1598, Henry IV signed the Edict of Nantes, which ended the war with the Protestants and gave them wide powers, so that they formed a "state within a state" with their own fortresses, troops and local government structures. From 1618 to 1648, France participated in the Thirty Years' War (formally, it fought only from 1635 - this is the so-called Swedish-French period of the war). From 1624 until his death in 1642, the country was actually ruled by the minister of King Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu. He renewed the wars with the Protestants and succeeded in inflicting a military defeat on them and destroying their state structures. In 1643, Louis XIII died, and his five-year-old son Louis XIV became king, who ruled until 1715 and managed to outlive his son and grandson. In 1648-1653, there was an uprising of the urban strata and the noble opposition, dissatisfied with the rule of the Queen Mother Anne of Austria and the minister, Cardinal Mazarin, who continued the policy of Richelieu and the Fronde. After the suppression of the uprising in France, an absolute monarchy was restored. During the reign of Louis XIV - the "Sun King" - France participated in several wars in Europe: 1635-1659. - war with Spain, 1672-1678. — Dutch War, 1688-1697 - War of the Palatinate Succession (War of the Augsburg League) and 1701-1713. — War of the Spanish Succession.
In 1685, Louis canceled the Edict of Nantes, which led to the flight of Protestants to neighboring countries and the deterioration of the economic situation in France.
In 1715, after the death of Louis XIV, his great-grandson Louis XV ascended the French throne, ruling until 1774.
1789 - The Great French Revolution.
1792 - First Republic.
1793-1794 - Jacobin terror.
1795 - the capture of the Netherlands.
1797 - the capture of Venice.
1798-1801 - Egyptian expedition.
1799-1814 - the reign of Napoleon (in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor; First Empire). In 1800-1812, Napoleon created a pan-European empire through aggressive campaigns, and his relatives or henchmen ruled in Italy, Spain and other countries. After the defeat in Russia (see Patriotic War of 1812) and the next unification of the anti-Napoleonic coalition, Napoleon's power fell apart.
1815 - Battle of Waterloo.
1814-1830 - the period of the Restoration, based on the dualistic monarchy of Louis XVIII (1814/1815-1824) and Charles X (1824-1830).
1830 - July Monarchy. The revolution overthrows Charles X, power passes to Prince Louis-Philippe of Orleans, the financial aristocracy came to power.
1848-1852 - Second Republic.
1852-1870 - the reign of Napoleon III - the Second Empire.
1870-1940 - The Third Republic, proclaimed after the capture of Napoleon III at Sedan in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. In 1879–80 the Labor Party was created. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Socialist Party of France (led by J. Guesde, P. Lafargue, and others) and the French Socialist Party (led by J. Jaurès) were formed, which united in 1905 (the French Section of the Workers' International, SFIO). By the end of the 19th century, the formation of the French colonial empire, which included huge possessions in Africa and Asia, was basically completed.
1870-1871 - Franco-Prussian War
1871 - Paris Commune (March - May 1871).
1914-1918 - France participated in the First World War as part of the Entente.
1939-1945 - Second World War
1940 - Compiègne truce of 1940 with Germany (surrender of France)
1940-1944 - German occupation of northern France, Vichy regime in southern France.
1944 - liberation of France by troops anti-Hitler coalition and the resistance movement.
1946-1958 - Fourth Republic.
Fifth Republic
In 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which expanded the rights of the executive branch. Charles de Gaulle, General of the Liberation, hero of the First and Second World Wars, was elected President of the Republic. By 1960, in the context of the collapse of the colonial system, most of the French colonies in Africa had won independence. In 1962, after a bloody war, Algeria gained independence. Pro-French Algerians moved to France, where they formed a rapidly growing Muslim minority.
Mass unrest of youth and students (May events in France, 1968), caused by the aggravation of economic and social contradictions, as well as a general strike, led to an acute political crisis; President Charles de Gaulle, founder of the Fifth Republic, resigned (1969) and died on November 9, 1970, a year later.
In general, the post-war development of France was characterized by the accelerated development of industry and Agriculture, encouraging national capital, economic and socio-cultural expansion into former African and Asian colonies, active integration within the European Union, the development of science and culture, strengthening measures of social support, countering the "Americanization" of culture.
Foreign policy under President de Gaulle was characterized by a desire for independence and for the "restoration of the greatness of France." In 1960, after successful tests of its own nuclear weapons, the country joined the "nuclear club", in 1966 France withdrew from the military structure of NATO (it returned only during the presidency of Nicolas Sarkozy), Charles de Gaulle did not support European integration processes either.
The Gaullist Georges Pompidou was elected the second president of the Fifth Republic in 1969, and in 1962-1968. served as prime minister.
In 1974, after the death of Pompidou, he was replaced by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, a liberal and pro-European politician, founder of the centrist party Union for French Democracy.
From 1981 to 1995, the socialist François Mitterrand held the presidency.
From May 17, 1995 to May 16, 2007, Jacques Chirac, who was re-elected in 2002, was president. He is a neo-Gaullist politician. Under him, in 2000, a referendum was held on the issue of reducing the term of office of the president in the country from 7 to 5 years. Despite the very low turnout (about 30% of the population), the majority in the end still spoke in favor of reducing the term (73%).
In connection with the growing number of people from African countries in France, the problem of migrants has worsened, many of whom are Muslims: 10% of the population of France are non-indigenous Muslims (mostly from Algeria). On the one hand, this causes an increase in the popularity of far-right (xenophobic) organizations among the native French, on the other hand, France becomes the scene of riots and terrorist attacks. North African immigration originates in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The slowdown in the rate of natural growth of the population and the shortage of labor in France against the background of the economic recovery made it necessary to attract foreign labor. The main areas of application of immigrant labor are construction (20%), industries with the use of conveyor production (29%) and the service and trade sector (48.8%). Due to low training, North Africans often become unemployed. In 1996 average level unemployment among foreigners - immigrants from the Maghreb countries reached 32%. Currently, immigrants from the Maghreb countries make up more than 2% of the population of France and are located mainly in three regions of the country with centers in Paris, Lyon and Marseille.
On May 16, 2007, the candidate from the Union for a Popular Movement party, Nicolas Sarkozy, came from a Jewish family that emigrated to France from Hungary, became president of France.
On July 21, 2008, the French Parliament narrowly supported the draft constitutional reform proposed by President Sarkozy. The current constitutional reform has become the most significant of the entire existence of the Fifth Republic, amending 47 of the 89 articles of the 1958 document. The bill included three parts: strengthening the role of parliament, updating the institution of executive power, and granting citizens new rights.
The most important changes:
- the president can serve no more than two consecutive terms;
- Parliament acquires the right to veto certain decisions of the president;
- limited government control over the activities of parliamentary committees;
- at the same time, the president receives the right to speak annually before parliament (this has been prohibited since 1875 in order to maintain the separation between the two authorities);
- a referendum is envisaged on the entry of new members into the EU.
The adoption of the new law caused active controversy. Critics of the project point out that the president will still receive the main benefits. Sarkozy is already being called the "hyper-president" and even the new "monarch" of France.
In March 2010, regional elections were held in France. Based on the results of two rounds of voting, 1,880 advisers to regional councils were elected. Elections were held in all 26 regions of the country, including 4 overseas ones. The current regional elections have already been dubbed a test of strength ahead of the 2012 presidential elections.
The election was won by the opposition coalition "Left Union" (UG) led by the "Socialist Party" (PS). The coalition also includes the parties "Europe-Ecology" and "Left Front". In the first round, they scored 29%, 12% and 6%, respectively, while the presidential party, the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP), only 26%. According to the results of the second round, the "Left Union" received 54% of the votes, thus, out of 22 European regions of France, preference was given to it in 21. Sarkozy's party left behind only the Alsace region.
The success of the far-right National Front, which received in the second round a total of about 2 million votes, that is, 9.17%, was also quite unexpected. The party passed to the second round of voting in 12 regions of the country, respectively, in each of them received an average of 18% of the vote. Jean-Marie Le Pen himself, who headed the party list in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, achieved the best result in the history of his party here, gaining 22.87% of the vote and securing 21 out of 123 deputy mandates in the local council for his supporters. In the North of France, in the Sever-Pas-de-Calais region, the National Front, whose local list was headed by the party leader's daughter Marine Le Pen, received 22.20% of voters, which guaranteed the NF 18 out of 113 seats in the regional council
Population
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The population of France totaled 63.8 million inhabitants in 2008, and already in January 2010 - 65.4 million people. 62.8 million people live on the continental territory. In terms of population, the state ranks 20th among 193 UN member countries. The population density in France is 116 people/km². According to this indicator, the country ranks 14th among the countries of the European Union. The total fertility rate in France is one of the highest in Europe - 2.01 children per woman of reproductive age. There are 57 urban settlements in France with a population of more than 100,000 people. The largest of them (for 2005): |
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| In 2006, 10.1% of the population are of foreign origin (that is, they were not French citizens at the time of birth), of which 4.3% received French citizenship. | |
National composition
The French political lexicon does not use the concept of "national minority" and even "nationality" in the sense that this word was understood in the Soviet Union and post-Soviet Russia. In the French lexicon, the word "nationality", "nationalité" means exclusively "citizenship", and the adjective "national, national", "national, nationale" means belonging to the state - the French Republic, since the Republic comes from the nation, that is, the people to which it belongs state, national sovereignty, which is recorded in Article 3 of the Constitution of the French Republic. Similarly, in the United States of America, for example, there are citizens of only one nationality - Americans, if you do not take into account foreigners living in it legally or illegally for one reason or another. Thus, all citizens of France are included in one category of official statistics - "French".
Soviet encyclopedias provide data for 1975 on the ethnic composition of the country, without, however, describing the methods of assessment: about 90% of the population were ethnic French. National minorities include Alsatians and Lorraine (about 1.4 million people), Bretons (1.25 million people), Jews (about 500 thousand people), Flemings (300 thousand people), Catalans (250 thousand . people), Basques (140 thousand people) and Corsicans (280 thousand people).
Alsatians speak an Alemannic dialect German language, Lorraine in his Frankish dialects. The literary language for most Alsatians is German. Most of the Alsatians are Catholics, among the villagers there are Protestants (Lutherans and Calvinists).
The Bretons speak the Breton language of the Celtic group of the Indo-European family, which has four dialects: Trégières, Cornish, Vannes and Leonard. It formed the basis of the literary language. Breton is spoken by about 200,000 people in the west of Brittany. In eastern Brittany, a dialect of French is common - Gallo. But the main idea is not language, but a common history, origin, special geographical origin, and therefore special household chores. Brittany is the center of the development of Celtic culture.
The Flemings live in the north of the country, in the so-called French Flanders. They speak Southern Dutch. By religion, they are mostly Catholics. Corsicans (self-name "Corsi") inhabit the island of Corsica. They speak French. In everyday life, two Italian dialects are used: Chismontan and Oltremontan. They profess Catholicism.
Basques (self-name euskaldunak - "speaking Basque") in France inhabit the regions of Labour, Soule and Lower Navarre; in Spain - the provinces of Biscay, Gipuzkoa, Alava, Navarra. Basque is isolated, moreover, it is divided into dialects. The official languages spoken are French and Spanish. Basques profess Catholicism.
welfare
The minimum hourly wage in France (SMIC) is set and revised by the state. For 2010, it is 8.86€/hour, which corresponds to 1343.77€/month (hourly wages are converted into monthly wages by INSEE based on a 35-hour working week).
Approximately 10% of wages in France are at the SMIC level (for temporary jobs this share is 23%). At the same time, the total annual income of about half of working French people is at the SMIC level.
The distribution of salaries across the country is uneven: in terms of average wages, the Paris region leads by a wide margin - 27 thousand euros per year, average wages other regions account for 18-20 thousand euros per year.
The family income is estimated per unit of consumption (PU) - the first adult in the family is considered as a unit, the rest of the family members under 14 years old for 0.3, 14 years and above - 0.5. Only 10% of French families have an income level of more than 35,700 € / MU, 1% - more than 84,500 € / MU, 0.1% - more than 225,800 € / MU, 0.01% - 687,900 € / MU.
Religion
France is a secular country, freedom of conscience is provided for by constitutional law. The doctrine of secularism (laїcité) was born and developed here, in accordance with the law of 1905, the state is strictly separated from all religious organizations. The secular nature of the republic is perceived as an identity. When the French nation ceases to be so united, then questions of a religious nature are perceived quite painfully.
According to polls conducted in 2005, 34% of French citizens stated that they "believe in the existence of God", 27% answered that they "believe in the existence of supernatural forces", and 33% stated that they are atheists and do not believe in the existence of such forces.
According to a survey conducted in January 2007, 51% of the French consider themselves Catholics, 31% identify themselves as agnostics and / or atheists, 10% declared that they belong to other religious movements or have no opinion on this matter, 6-8% - Muslims, 3% Protestants, 1% Jews. According to Le Monde, there are 5 million people in France who sympathize with Buddhism, but about 600,000 practice the religion. Of these, 65% practice Zen Buddhism.
Languages
The official language of the state is French, which is spoken by most of the population. It belongs to the Indo-European family of languages (Romance group, Gallo-Romance subgroup). Developed from vernacular Latin and moved further away from it than any other Romance language. Writing based on the Latin alphabet. Modern French comes from the so-called Langue d'Oil, a dialect of northern France, as opposed to Langue d'Oc, which was common in the south in the province of the same name. The separation of these two varieties of French was due to the way the word "yes" was pronounced. At present, Langue d'Oil has almost supplanted Langue d'Oc. Although to this day in France, various dialects of the French language are used. In 1994, a language law (Law Toubon) was adopted. It not only consolidated the French language as the language of the republic, but also protected the language from being forced out by foreign words, borrowings.
Physical and geographical characteristics
Geographical position
Most of France is located in Western Europe, its mainland borders Belgium in the north, Luxembourg and Luxembourg in the northeast, Switzerland in the east, Monaco and Italy in the southeast, Spain and Spain in the southwest. Andorra. France is washed by four bodies of water (English Channel, Atlantic Ocean, North Sea and Mediterranean Sea). In the west and north, the territory of the country is washed by Atlantic Ocean(the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel), in the south - the Mediterranean Sea (the Gulf of Lion and the Ligurian Sea). The length of the maritime borders is 5500 kilometers. France is the largest country in Western Europe in terms of territory: it occupies almost one-fifth of the territory of the European Union, has vast maritime spaces (the exclusive economic zone extends over an area of 11 million square kilometers).
The state also includes the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea and more than twenty overseas departments and dependent territories. The total area of the country is 550 thousand km² (643.4 thousand km² together with overseas territories and departments).
Relief and geological structure
In the north and west of the country there are flat areas and low mountains. Plains make up 2/3 of the total area. The main mountain ranges are: the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Jura, the Ardennes, the Massif Central and the Vosges. The Paris Basin is surrounded by the Massif Armorican, the Massif Central, the Vosges and the Ardennes. Around Paris is a system of concentric ledges of ridges separated by narrow strips of plains. The Garon lowland, located in the southwest of France at the foot of the Pyrenees, is a flat area with fertile soils. The Landes, a triangular wedge-shaped area southwest of the lower Garonne, is characterized by less fertile soils and is planted with coniferous forests. The graben of the Rhone and Saone in southeastern France forms a narrow passage between the Alps in the east and the Massif Central in the west. It consists of a series of small depressions separated by highly dissected uplifted areas.
In the central regions and in the east there are medium-altitude mountains (the Central Massif, the Vosges, the Jura). The central massif, located between the basins of the Loire, Garonne and Rhone, is the largest massif that arose as a result of the destruction of the ancient Hercynian mountains. Like other ancient mountainous regions of France, it rose during the Alpine era, with the softer rocks in the Alps being crumpled into folds, and the dense rocks of the massif broken up by cracks and faults. Deep-seated molten rocks rose along such disturbed zones, which was accompanied by volcanic eruptions. In the modern era, these volcanoes have lost their activity. Nevertheless, many extinct volcanoes and other volcanic landforms have been preserved on the surface of the massif. The Vosges, which separate the fertile Rhine Valley in Alsace from the rest of France, are only 40 kilometers wide. The smoothed and forested surfaces of these mountains rise above deep valleys. A similar landscape prevails in the north of the country in the Ardennes. The Jura Mountains, along which the border with Switzerland runs, are located between Geneva and Basel. They have a folded structure, composed of limestone, lower and less dissected compared to the Alps, but formed in the same era and have a close geological connection with the Alps.
In the southwest, along the border with Spain, the Pyrenees mountain range stretches. During the ice age, the Pyrenees were not subjected to powerful glaciation. There are no large glaciers and lakes, picturesque valleys and jagged ridges characteristic of the Alps. Due to the significant height and inaccessibility of the passes, communications between Spain and France are very limited.
In the southeast, the Alps partially form the border of France with and Switzerland (to Lake Geneva) and extend a little into southeastern France as far as the Rhone. In the high mountains, the rivers carved deep valleys, and the glaciers that occupied these valleys during the Ice Age widened and deepened them. Here is located highest point France - the highest mountain in Western Europe - Mont Blanc, 4807 m.
Climate
The climate in the European territory of France is moderately maritime, turning in the east into temperate continental, and on the south coast into subtropical. In total, three types of climate can be distinguished: oceanic (in the west), Mediterranean (in the south), and continental (in the center and east). Summer is quite hot and dry - the average temperature in July reaches + 23-25 degrees, while rains are typical for the winter months at an air temperature of + 7-8 °C.
The main share of precipitation falls on the period from January to April, and their total amount varies between 600-1000 mm. On the western slopes of the mountains, this figure can reach more than 2000 mm.
Water resources
All the rivers of France, with the exception of some overseas territories, belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin, and for the most part originate in the Massif Central, the Alps and the Pyrenees. The largest water arteries of the country:
The Seine (775 km) is a flat river that forms a widely branched system with large right tributaries of the Marne and Oise, and the left tributary of the Ionne. The Seine drains the Paris Basin and flows into the Atlantic Ocean at Le Havre. It is distinguished by an even distribution of flow throughout the year, which favors navigation, and is connected by canals to other rivers.
The Garonne (650 km) originates in the Spanish Pyrenees, flows through Toulouse and Bordeaux, and forms a vast estuary, the Gironde, when it flows into the ocean. Main tributaries: Tarn, Lot and Dordogne.
Rhone (812 km) - the deepest river in France, starts in the Swiss Alps from the Rhone Glacier, flows through Lake Geneva. Near Lyon, the Saone River flows into it. Other major tributaries are the Durance and the Isère. The Rhone is characterized by a fast turbulent flow and has a large hydroelectric potential. A number of hydroelectric power plants have been built on this river.
The Loire (1020 km) is the longest river in France, starting in the Massif Central. It receives many tributaries, the main ones being Allier, Cher, Indre and Vienne. The Loire rises in the French Massif Central, crosses the southern part of the Paris Basin and flows into the Atlantic Ocean at Nantes. The water level in this river fluctuates greatly, so there are frequent floods.
The canal system connects the main rivers of the country, including the Rhine, which partly passes eastern border country and which is one of the most important internal routes of communication in Europe. Rivers and canals are of great importance for the French economy.
Flora and fauna
Forests occupy 27% of the country's territory. In the northern and western regions of the country, walnut, birch, oak, spruce and cork trees grow. On the Mediterranean coast - palm trees and citrus fruits. Among the representatives of the fauna, deer and fox stand out. Roe deer inhabit the alpine regions, and the wild boar has been preserved in remote forests. It is also home to a large number of different bird species, including migratory ones. Reptiles are rare, and among snakes, only one poisonous one is an ordinary viper. Many types of fish live in coastal sea waters: herring, cod, tuna, sardine, mackerel, flounder and silver hake.
Protected areas
The French national park system consists of nine parks located both in European France and in its overseas territories. The parks are managed by the French National Parks Authority, a government agency. They occupy 2% of the territory of European France, and are visited by 7 million people a year.
In France, there is also a structure of regional natural parks, introduced by law on March 1, 1967. Regional natural parks are created by agreement between local authorities and the central government, and their territory is reviewed every 10 years. As of 2009, there are 49 regional natural parks in France.
Economy
France is a highly developed industrial and agrarian country, it occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of industrial production. Gross domestic product has a value of 1.9 trillion euros (2.6 trillion dollars) in 2009. GDP per capita in the same year was 30.691 euros (42.747 dollars). The IMF predicts an increase in France's GDP by 21% by 2015. France is the 6th economic power in the world after the USA, and. With a metropolitan area of 551,602 km² and a population of 64 million including overseas territories, France is considered a "big" country. And its economic weight allows it to play one of the key roles in the international arena. France enjoys its natural advantages, starting from the central geographical location in Europe to having access to the main trade routes of Western Europe: the Mediterranean Sea, the English Channel, the Atlantic.
In this regard, the Common European Market, formed in 1957, was a beneficial factor in the development of French enterprises, although the former colonies and overseas territories continue to be significant commercial partners.
Industry
Mining of iron and uranium ores, bauxite. The leading sectors of the manufacturing industry are mechanical engineering, including automotive, electrical and electronic (television sets, washing machines, etc.), aviation, shipbuilding (tankers, sea ferries) and machine tool building. France is one of the world's largest producers of chemical and petrochemical products (including caustic soda, synthetic rubber, plastics, mineral fertilizers, pharmaceuticals and others), ferrous and non-ferrous (aluminum, lead and zinc) metals. French clothing, shoes, jewelry, perfumes and cosmetics, cognacs, cheeses (about 400 varieties are produced) are very famous on the world market.
Agriculture
France is one of the largest producers of agricultural products in Europe, occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of the number of cattle, pigs, poultry and the production of milk, eggs, and meat. Agriculture accounts for approximately 4% of GDP and 6% of the country's working population. French agricultural products account for 25% of EU production. Agricultural land covers an area of 48 million hectares, which represents 82% of the metropolitan area. A characteristic feature of the socio-economic structure is the rather small size of farms. The average land area is 28 hectares, which exceeds the corresponding figures for many EU countries. There is great fragmentation in land ownership. More than half of the farms exist on the owners' land. Large farms are the leading force in production. 52% of agricultural land falls on farms larger than 50 hectares, which account for 16.8% of their total number. They provide more than 2/3 of products, occupying a dominant position in the production of almost all branches of agriculture. The main branch of agriculture is meat and dairy cattle breeding. Grain farming predominates in crop production; the main crops are wheat, barley, corn. Winemaking (the world's leading wine producer), vegetable growing and horticulture are developed; floriculture; fishing and oyster farming. Agricultural products: wheat, cereals, sugar beets, potatoes, wine grapes; beef, dairy products; fish. Agriculture is highly industrialized. It is second only to the Netherlands, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Denmark in terms of saturation with machinery and the use of chemical fertilizers. Technical equipment, improvement of farming agriculture has led to an increase in the country's self-sufficiency in agricultural products. For grain, sugar, it exceeds 200%, for butter, eggs, meat - over 100%.
Winemaking
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Only Italy competes with France in wine production. Each province grows its own grape varieties and produces its own wines. Dry wines predominate. Such wines are usually named according to the grape variety - Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Cabernet Sauvignon, etc. Blended wines, that is, from a mixture of grape varieties, are named according to the area. Champagne, Anjou, Bordeaux and Burgundy wines are especially famous in France.
Another famous drink is cognac. It is a type of brandy or grape vodka. There are other varieties, such as Armagnac. In France, it is customary to call cognac only the drink that is made in the vicinity of the city of Cognac. Cognac is usually not eaten with anything, occasionally gourmets set off the aftertaste with black radish.
In Normandy, another strong drink is common - Calvados.
Energy and mining
Every year, France consumes about 220 million tons of various types of fuel, while nuclear power plants play a significant role in energy production, generating three-quarters of the electricity produced (58 power units with a total capacity of 63.13 GW as of June 1, 2011). France's largest electricity producer is the historical monopoly Électricité de France (EDF).
France's hydroelectric network is the largest in Europe. About 500 hydroelectric power stations are located on its territory. France's hydroelectric power plants generate 20,000 MW of power.
Forests make up more than 30% of the territory, placing France in third place after Sweden and Finland in terms of their area among the countries of the European Union. Since 1945, the forest area in France has increased by 46%, and in the last 200 years it has doubled. In France, there are 136 species of trees, which is very rare for a European country. The number of large animals is also increasing here: over the past 20 years, the number of deer has doubled, and the number of roe deer has tripled.
France has significant reserves of iron ore, uranium ores, bauxites, potash and rock salts, coal, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, oil, and timber. The main regions of coal production are Lorraine (9 million tons) and the coal basins of the Massif Central. Since 1979, coal imports have exceeded production. Currently, the largest suppliers of this type of fuel are the USA, Australia and South Africa. The main consumers of oil and oil products are transport and thermal power plants, while France imports oil from Saudi Arabia, Iran, Great Britain, Norway, Russia, Algeria and a number of other countries. Gas production does not exceed 3 billion cubic meters. m. One of the largest gas fields in France - Lac in the Pyrenees - is mostly exhausted. The main gas suppliers are Norway, Algeria, Russia, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Nigeria and Belgium. Gaz de France is one of the largest gas companies in Europe. The main activities of the company are the exploration, production, marketing and distribution of natural gas. In order to preserve and increase the natural wealth of France, the state created:
– 7 national parks (for example, Parc national de la Vanoise, Parc national de la Guadeloupe, Parc National des Pyrénées, etc.),
— 156 nature reserves,
— 516 biotope protection zones,
- 429 sites protected by the Coast Guard,
- 43 natural regional parks, covering more than 12% of the entire territory of France.
In 2006, France allocated 47.7 billion euros for environmental protection, which is 755 euros per inhabitant. Recycling Wastewater and waste is 3/4 of this waste. France is a party to many international agreements and conventions, including those developed by the United Nations on climate, biodiversity and desertification.
Transport
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Rail connection
Rail transport in France is very developed. Local and night trains, including TGV ("Trains à Grande Vitesse" - high-speed trains) connect the capital with all major cities in the country, as well as with neighboring European countries. The speed of these trains is 320 km/h. The French railway network is 29,370 kilometers long and is the longest railway network in Western Europe. Rail links exist with all neighboring countries except Andorra.
Metro in France is available in Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Lille, Toulouse, Rennes. Rouen has a partially underground high-speed tram. In addition to the metro system, Paris has a RER (Reseau Express Regional) network connected simultaneously with the metro system and the suburban train network.
Automobile communication
The road network covers the entire territory of the country quite densely. The total length of roads is 951,500 km.
The main roads of France are divided into the following groups:
Highways - the name of the road is made up of the letter A followed by the road number. Permissible speed - 130 km / h, the mandatory presence of gas stations every 50 km, a concrete dividing strip, no traffic lights, pedestrian crossings.
National roads - prefix N. Permissible speed - 90 km / h (with a concrete dividing strip - 110 km / h).
Departmental roads - prefix D. Permissible speed - 90 km / h.
In cities, the speed limit is 50 km/h. The use of seat belts is mandatory. Children under 10 years of age must be transported in special seats.
Air transport
There are about 475 airports in France. 295 of them have paved or concrete runways, and the remaining 180 are unpaved (data for 2008). The largest French airport is Roissy-Charles de Gaulle Airport, located in the suburbs of Paris. The national French carrier Air France operates flights to almost all countries of the world.
Trade and services
Export: engineering products, including transport equipment(about 14% of the value), cars (7%), agricultural and food products (17%; one of the leading European exporters), chemical products and semi-finished products, etc.
Tourism
However, international tourism income is much higher in the US ($81.7 billion) than in France ($42.3 billion), which is explained by the shorter stay of tourists in France: those who come to Europe tend to visit neighboring, no less attractive countries. In addition, the French tourist is more family than business, which also explains the lower costs of tourists in France.
In 2010, about 76.8 million people visited France, an absolute record. The external balance of French tourism is positive: in 2000 tourism income was 32.78 billion euros, while French tourists traveling abroad spent only 17.53 billion euros.
What no doubt attracts visitors to France is the great variety of landscapes, long lines of ocean and sea coasts, temperate climate, many different monuments, as well as the prestige of French culture, cuisine and lifestyle.
Culture and art
France has a huge cultural heritage. It is rich, varied, reflecting wide regional differences, as well as the influence of immigration waves from different eras. France gave civilization great mathematicians, numerous philosophers, writers, artists, the Age of Enlightenment, the language of diplomacy, a certain universal concept of man, and much more. French has been one of the main languages for many centuries. international languages, and largely retains this role to this day. For long periods of its history, France was the main cultural center, spreading its achievements around the world. In many areas, such as fashion or cinema, she still maintains a leading position in the world. Paris is the headquarters of UNESCO - the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Architecture
On the territory of France, significant monuments of both ancient architecture, primarily in Nimes, and the Romanesque style, which was most widespread in the 11th century, have been preserved. Characteristic representatives of the latter are, for example, the cathedrals in the Basilica of Saint Saturnin in Toulouse, the largest Romanesque church in Europe, and the Church of Notre-Dame-la-Grand in Poitiers. However, medieval French architecture is primarily known for its Gothic structures. The Gothic style originated in France in the middle of the 12th century, the first Gothic cathedral was the Basilica of Saint-Denis (1137-1144). The cathedrals of Chartres, Amiens and Reims are considered the most significant works of the Gothic style in France, but in general a huge number of Gothic style monuments remain in France, from chapels to huge cathedrals. In the 15th century, the period of the so-called “flaming Gothic” began, from which only a few examples have come down to us, like the Saint-Jacques tower in Paris or one of the portals of the Rouen Cathedral. In the 16th century, starting from the reign of Francis I, the Renaissance begins in French architecture, well represented by castles in the Loire Valley - Chambord, Chenonceau, Cheverny, Blois, Azay-le-Rideau and others - as well as the Palace of Fontainebleau.
The 17th century is the heyday of baroque architecture, characterized by the creation of large palace and park ensembles, such as Versailles and the Luxembourg Gardens, and huge domed buildings, like the Val de Grace or Les Invalides. Baroque was replaced by classicism in the 18th century. This era includes the first examples of urban planning, with straight streets and perspectives, the organization of urban space, such as the Champs Elysees in Paris. Examples of classicist architecture proper include many Parisian monuments, such as the Pantheon (the former church of Saint-Genevieve) or the Madeleine Church. Classicism is gradually moving into the Empire style, the style of the first third of the 19th century, the standard of which in France is the arch on Place Carruzel. In the 1850s and 1860s, a complete redevelopment of Paris was carried out, as a result of which he received modern look, with boulevards, squares and straight streets. In the years 1887-1889, the Eiffel Tower was erected, which, although it met with significant rejection by contemporaries, is currently considered one of the symbols of Paris. In the 20th century, modernism spread throughout the world, in the architecture of which France no longer played a leading role, but in France, however, excellent examples of style were created, such as, for example, the church in Ronchamp, built by Le Corbusier, or built according to a specially designed plan of the business district of Paris La Defense with the Grand Arch.
art
Although France produced remarkable examples of medieval art (sculpture of Gothic cathedrals, paintings by Jean Fouquet, book miniatures, the top of which is considered the Magnificent Hours of the Duke of Berry by the Limburg brothers) and the art of the Renaissance (Limoges enamels, paintings by Francois Clouet, the Fontainebleau school) and the 17th century (Georges de Latour ), French art was always in the shadow of other countries, primarily Italy and the Netherlands. In the 17th century, the greatest French masters (painters Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, sculptor Pierre Puget) spent a significant part of their lives in Italy, which at that time was considered the center of world art. The first style of painting that arose in France was the Rococo style in the 18th century, the largest representatives of which were Antoine Watteau and Francois Boucher. In the second half of the 18th century, French painting, passing through the still lifes of Chardin and the portraits of women by Greuze, came to classicism, which dominated French academic art until the 1860s. The main representatives of this trend were Jacques Louis David and Dominique Ingres.
At the same time, pan-European artistic movements developed in France, which differed significantly from the official academic direction: romanticism (Theodore Géricault and Eugene Delacroix), orientalism (Jean-Leon Gerome), the realistic landscape of the Barbizon School, the most prominent representatives of which were Jean-Francois Millet and Camille Corot, realism (Gustave Courbet, partly Honore Daumier), symbolism (Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Gustave Moreau). However, it was only in the 1860s that French art made a qualitative breakthrough, which brought France into the undisputed leadership in world art and allowed it to maintain this leadership until the Second World War. This breakthrough is associated primarily with the work of Edouard Manet and Edgar Degas, and then with the Impressionists, the most notable of which were Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro and Alfred Sisley, as well as Gustave Caillebotte.
At the same time, other prominent figures were the sculptor Auguste Rodin and Odilon Redon, who did not belong to any currents. Paul Cezanne, who first joined the Impressionists, soon abandoned them and began to work in a style later called Post-Impressionism. Post-impressionism also includes the work of such major artists as Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, as well as new artistic movements that constantly emerged in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which then spread throughout Europe, influencing other art schools. These are pointillism (Georges Seurat and Paul Signac), the Nabis group (Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, Edouard Vuillard), Fauvism (Henri Matisse, Andre Derain, Raoul Dufy), cubism (the early works of Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque). French art also responded to the main trends of the avant-garde, such as expressionism (Georges Rouault, Chaim Soutine), the painting of Marc Chagall, or the surrealist works of Yves Tanguy. After the German occupation in World War II, France lost its leadership in world art.
Literature
The earliest monuments of literature in Old French that have come down to us date from the end of the 9th century, but the heyday of French medieval literature begins in the 12th century. Epic (The Song of Roland), allegorical (The Romance of the Rose) and satirical (The Romance of the Fox) poems, chivalric literature, primarily Tristan and Isolde and the works of Chrétien de Troyes, poetry of the Trouvers are created. At the same time, in southern France, in the 12th century, the poetry of the troubadours, who wrote in the Old Provençal language, reached its peak. The most prominent poet of medieval France was François Villon.
Rabelais' proto-novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" marked the divide between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in French literature. The greatest master of Renaissance prose not only in France, but also on a pan-European scale, was Michel Montaigne in his "Experiences". Pierre Ronsard and the poets of the Pleiades tried to "ennoble" the French language on the model of Latin. Development literary heritage antiquity reached a new level in the 17th century, with the advent of the era of classicism. French philosophers (Descartes, Pascal, La Rochefoucauld) and playwrights of the grand secle (Corneille, Racine and Molière), and to a lesser extent prose writers (Charles Perrault) and poets (Jean de La Fontaine) gained all-European fame.
During the Enlightenment, French enlightenment literature continued to dictate the literary tastes of Europe, although its popularity did not last long. Among the most significant monuments of French literature of the 18th century are three novels: Manon Lescaut, Dangerous Liaisons, Candide. The rationally impersonal poetry of that time is now practically not reprinted.
After the French Revolution, the era of romanticism comes, beginning in France with the work of Chateaubriand, the Marquis de Sade and Madame de Stael. The traditions of classicism turned out to be very tenacious, and French romanticism reached its peak relatively late - in the middle of the century in the work of Victor Hugo and several less significant figures - Lamartine, de Vigny and Musset. The ideologist of French romanticism was the critic Sainte-Beuve, and his most popular works are the historical adventure novels of Alexandre Dumas.
Beginning in the 1830s, a realistic trend became more and more noticeable in French literature, in the direction of which the “poet of feelings” Stendhal and the concisely laconic Mérimée evolved. Honoré de Balzac ("The Human Comedy") and Gustave Flaubert ("Madame Bovary") are considered the major figures of French realism, although the latter defined himself as a neo-romantic ("Salambo"). Under the influence of "Madame Bovary", the "school of Flaubert" was formed, generally defined as naturalism and represented by the names of Zola, Maupassant, the Goncourt brothers and the satirist Daudet.
In parallel with naturalism, a completely different literary direction develops. The literary group of the Parnassians, represented, in particular, by Theophile Gauthier, set as its task the creation of "art for art's sake." The Parnassians are joined by the first of the “damned poets”, Charles Baudelaire, the author of the epoch-making collection “Flowers of Evil”, which threw a bridge from the era of “violent” romanticism (Nerval) to the pre-decadent symbolism of Verlaine, Rimbaud and Mallarmé.
During the 20th century, fourteen French writers were awarded the Nobel Prize. The most striking monument of French modernism is Marcel Proust's "flow novel" In Search of Lost Time, which grew out of the teachings of Henri Bergson. André Gide, the influential publisher of the Nouvelle Revue Française magazine, was also in the position of modernism. The work of Anatole France and Romain Rolland evolved towards social satirical issues, while Francois Mauriac and Paul Claudel tried to comprehend the place of religion in the modern world.
In the poetry of the early 20th century, Apollinaire's experimentation was accompanied by a revival of interest in "Racine" verse (Paul Valéry). In the prewar years, surrealism (Cocteau, Breton, Aragon, Eluard) became the dominant direction of the avant-garde. In the post-war period, surrealism was replaced by existentialism (the stories of Camus), with which the dramaturgy of the "theater of the absurd" (Ionesco and Beckett) is associated. The largest phenomena of the era of postmodernism were " new novel"(ideologist - Robbe-Grillet) and a group of language experimenters ULIPO (Raymond Quenot, Georges Perec).
In addition to authors who wrote in French, in France, especially in the 20th century, also the largest representatives of other literatures worked, such as, for example, the Argentinean Cortazar. After the October Revolution, Paris became one of the centers of Russian emigration. At different times, such significant Russian writers and poets as, for example, Ivan Bunin, Alexander Kuprin, Marina Tsvetaeva or Konstantin Balmont worked here. Many, like Gaito Gazdanov, have already established themselves as writers in France. Many foreigners, like Beckett and Ionesco, began to write in French.
Music
French music has been known since the time of Charlemagne, but world-class composers: Jean Baptiste Lully, Louis Couperin, Jean Philippe Rameau - appeared only in the Baroque era. The heyday of French classical music came in the 19th century. The era of romanticism is represented in France by the works of Hector Berlioz, primarily his symphonic music. In the middle of the century, such famous composers as Camille Saint-Saens, Gabriel Fauré and Cesar Franck wrote their works, and at the end of the 19th century a new direction of classical music developed in France - impressionism, associated with the names of Eric Satie, Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. In the 20th century, the classical music of France develops in the mainstream of world music. Well-known composers, including Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud and Francis Poulenc, are formally united in the Sixes group, although there is little in common in their work. The work of Olivier Messiaen cannot be attributed to any direction of music at all. In the 1970s, the technique of “spectral music”, which later spread throughout the world, was born in France, in which music is written taking into account its spectrum of sound.
In the 1920s, jazz spread in France, the largest representative of which was Stéphane Grappelli. French pop music developed along a different path than English-language pop music. So, the rhythm of the song often follows the rhythm of the French language (such a genre is referred to as chanson). In chanson, the emphasis can be placed both on the words of the song and on the music. In this genre of extraordinary popularity in the middle of the XX century. reached Edith Piaf, Charles Aznavour. Many chansonniers themselves wrote poems for songs, such as Georges Brassens. In many regions of France, folk music is being revived. As a rule, folk groups perform compositions from the beginning of the 20th century, using piano and accordion.
In the second half of the XX century. In France, ordinary pop music also spread, the performers of which were, for example, Mireille Mathieu, Dalida, Joe Dassin, Patricia Kaas, Mylene Farmer, Lara Fabian, Lemarchal Gregory.
The French made a particularly significant contribution to electronic music. Jean-Michel Jarre, Space and Rockets were among the pioneers of this genre. The synthesizer played a central role in early French electronics, along with science fiction and outer space aesthetics. In the 1990s, other electronic genres developed in France, such as trip-hop (Air, Télépopmusik), new age (Era), house (Daft Punk), etc.
Rock music in France is not as popular as in northern Europe, however, this genre is also well represented on the French scene. Among the patriarchs of French rock of the 1960s and 70s, it is worth noting the progressive Art Zoyd, Gong, Magma. The key bands of the 80s were post-punks Noir Désir, metallers Shakin "Street and Mystery Blue. The most successful bands last decade- metalheads Anorexia Nervosa and performing rapcore Pleymo. The latter are also associated with the French hip hop scene. This "street" style is very popular among non-indigenous people, Arab and African immigrants. Some performers from immigrant families have achieved mass fame, such as K. Maro, Diam's, MC Solaar, Stromae. On June 21, Music Day is widely celebrated in France.
Theater
The tradition of theatrical performances in France dates back to the Middle Ages. During the Renaissance, theatrical performances in the cities were tightly controlled by the guilds; thus, the guild "Les Confrères de la Passion" had a monopoly on the performances of the mysteries in Paris, and at the end of the 16th century - in general on all theatrical performances. The guild rented a theater space. In addition to public theaters, performances were given in private homes. Women could participate in performances, but all the actors were excommunicated. In the 17th century, theatrical performances were finally divided into comedies and tragedies, and the Italian commedia dell'arte was also popular. Permanent theaters appeared; in 1689 two of them were merged by decree of Louis XIV to form the Comédie Francaise. It is currently the only French repertory theater funded by the government. Traveling troupes of actors spread throughout the provinces. At the end of the 17th century, classicism completely dominated the French theater, with the concept of the unity of place, time and action. This concept ceased to be dominant only in the 19th century, with the emergence of romanticism, and then realism and decadent movements. Sarah Bernard is considered the most famous French dramatic actress of the 19th century. In the 20th century, the French theater was subject to avant-garde trends, later it was strongly influenced by Brecht. In 1964, Ariana Mnushkina and Philippe Léotard created the Théâtre du Soleil, designed to bridge the gap between actors, playwright and spectators.
There is a strong circus school in France; in particular, in the 1970s, the so-called “new circus” arose here (simultaneously with Great Britain, Australia and the USA), a type of theatrical performance in which the plot or theme is conveyed by the audience using the methods of circus art.
Cinema
Despite the fact that France was the place where cinema was invented at the end of the 19th century, the modern image of French cinema was formed after the Second World War, after understanding the legacy of the war and the German occupation. After a series of anti-fascist films, an important appeal of French cinema to humanism took place. After the war, the best film adaptations of the French classics gained worldwide fame: The Parma Convent (1948), Red and Black (1954), Teresa Raquin (1953). Back in the late 1950s, very important role The innovative film by A. Rene "Hiroshima, my love" (1959) played a role in the development of French cinema. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, brilliant actors gained fame: Gerard Philip, Bourville, Jean Marais, Marie Cazares, Louis de Funes, Serge Reggiani and others.
At the peak of the "new wave" of French cinema for short term more than 150 new directors come, among which the leading places were taken by Jean-Luc Godard, Francois Truffaut, Claude Lelouch, Claude Chabrol, Louis Mal. Then came the hitherto famous musical films directed by Jacques Demy - "The Umbrellas of Cherbourg" (1964) and "Girls from Rochefort" (1967). As a result, France has become one of the centers of world cinema, attracting the best filmmakers from all over the world. Directors such as Bertolucci, Angelopoulos or Ioseliani, for example, made films wholly or partly produced by France, many foreign actors starred in French films.
In the 1960s and 1970s, a whole galaxy of actors appeared in French cinema, among which the most famous are Jeanne Moreau, Jean-Louis Trintignant, Jean-Paul Belmondo, Gerard Depardieu, Catherine Deneuve, Alain Delon, Annie Girardot. French comedians Pierre Richard and Coluche became popular.
Modern French cinema is a rather sophisticated cinema, in which the psychology and drama of the plot are combined with some piquancy and artistic beauty of the shooting. The style is determined by fashion directors Luc Besson, Jean-Pierre Jeunet, Francois Ozon, Philippe Garrel. Actors Jean Reno, Audrey Tautou, Sophie Marceau, Christian Clavier, Matthew Kassovitz, Louis Garrel are popular. The French government actively promotes the development and export of national cinema.
Since 1946, the International Film Festivals in Cannes have been held. In 1976, the annual national film award "Cesar" was established.
freemasonry
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In continental Europe, Freemasonry is most numerous in France, both in terms of the number of members Masonic lodges, and by the number of Grand Lodges in one country. It is represented by all directions of all obediences available in the world. There are more than 200,000 Freemasons in France. Traditionally, the most represented in France are the lodges of the liberal direction, such as the Grand Orient of France, the Order of the "Right of Man", the Grand Women's Lodge of France, the Grand Mixed Lodge of France, the Grand Lodge of Memphis Misraim, the Grand Symbolic Lodge of France of the Memphis Misraim. Many were Masons eminent figures France, which left their mark on the history of the country and influenced its development. The members of the Masonic lodges were: Voltaire, Hugo, Jaurès, Blanqui, Rouget de Lisle, Briand, Andre Citroen and many more… |
| Mariana. One of the emblems of French Freemasonry. (1879) | |
Education and science
Education in France is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age. Basic principles of French education: freedom of teaching (public and private institutions), free education, neutrality of education, laicism of education.
Higher education
Higher education is available only with a bachelor's degree. System higher education different in France great variety Universities and proposed disciplines. Most higher education institutions are state-owned and are subordinate to the French Ministry of Education. Historically, France has developed two types of higher education institutions:
universities
"Great Schools"
Universities train teachers, doctors, lawyers, scientists.
"high schools"
They train highly professional specialists in the field of engineering, management, economics, military affairs, education and culture. You can enter a higher school after two or three years of study in preparatory classes in the chosen direction. Students who have completed the first two years of higher education at the university with honors can also enter “higher schools” without competition, but the number of places for them is quite limited (no more than 10%). After the preparatory classes, students pass one or more competitions for admission to "higher schools". Usually one competition unites several schools at once.
For "high schools" teaching engineering, there are six competitions for admission:
Ecole Polytechnic;
ENS;
Mines Ponts;
Centrale-Supelec;
CCP;
e3a.
"High Schools" are in fact opposed to the state system of higher university education in France and with great difficulty lend themselves to comparative classification at the international level. Training in " higher schools ah” is considered much more prestigious in France than universities (which bear some of the imprint of a second-rate system, as they do not involve any selection for admission and operate on the principle of free enrollment and free education). Unlike universities, higher schools have to pass difficult entrance exams with a large competition for applicants. Entering the "Higher Schools" is much more difficult, but the professional prospects after graduation are incomparably better: graduates are not only guaranteed full employment, but most often - the most prestigious and profitable jobs in the public and private sectors.
Students of some Schools, such as ENAC (National School civil aviation), receive scholarships as future civil servants. Created on the initiative of state authorities and private entrepreneurs to train specialists in specific areas of economic activity or employees of public authorities. Thus, the higher pedagogical schools train teachers, the Polytechnic School and the Saint-Cyr School train military specialists, the National Historical and Archival School train archivists and keepers of the national heritage. The higher schools also include five Catholic institutions. The program of "Higher Schools" usually has two cycles. The first two-year preparatory cycle can be completed both on the basis of the Big School itself and on the basis of some elite lyceums. At the end of the second cycle, the student receives a diploma from the Big School. Upon graduation, graduates are required to work in the public service for 6-10 years, thus reimbursing the state's expenses spent on their education. In addition, there are many special schools of departmental subordination.
A special place among all institutions of education and advanced training, and even among Les Grandes Ecoles, is occupied by the National School of Administration under the Prime Minister of France - ENA. ENA is in the first place not so much in terms of the level of education (it is clearly superior in international recognition to the Polytechnic School), but in terms of the prospects for career growth and success in life. Students and graduates of the school are called "enarks" (fr. énarque). The vast majority of French AEN graduates (about six thousand since 1945) have become leading government politicians, heads of French institutions, parliamentarians, senior officials, diplomats and members of international organizations, judges of higher instances, lawyers of the State Council, administrative and financial controllers of the highest rank, heads and top management of the largest state and international firms and banks, mass media and communications. AEN gave France two presidents, seven prime ministers, big number ministers, prefects, senators and deputies of the National Assembly. The Soviet equivalent of ENA could be considered the Academy of Social Sciences under the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Diplomatic Academy of the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Academy of National Economy under the Council of Ministers of the USSR taken together. The modern Russian equivalent of ENA are Russian Academy public service under the President Russian Federation, the Academy of National Economy under the Government of the Russian Federation and the Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation combined.
The science
In France there is major center scientific research - CNRS (Centre national de la recherche scientifique - national center for scientific research).
In the field of nuclear energy, the CEA (Comissariat à l "énergie atomique) research center stands out.
In the field of space research and space instrument design, CNES (Centre national d "études spatiales) is the largest scientific center in France. CNES engineers also developed several projects together with Soviet engineers.
France is actively involved in European scientific projects, such as the Galileo satellite navigation system project or the Envisat project, a satellite that studies the Earth's climate.
mass media
Television and radio broadcasting
In 1995, 95% of French families had a TV set in their home.
Several state-owned (France-2, France-3, France-5, Arté - the latter jointly with Germany) and private (TF1, Canal + (paid channel), M6) television companies operate in the decimeter range.
With the advent of digital terrestrial television in 2005, the range of available free-to-air channels has expanded. Since 2009, a gradual phasing out of analogue television begins, the complete shutdown of which in France is planned by 2013.
Many thematic public radio stations broadcast in the FM band: France Inter, France Info (news), France Bleu (local news), France Culture (culture), France Musique (classical music, jazz), FIP (music), Le Mouv" ( youth rock radio station) and others.
France has a radio station, Radio France internationale (RFI), with an audience of 44 million people and broadcasting in 13 languages.
In 2009, it is planned to determine the conditions for the transition of radio stations to digital broadcasting in order to completely abandon analog technologies by 2011. Songs on French radio should take up at least 40% of the time.
Magazines and newspapers
Popular magazines are Paris Match (illustrated weekly news), Femme actuelle, Elle and Marie-France (magazines for women), L'Express, Le Point and Le Nouvel Observateur ( news weeklies), Télé7 jours (television programs and news).
Among daily newspapers of national importance, Le Figaro, Le Parisien, Le Monde, France Soir and La Liberation have the largest circulations. The most popular trade magazines are L'Equipe (sports) and Les Echos (business news).
Since the early 2000s, free daily press financed by ads has spread: 20 minutes (leading the French press in terms of readership), Direct matin, the international newspaper Metro, as well as many local publications.
There are also many daily regional newspapers, the most famous of which is the Ouest-France, which has a circulation of 797,000, almost double the circulation of any of the national dailies.
Sport
Olympic Games
French athletes have been participating in the Olympic Games since 1896. In addition, the competitions of the Summer Olympic Games were held twice in Paris - in 1900 and 1924, the Winter Olympic Games were held three times in three various cities- in Chamonix (1920), Grenoble (1968) and Albertville (1992).
Football
The French national football team won the World Cup in 1998 and the European Championship in 1984 and 2000.
Tour de France bicycle race
Since 1903, the most prestigious cycling race in the world, the Tour de France, has been held in France. The race, which starts in June, consists of 21 stages, each of which lasts one day.
Holidays
The main holidays are Christmas (December 25), New Year, Easter, Bastille Day (July 14).
The section consists of separate essays:
History of France
Ancient France (1,800,000 - 2090 BC)
The first inhabitants in France appeared a little over a million years ago. A number of Neolithic settlements have been found in France. Here was one of the centers of the formation of the Cro-Magnons. Remarkable monuments of primitive culture have been preserved - the Lascaux cave, the Cro-Magnon grotto, etc.Gaul and the Roman conquest (1200 BC - 379 AD)
In the middle 1 thousand BC e. the expanses of France, as well as neighboring countries, were inhabited by the tribes of the Celts, who are better known to us by their Roman name - the Gauls. Ancient Gaul, located between the Rhine, the Mediterranean Sea, the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean, at the time of its conquest by the Romans was distinguished by a certain unity: the Celtic conquerors, who merged with the local population, passed on their language and way of life to it. At the same time, the population of Gaul was divided into many independent tribes; there was no unity necessary to resist the Roman conquerors. The Celts founded the cities of Lutetia (Paris), Burdigala (Bordeaux).Roman conquest of Gaul, which was preceded by the Greek colonization of the southern territories of France (near Marseilles), took place in two stages: the first - the foundation in the 1st century. BC. the province of Narbonnaise, the second - the conquests of Julius Caesar (between 58 and 50 BC). Over the next century and a half, the entire territory of present-day France gradually passed to the Romans. The last area conquered by the Romans in 57 BC was Brittany. During the same period, the Latin language and the Roman way of life spread throughout all social classes. Only art and religion have preserved the remains of the ancient Celtic civilization.
IN end of I-II centuries large cities grow here: Narbo-Marcius (Narbonne), Lugdunum (Lyon), Nemauzus (Nimes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), high level reach agriculture, metallurgy, ceramic and textile production, foreign and domestic trade.
When under Diocletian and Constantine great empire was divided into four prefectures, subdivided into dioceses and provinces, Gaul formed one of the three dioceses of the Gallic prefecture and was divided into 17 provinces. This arrangement of hers survived until the Great Migration of Nations.
IN 5th c. settled on the territory of Gaul: on the left bank of the Rhine - the Franks and Alemanni, of which the first quickly conquered all of northern Gaul and subjugated the Alemanni (496); along the Rhone and the Seine - the Burgundians, whose state in the middle of the 6th century. was also conquered by the Franks; in the southwestern part of Gaul - the Visigoths, ousted from there by the Franks at the beginning of the 6th century. Thus, in the 5th-6th centuries. Gaul became part of the vast Frankish monarchy, from which in the middle of the 9th century. medieval France emerged.
Frankish kingdom (486-987)
Franks- a group of West Germanic tribes united in a tribal union, first mentioned in the middle of the 3rd century. The beginning of the formation of the Frankish state was the conquest in 486 at the Battle of Soissons salic francs(a group of Frankish tribes living along the coast of the Baltic Sea) led by Clovis 1(c. 466-27 November 511) the last part of the Gallo-Roman possessions (between the rivers Seine and Loire). From the name Clovis, meaning "famous in battle", the name Louis was subsequently formed. According to legend, Clovis was the grandson of the semi-mythical king Merovei, after whom the dynasty was named the dynasty Merovingian.OK. 498 Clovis, under the influence of his wife and St. Genevieve accepts Catholicism in the Reims Cathedral, along with 3 thousand Frankish soldiers. From this moment on, Clovis acquires the support of the clergy and power over the Gallo-Roman population. Near 508 Clovis chooses Paris as his residence. Near 507-511 a code of laws is being created - "Salic truth".
During many years of wars, the Franks, led by Clovis, also conquered most of the possessions of the Alemanni on the Rhine (496), the lands of the Visigoths in Aquitaine (507) and the Franks who lived along the middle reaches of the Rhine. Under the sons of Clovis, Godomar, the king of the Burgundians, was defeated (534), and his kingdom was included in the Frankish state. In 536 the Ostrogothic king Vitigis renounced Provence in favor of the Franks. In the 530s, the Alpine possessions of the Alemanni and the lands of the Thuringians between the Weser and the Elbe were also conquered, and in the 550s, the lands of the Bavarians on the Danube.
The power of the Merovingians was not united. Immediately after the death of Clovis, his 4 sons divided the Frankish state among themselves and only occasionally united for joint campaigns of conquest.
The main parts of the Frankish state were Austrasia, Neustia and Burgundy. IN 6th-7th centuries they waged an incessant struggle among themselves, which was accompanied by the destruction of many members of the warring clans. In the 7th century the influence of the nobility increased. Her power becomes more significant than the power of kings, who, for their unwillingness and inability to rule, were called lazy kings. The decision of state affairs passes into the hands of the mayors, appointed by the king in each kingdom from representatives of the most noble families. The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Hilderic 3(reigned from 743 to 751, died in 754).
IN 612 mayor in Austria becomes Pepin 1(founded by the Pipinid dynasty). He seeks recognition as mayor also in Neustria and Burgundy. His son Karl Martell(majordom in 715-741), retaining the rights of majordom in these kingdoms, again subjugated Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria, which had fallen away during the weakening of the power of the Merovingians, restored power over Aquitaine and Provence. His victory over the Arabs Poitiers in 732 stopped Arab expansion into Western Europe.
Son of Charles Martell Pepin Short with the support of Pope Zacharias, he proclaimed himself king of the Frankish state in 751 Under Pepin, Septimania was conquered from the Arabs (759), power was strengthened over Bavaria, Alemannia and Aquitaine.
The Frankish state reached its greatest strength under the son of Pepin Charlemagne(reigned 768-814), after whom the dynasty was named the dynasty Carolingian. Having defeated the Lombards, Charlemagne annexed their possessions in Italy to the Frankish state (774), conquered the lands of the Saxons (772-804), conquered the region between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River from the Arabs (785-811). Continuing the policy of alliance with the papacy, Charles achieved the crowning of Pope Leo III emperor (800) of the Western Roman Empire. Charles' capital was Aachen.
His eldest son became his heir, Louis I(814-840) nicknamed Pious. Thus, the tradition of dividing the kingdom equally among all heirs was abolished, and henceforth only the eldest son succeeded the father.
Between the sons of Louis Charles the Bald, Louis and Lothair 1, a war of inheritance broke out, this war greatly weakened the empire, and ultimately led to its disintegration into three parts according to Treaty of Verdun in 843 The imperial title was assigned to the western part (future France).
Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was constantly attacked by the Vikings, who fortified themselves in Normandy.
The last king of this dynasty was Louis 5. After his death in 987 nobility elects a new king - Hugo nicknamed Kapet (after the name of the priest's robe he wore), and this nickname gave the name to the whole dynasty Capetians.
Medieval France
Capetians (987-1328)
Under the last Carolingians, France began to be divided into fiefs, and when the Capetian dynasty ascended the throne, there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) the county of Flanders, 2) the duchy of Normandy, 3) the duchy of France, 4) the duchy of Burgundy, 5) the duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne ), 6) the Duchy of Gascony, 7) the County of Toulouse, 8) the Marquisate of Gothia, and 9) the County of Barcelona (Spanish March). Over time, the fragmentation went even further; from these possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, Bourbon.The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and expanding very slowly in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-118) it only doubled. At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.
IN 1066 Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England were united.
A century after this 1154) became kings of England and dukes of Normandy Counts of Anjou (Plantagenets), and the first king of this dynasty, Henry II, through marriage with the heiress of Aquitaine, Eleanor, acquired the entire south-west of France.
Under the Capetians, for the first time in history, religious wars took on an unprecedented scale. First crusade started in 1095 The bravest and strongest nobles from all over Europe went to Jerusalem to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims after ordinary citizens were defeated by the Turks. Jerusalem was taken on July 15, 1099.
The beginning of the unification of scattered lands was laid by Philip 2 August (1180-1223), who acquired part of Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne and other lands.
Grandson of Philip 2, Louis 9 Saint(1226-1270), became king at the age of 12. Until he grew up, his mother Blanca of Castile ruled the country. Louis 9 made important acquisitions in the south of France; the counts of Toulouse had to recognize the power of the king of France and cede to him a significant part of their possessions, and the termination of the house of Toulouse in 1272 entailed, under Philip 3, joining the royal lands and the rest of these possessions. Under Louis 9, two crusades took place - the 7th and 8th, both of which were unsuccessful for the French king. During the 8th campaign, he died.
Philip 4 Handsome(1285-1314) acquired in 1312 Lyon and its region, and by marriage with Joan of Navarre created the basis for the future claims of the royal house to her heritage (Champagne and others), which later (1361), under John the Good, was finally attached. Under Philip 4, the Knights Templar were defeated, and the papal throne was transferred to Avignon.
Until 1328 France is ruled by the direct heirs of Hugh Capet. The last direct descendant of Hugh - Charles IV inherits Philip 6, belonging to the branch Valois, which also belonged to the Capetian dynasty. The Valois dynasty would rule France until 1589, when Henry IV of the Capet dynasty of the Bourbon branch ascended the throne.
Valois dynasty. Hundred Years' War (1328-1453)
The successes of royal power in France for a century and a half from the accession to the throne of Philip on August 2 (1180) until the end of the Capetian dynasty (1328) were very significant: the royal domains greatly expanded (with many lands falling into the hands of other members of the royal family), while the possessions feudal lords and the English king declined. But under the first king of the new dynasty, the Hundred Years' War with the British (1328-1453) began. At the same time, the population suffered greatly from the plague and several civil wars.The Hundred Years War was started by the English king Edward 3, who was the maternal grandson of the French king Philip 4 the Handsome from the Capetian dynasty. After death in 1328 Charles 4, the last of the direct branch of the Capetians, and the coronation of Philip 6 (Valois) under Salic law, Edward claimed his rights to the French throne. In the autumn of 1337 the British launched an offensive in Picardy. They were supported by the Flemish cities and feudal lords and the cities of southwestern France.
The first phase of the war was successful for England. Edward won a number of convincing victories, including in battle of Crécy(1346). In 1347 the British conquered the port of Calais. In 1356, the English army under the command of the son of Edward 3 the Black Prince inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at the Battle of Poitiers, capturing King John 2 the Good. Military failures and economic difficulties led to popular indignations - the Parisian uprising (1357-1358) and the Jacquerie (peasant uprising of 1358). The French were forced to make a humiliating peace for France at Brétigny (1360).
Taking advantage of the respite, the French king Charles 5 reorganized the army, reinforced it with artillery, and carried out economic reforms. This allowed the French in the second stage of the war, in the 1370s, to achieve significant military successes. Due to the extreme exhaustion of both sides in 1396, they concluded a truce.
However, under the next French king, Charles 6 the Mad, the British began to win victories again, in particular, they defeated the French in battle of Agincourt(1415). King Henry 5, who occupied the English throne at that time, subjugated about half of the territory of France in five years and achieved the conclusion of an agreement in Troyes (1420), providing for the unification of the two countries under the rule of the English crown, after the conclusion of the agreement in Troyes and until 1801 the kings England bore the title of King of France.
The turning point came in the 1420s, at the fourth stage of the war, after the French army was led by Joan of Arc. Under her leadership, the French liberated Orleans from the British (1429). Even the execution of Joan of Arc in 1431 did not prevent the French from successfully to end hostilities.In 1435, the Duke of Burgundy concluded an alliance treaty with the King of France Carl 7. In 1436, Paris came under the control of the French. In 1450, the French army won a decisive victory in the battle near the Norman city of Caen. In 1453, the capitulation of the English garrison at Bordeaux ended the Hundred Years' War.
Under Charles 7, the unification of the French lands, interrupted by the war, continued. Under the successor Louis 11(1461-1483) in 1477 the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed. In addition, this king acquired by right of inheritance from the last Count of Anjou Provence (1481), conquered Boulogne (1477) and subjugated Picardy. Louis 11 is known for his cruelty and intrigue, which allowed him to make the royal power absolute. At the same time, Louis patronized the sciences and arts, especially medicine and surgery, reorganized the medical faculty at the University of Paris, founded a printing house at the Sorbonne, and restored the post office.
Under Charles 8 (1483-1498), the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased (1488); the heiress of his rights was the wife of Charles 8, after his death she married Louis 12 (1498-1515), which prepared the annexation of Brittany. Thus in new history France enters almost united, and it remains for her to expand mainly to the east. Charles 8 and Louis 12 fought wars in Italy.
Renaissance
Louis 12 succeeded Francis 1(1515-1547), his cousin-nephew and son-in-law (his wife is Claude of France, daughter of Louis 12). He began his reign with a swift and successful campaign in Italy. Under Francis, the absolute monarchy is strengthened, the opinion of parliament is not taken into account. The economy is developing, at the same time taxes are increasing and the cost of maintaining the yard is increasing. Francis became interested in the culture of the Italian Renaissance. Its locks are decorated by the best craftsmen from Italy, last years Leonardo da Vinci spends his life in Amboise. Starting from the reign of Francis 1, followers of the Reformation appeared in France.Heinrich 2(1547-1559) succeeded his father on the throne in 1547. Through several lightning-fast, well-planned operations, Henry II recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. His life was cut short unexpectedly: in 1559, fighting at a tournament with one of the nobles, he fell, pierced by a spear, in front of his wife and mistress.
Heinrich's wife was Catherine de Medici, a representative of a family of famous Italian bankers. After the untimely death of the king, Catherine played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century, although her three sons officially ruled, Francis 2, Charles 9 and Henry 3. The first of them, painful Francis II, was under the influence of the powerful Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were uncles to Queen Mary Stuart (of Scotland), to whom Francis 2 was engaged as a child. A year after accession to the throne, Francis died, and his ten-year-old brother took the throne Carl 9(1560-1574), who was entirely under the influence of his mother.
religious wars
While Catherine succeeded in leading the child king, the power of the French monarchy was suddenly tottering. The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis 1 and tightened under Charles, ceased to justify itself. Calvinism spread widely throughout France. The Huguenots (as the French Calvinists were called) were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often wealthy and influential.The fall in the authority of the king and the disruption of public order were only a partial consequence of the religious schism. Deprived of the possibility of waging wars abroad and not constrained by the prohibitions of a strong monarch, the nobles sought to get out of obedience to the weakening monarchy and encroached on the rights of the king. With the ensuing riots, it was already difficult to resolve religious disputes, and the country split into two opposing camps. The Guise family took the position of defenders of the Catholic faith. Their rivals were both moderate Catholics like Montmorency and Huguenots like Condé and Coligny. In 1562, an open confrontation of the parties began, punctuated by periods of truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were given a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.
During the official preparation of the third agreement, which included the marriage of the king's sister Margaret to Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots, Charles 9 organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew on the night 23 to 24 August 1572. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his followers were killed.
Charles 9 died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry 3(1575-1589). Henry returned to France in the midst of religious wars. On February 11, 1575, he was crowned in Reims Cathedral. And two days later he married Louise of Vaudemont-Lorraine. Lacking the means to end the war, Henry made concessions to the Huguenots. The latter received freedom of religion and participation in local parliaments. Thus, some cities, inhabited entirely by Huguenots, became completely independent of royal power. The actions of the king caused a sharp protest from the Catholic League, led by Henry of Guise and his brother Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine. The brothers firmly decided to get rid of Henry 3 and continue the war with the Huguenots. In 1577, a new, sixth in a row, civil religious war broke out, which lasted three years. At the head of the Protestants stood Henry of Navarre, who survived the St. Bartholomew night by hastily converting to Catholicism.
Since the king had no children, the closest blood relative should have succeeded him. Ironically, this relative (in the 21st generation) was the same Henry of Navarre- Bourbon. Married, among other things, to the king's sister Margarita.
Henry of Navarre won landslide victories. He was supported by the English Queen Elizabeth and German Protestants. King Henry III tried with all his might to end the war. On May 12, 1588, Paris rebelled against the king, who was forced to hastily leave the capital and move his residence to Blois. Heinrich of Guise solemnly entered Paris.
In this situation, Henry 3 could save only the most decisive measures. The king convened the Estates General, to which his opponent also arrived. On December 23, 1588, Henry of Guise went to the meeting of the States. Unexpectedly, the king's guards appeared on his way, who first killed Guise with several dagger blows, and then destroyed the entire guard of the duke. The next day, by order of the king, Henry's brother of Giza, Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine, was also captured and then killed.
The murder of the Guise brothers stirred up many Catholic minds. Among them was the 22-year-old Dominican monk Jacques Clement. Jacques was an ardent fanatic and enemy of the Huguenots. After Pope Sixtus 5 cursed Henry 3, Jacques Clement decided to kill him. His decision was supported by high-ranking opponents of the king. Henry 3 was killed by Clement during an audience.
Before his death, Henry declared Henry of Navarre his successor.
Although Henry of Navarre now enjoyed military superiority and received the support of a group of moderate Catholics, he returned to Paris only after renouncing the Protestant faith and was crowned at Chartres in 1594. The Edict of Nantes ended the wars of religion in 1598. The Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority with the right for labor and self-defence in some districts and cities.
During the reign Henry 4(from which the Bourbon dynasty, a branch of the Capetian dynasty, began) and his famous minister, the Duke of Sully, order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. In 1610, the country plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by the madman François Ravaillac while preparing for a military campaign in the Rhineland.
Bourbons. Absolute monarchy. Age of Enlightenment
After the death of Henry 4, the nine-year-old Louis 13(1601-1643). The central political figure at this time was his mother, Queen Marie de Medici, who then enlisted the support of the Bishop of Luson, Armand Jean du Plessis (aka Duke, Cardinal Richelieu), who in 1624 became the mentor and representative of the king and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642. Under Richelieu, the Protestants were finally defeated after the siege and capture of La Rochelle. Richelieu based his policy on the implementation of the program of Henry 4: strengthening the state, its centralization, ensuring the supremacy of secular power over the church and the center over the provinces, eliminating the aristocratic opposition, counteracting the Spanish-Austrian hegemony in Europe. Louis 13 in politics limited himself only to supporting Richelieu in his conflicts with the nobility.After the death of Richelieu under the juvenile Louis 14, the regent was Anna of Austria, who ruled the country with the help of Richelieu's successor, Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenees (1659) peace treaties, but could not do anything more significant for France than the preservation of the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility, known as the Fronde (1648-1653).
Louis 14(1638-1715) differed from his father in active participation in political life. Immediately after the death of Mazarin (1661), Louis began to independently manage the state.
Louis firmly pursued his policy, successfully choosing ministers and military leaders. The reign of Louis - a time of significant strengthening of the unity of France, its military power, political weight and intellectual prestige, the flowering of culture, went down in history as the Great Age. At the same time, constant wars waged by Louis and requiring high taxes ravaged the country. In the struggle for power, Louis was helped by prominent personalities: Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance (1665-1683), Marquis de Louvois, Minister of War (1666-1691), Sebastian de Vauban, Minister of Defense, and such brilliant generals as the Vicomte de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.
At the end of his life, Louis was accused of being "too fond of war." His last desperate struggle with all of Europe (the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714) ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country has lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat.
Since all the pretenders to the throne died before Louis 14, his young great-grandson became the successor Louis 15(1710-1774). While he was small, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the Duke of Orleans. The reign of Louis XV was in many respects a pathetic parody of that of his predecessor. The royal administration continued to sell the rights to collect taxes, but this mechanism lost its effectiveness, as the entire tax collection system became corrupt. The army fostered by Louvois and Vauban was demoralized under the leadership of aristocratic officers who sought appointment to military posts only for the sake of a court career. Nevertheless, Louis 15 paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Unfavorable climatic conditions and epidemics were added to economic hardships.
At the same time, the 18th century is the era of the Enlightenment, the time of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, and other French encyclopedists.
Louis 16 succeeded his grandfather Louis 15 in 1774. Under him, after the convocation of the Estates General in 1789, the French Revolution began. Louis first accepted the constitution of 1791, renounced absolutism and became a constitutional monarch, but soon he began to hesitantly oppose the radical measures of the revolutionaries and even tried to flee the country. September 21, 1792 deposed, tried by the Convention and executed by guillotine. From that moment until the coup of 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, many executions took place in France, the country was ruined.
After the coup of 18 Brumaire, the only power in France was the provisional government, which consisted of three consuls (Bonaparte, Sieyes, Roger-Ducos). The consuls - or rather Consul Bonaparte, since the other two were nothing more than his instruments - acted with the determination of autocratic power. A constitution was created, completely monarchical, but retaining the appearance of popular power. For 10 years he was appointed first consul Bonaparte.
All power was now in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry that included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte (Minister of the Interior), Fouche (Minister of Police). Since 1804, France has been proclaimed an empire.
The first part of Napoleon's reign was filled with military victories. After that, military happiness betrayed him. Napoleon ruled the country arbitrarily, therefore, after the allied army entered Paris (March 31, 1814), the Senate appointed by him proclaimed on April 3, 1814 his deposition from the throne, publishing in his "Deposition Act" a whole indictment against him, in which he was accused of violations of the constitution, committed with the constant and active support of the Senate.
19th century
April 6 1814 the senate, acting at the suggestion of Talleyrand and at the desire of the allies, proclaimed the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, in the person of Louis 17, provided, however, that they take an oath of allegiance to a constitution drawn up by the Senate, much more free than Napoleonic. However, after the restoration of the monarchy, a reaction began. The return of Napoleon in 1815 was greeted with joy by the people. However, his army was defeated by the British at Waterloo. Napoleon had to sign an abdication. Louis 17 returned to Paris again. His successor was Carl 10 who tried to restore the social order that existed before the revolution. This led to July Revolution of 1830The July Revolution meant the final overthrow of the Bourbons. Charles abdicated like his eldest son and went into exile in Great Britain. The throne was taken by Louis Philippe.
Although the constitutional regime of the first half of the 19th century did not meet the conflicting requirements of various political parties, this period went down in history as a period of economic modernization: manufactories, a steam engine, a railway, a telegraph - all this contributed to the economic recovery of France and the emergence of new big capital with all its advantages and disadvantages - the reduction of the rural population and the growth of the urban population, as well as the formation of the proletariat
On December 2, 1852, as a result of a plebiscite, a constitutional monarchy was established, headed by the nephew of Napoleon 1, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the name Napoleon 3. Previously, Louis Napoleon was President of the Second Republic (1848-1852). This was the beginning of the Second Empire. At first (until 1860) Napoleon III was almost an autocratic monarch. The Senate, the State Council, ministers, officials, even the mayors of the communes (the latter - on the basis of the laws of 1852 and 1855, which restored the centralization of the first empire) were appointed by the emperor.
The main business of the government was economic development: encouraging the construction of railways, establishing joint-stock companies, the device of various large enterprises, etc. Paris was almost completely rebuilt by Baron Haussmann.
From 1860, Napoleon 3 began to pursue a more liberal policy in order to restore his authority, shaken due to the war with Austria.
After Napoleon III was taken prisoner by the Germans near Sedan (September 1870) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly assembled in Bordeaux deposed him, and the Second Empire ceased to exist.
In 1871 the French were forced to make peace with Prussia. The form of government was changed in the country - from 1870 to 1940 it was the Third Republic headed by the president.
After the adoption of the constitution of 1875, the republican system was finally established in the country. The authorities are making great strides in the field of education and in providing citizens with basic freedoms. Gradually, a state is being formed in which secularism and democracy are the main values. At the same time, France is conquering new territories in Africa and Asia. But the republican system remains weak due to the instability of political parties.
France in the 20th century
The defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the desire for revenge led France to participate in the First World War. France emerged victorious from the First World War, but suffered huge losses. But these losses were overshadowed by the euphoria of triumph: the "crazy" 1920s make us forget about the economic difficulties in the country and the political instability caused by the international crisis. The fear generated by the victory of the Bolsheviks in Russia provokes a conservative reaction from the National Bloc, which, after its defeat, was replaced in 1924 by the Cartel of the Left. The republican system is shaken by scandals and demonstrations like the one that took place on February 6, 1934.To counter the extremism of the right-wing forces, the left-wing parties decide to unite. The National Front, formed in the conditions of the beginning world crisis, wins the elections in 1936. The government, headed by Leon Blum, carries out radical social reforms, but in 1938 the alliance of the left breaks up, in particular because of disagreements over the war in Spain.
At the same time, the threat from powerful fascist states in Europe is growing. And although the foreign policy of France was aimed at peace at any cost, the provocations of the Nazis are becoming more and more targeted. World War II, which the Daladier government was trying to avoid in Munich, breaks out on September 3, 1939.
In May 1940, as a result of the German invasion, the French troops were defeated. The defeat of France, secured by a truce, leads to the fall of the Third Republic. It is replaced by a new regime - the French state ("Vichy government"). The government, headed by Marshal Pétain, governs the southern half of France not occupied by the Germans and pursues a policy of national reconstruction. After October 1940, the French state began to actively cooperate with the Nazi regime. But even this policy, accompanied by a dramatic "hunt for the Jews", who are imprisoned in camps and handed over to the SS forces for deportation, does not provide Pétain with the opportunity to lead the country on his own: on November 11, 1942, German forces occupy the southern half of France. General de Gaulle addresses the French from London with an appeal to continue the fight against the invaders. A resistance movement is formed, which played a leading role in the liberation of the country.
After the end of the war, an atmosphere of national optimism was established in the country. With the adoption of the new constitution, Fourth Republic. Despite this, General de Gaulle, a prominent participant in the recent war, is concerned about the impossibility of running the country under a regime that continues to give too much power to the legislature, and the composition of governments reflects too fickle conditions of the political majority. Unheard by anyone, de Gaulle leaves politics. But government instability proves him right. One of the main problems that France faced during this period was the problem of colonies. The heroic role played by the colonies in World War II is forcing the mother country to change the status of French territories in Africa and other continents. But the concessions made were not enough, and the French authorities are not always able to reach an agreement that ensures a peaceful future. As a result, France is waging dramatic wars in Indochina and Algeria.
As a result, in 1958 a new constitution was adopted - the Fifth Republic emerged. The updated constitution restored a strong and enduring presidential power, the legitimacy of which is emphasized by the fact that the president is elected by universal suffrage (since 1962). General de Gaulle was President of France from 1958 to 1969, leading the country alongside a stable right-wing majority. Mass unrest of youth and students (May events in France, 1968), caused by the aggravation of economic and social contradictions, as well as a general strike, led to an acute state crisis. Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign (1969).
Paris
11-10 millennium BC The first settlements appear.about 250-225 AD BC. on the territory of the island of Cité, the Gallic tribe of the Parisians settles and establishes their capital Lutetia here (lat. Lutetia - housing among the water).
early 2nd c. BC. the city is surrounded by a fortress wall, bridges are being built. The city lives off river trade and tolls on and under bridges.
54 BC Revolt of the Gauls against the Romans.
53 BC Julius Caesar strengthens the city's defenses and endows it with religious functions.
52 BC The uprising of the united Gallic tribes against Julius Caesar is defeated. In the notes of Caesar, the city of the Parisians, Parisiorum, is mentioned for the first time.
end of 2nd c. AD Rise of Roman Lutetia. The population has reached 6 thousand people. But the administrative and religious center until the 17th century. remains the city of Sens.
250 g. Martyrdom of St. Denis in Montmartre. According to the legend of St. Denis walked with a severed head to the present Saint-Denis, after which he was canonized.
IN end of the 3rd c. because of the raids of the Germanic tribes, the townspeople move to the island of Cité. The name Parisiorum (the city of the Parisians) is assigned to the city.
406 The Germans capture Gaul. Paris manages to escape the invasion.
422 Geneviève, the future saint and patroness of Paris, was born in Nanterre.
451 Genevieve persuades the Parisians to confront the Hun leader Attila, although they initially intend to flee. Before reaching Paris, the Huns turn towards Orleans.
470 the siege of the city begins, which lasted more than 10 years, by the Franks under the leadership of Childeric 1. Genevieve provides the city with bread, which is delivered by barges along the Seine.
486 Clovis, son of Childeric, defeats the last Roman governor. By agreement with Genevieve, Clovis receives power over the city peacefully.
496 Under the influence of his wife, Clovis accepts Christianity.
502 dies in Paris, St. Genevieve.
507 Clovis triumphs over Germanic tribes, in honor of which he lays the church of Peter and Paul on the hill of Sainte-Genevieve.
508 Paris is the capital of the Frankish state of the Merovingians.
511 After the death of Clovis 1, the Merovingian kingdom was divided between his 4 sons. The kingdoms of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine are formed.
mid 5th - 6th c. The population of Paris reaches 20 thousand people.
567 Paris passes into the joint possession of all the Merovingian kings.
585 After a fire that partially destroyed the buildings on the island of Cité, the city gradually falls into decay.
751 Pepin 3 the Short proclaimed King of the Franks. The last king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, was tonsured a monk. By the name of the son of Pepin the Short Charles the Great, the dynasty receives the name of the Carolingians.
814-840 Reign of Louis the Pious. Behind him, Charles II the Bald ascends the throne. After the division of Charlemagne's empire, he becomes King of France. Norman raids begin.
856 Normans capture the left bank of the city.
861 Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés was sacked.
885 The beginning of the two-year siege of the city by the Normans.
888 Death of Karl Tolstoy. The high nobility elect Count Ed as king. Charles 4 Rustic refuses to recognize Ed as king.
893 Coronation of Charles 4. He gets a real opportunity to govern the state after the death of Ed (898).
987 Hugh Capet ascends the throne.
1031-1060 The reign of Henry 1. Paris is expanding due to the development of the right bank.
1108-1137 The reign of Louis 6 Tolstoy. Under him, the Châtelet fortress was built, near the walls of which a market began to operate. The city is governed by the royal prevost - an official with judicial, fiscal and military power.
1141 Louis 7 sells the city port to the guild of Parisian river merchants. The emblem of the guild with the image of a boat becomes the coat of arms of the city.
1186 Philip 2 August issues a decree to improve city roads, the main task is to put an end to unsanitary conditions.
1189-1209 Construction of a new city wall.
1190-1202 The Louvre castle is being built.
1253 The building of the future Sorbonne was laid.
1381, 1413 Popular riots in Paris.
1420-1436 During the Hundred Years War, the city was occupied by the British.
1436 The troops of Charles 7 occupy the city.
1461 Coronation of Louis 11, who then transfers his government to Tours.
1469 The beginning of the printing business. The first text was printed at the Sorbonne.
1515-1547 Reign of Francis 1. Prevost becomes an official with limited powers. The governor of Paris is responsible for public order. Francis reconstructs the Louvre and begins to build the royal art collection.
1528 Paris returns the status of the main city of the kingdom.
1559 The death of Henry 2 at the knight's tour in the courtyard of the Tournel Palace (Place des Vosges).
August 24, 1572 Bartholomew's Night (more than 5 thousand people died).
1588 Revolt of supporters of the Catholic League in Paris, led by Heinrich of Guise.
1590 Henry 4 of Bourbon besieges Paris.
1593 Henry 4 utters the famous phrase "Paris is worth a Mass", returns to Catholicism. The people of Paris let him enter the city. Under Henry 4, numerous urban planning projects were carried out.
1606 The New Bridge was built.
1610-1643 The reign of Louis 13. The Botanical Garden appears, the Marais expands, the Luxembourg Palace is built, the construction of a new city wall, begun under Francis 1, is completed.
1622 Paris becomes an archbishopric.
1629 By order of Richelieu, the Palais Royal is being built.
1631 The first French newspaper is founded.
1635 Richelieu founds the French Academy.
1648, 1650 Fronde, the royal court is forced to leave Paris.
1665 The first French scientific journal is published.
1666 The French Academy of Sciences is founded.
1669 Beginning of the construction of Versailles.
1670 Grand boulevards are being laid, the city is growing at the expense of the suburbs.
1671 The King moves to Versailles.
1686 Opened the first Parisian cafe "Prokop"
1702 The royal ordinance fixes the division of the city into 20 quarters.
1757 Start of construction of the church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon)
1774-1792 Construction of a closed sewer.
July 14, 1789 Storming and destruction of the Bastille.
1804 Napoleon's coronation at Notre Dame, for which the area in front of the cathedral is cleared by demolition. The first iron bridge is being built - the Bridge of Arts. The numbering of houses is introduced with division into an even and an odd side.
1808 Construction of canals and fountains. The Arc de Triomphe Carousel was opened.
1811 Creation of a fire battalion.
1814 Entry of Russian and Prussian troops led by the Russian tsar and the Prussian king to Paris.
1833-1848 Rambuteau becomes Prefect of the Seine. He reshaped the city to improve its air supply, improve water supply, increase green space, and keep the streets clean.
1836 Opening of the Arc de Triomphe. The reconstruction of the Place de la Concorde has been completed.
1840 Transfer of the ashes of Napoleon 1 to Paris.
1853 Baron Haussmann appointed prefect of the department of the Seine.
1853-1868 Rebuilding of Paris by Haussmann.
1855
1864 The restoration of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris has been completed.
1865 Reconstruction of the Ile de la Cité.
1867 World Exhibition in Paris.
1871 Capitulation of Paris after the Prussian siege. Fire in the city during the Paris Commune. Defeat of the Paris Commune.
1875 Opening of the Paris Opera.
1887-1889 Construction of the Eiffel Tower.
1889 World Exhibition in Paris.
1890s-1914 Belle Epoque (beautiful era) style
1892 The appearance of the first electric tram.
1895 The first public screening of the Lumière brothers.
1896 Start of work on laying the subway.
1914 Battle of Paris during World War I. Mobilization of taxis to deliver troops and ammunition to the front. Louvre masterpieces are transported to Toulouse.
1920s Parisian bohemia settles in the Montparnasse area. Art Deco style
1935 Beginning of television broadcasting.
1940-1944 German occupation.
Biography of Claude Monet
Claude Oscar Monet was born on November 14 1840 in Paris, in the family of a grocer. Oscar's early years were spent in Le Havre. The young Monet began his creative activity by drawing caricatures, which were exhibited in the window of the Havre edging artist, and received his first painting lessons from the landscape painter E. Boudin, wandering along the coast with him and learning the techniques of working in the open air.IN 1859, having received the necessary funds from his father, Monet goes to Paris to study painting. In 1860, Monet visited the Academy of Suisse, where he met Camille Pissarro. In 1861, Claude was drafted into the army, and he went to Algeria, but in 1862, due to illness, he returned to France. His father again lets him go to Paris, where the artist enters the studio of Ch. Gleyre, who was popular at that time, where he works until 1864. But the formation of his creative method does not take place at all in the studio, but in the process joint work in the open air with close to him in spirit O. Renoir, F. Basil and A. Sisley.
In 1865 and 1866 Monet exhibits at the Salon, and his paintings are a modest success. Of the artist's early works, the most significant are "Breakfast on the Grass", "Terrace at Sainte-Adresse", "Women in the Garden". This time was very difficult for Monet, who was extremely short of money, constantly pursued by creditors and even tried to commit suicide. The artist has to move all the time from place to place, now to Le Havre, then to Sevres, then to Sainte-Adresse, then to Paris, where he paints urban landscapes.
In 1868, Monet, who exhibited five paintings at the International Exhibition of Marine Painters in Le Havre, received a silver medal, but creditors took the paintings on account of debt. In 1869, Monet lives in the village of Saint-Michel, a few kilometers from Paris. O. Renoir often comes here, and the artists work together. A picturesque restaurant with a bath located nearby served as the motive for Monet's series of landscapes ( "Paddling pool"). Meanwhile, the jury of the Salon continues to stubbornly reject the work of Monet: in the period 1867-70. only one painting by the artist was accepted.
IN 1870 Monet married Camille Donsier; the dowry received for the bride for some time saved him from financial problems. The young couple spent their honeymoon in Trouville, where Monet painted several landscapes. The tragic events of 1870-71 forced the artist to emigrate to London. In London, he meets Daubigny and Pissarro, with whom he works on views of the Thames and the fogs of Hyde Park. Daubigny introduces Monet to the French art dealer Durand-Ruel, who had a gallery on Bond Street. In the future, Durand-Ruel provided the Impressionists with invaluable assistance in organizing exhibitions and selling paintings. In 1871, Monet learns of his father's death and leaves for France a few months later. On the way, he visits Holland, where, amazed by the magnificence of the landscapes, he stops for a while and paints several paintings. Upon returning to Paris, Monet settled in Argenteuil. The artist finds himself a home with a garden where he can engage in floriculture, this activity has turned into a real passion for him over time. In 1872-75. Monet creates some of his best paintings ( "Lady with an umbrella" ("Madame Monet with her son"), "Capuchin Boulevard", "Impression. Rising Sun"). Monet draws the Seine with passion. Having equipped a studio boat, he sails along the Seine, capturing river landscapes in sketches ( "Regatta at Argenteuil").
IN 1874 The "Anonymous Society of Painters, Artists and Engravers", organized by Monet and his Impressionist friends, is holding an exhibition at which, in particular, a painting by Monet was presented "Impression. Rising Sun". Actually, according to the name of this picture, the artists-organizers received the name "Impressionists" (from the French impression - impression). The exhibition was criticized in the press, and the public reacted negatively to it. The second exhibition of the group, organized in Durand-Ruel's workshop in 1876, also did not meet with the understanding of criticism. After the failure of the exhibition, it became extremely difficult to sell paintings, prices fell, and a period of material difficulties began again for Monet. Monet had several wealthy patrons who saved him from creditors, bought and commissioned paintings from him. The most significant of these was the financier Ernest Hoschede, whom Monet met in 1876. Shortly after they met, Hoschede commissioned Monet for a series of decorative paintings for his mansion in Montgeron. In the late autumn of 1876, Monet arrives in Paris with the desire to portray the views of the winter city through a veil of fog; he decides to make the Gare Saint-Lazare his object. With the permission of the director of railways, he is located at the station and works all day long, resulting in a dozen canvases depicting the largest railway junction in France ( "Gare Saint-Lazare. Arrival of the train"). Seven of them were exhibited at the third Impressionist exhibition in the same year. Already in these years, the artist showed interest in depicting the same motif under different angle vision. In 1877, the third exhibition of the Impressionists took place, in 1879 - the fourth. The public is still hostile to this direction, and the financial situation of Monet, again besieged by creditors, seems hopeless. As a result, he transports his family from Argenteuil to Vetheuil, where he lives with the Hoschede couple and writes several magnificent landscapes with views of the surroundings ( "Artist's Garden in Vetheuil"). In 1879 Camilla dies after a long illness. Monet is left alone with two children. IN 1880 in the hall of the magazine "Vi Modern", owned by the publisher and collector Georges Charpentier, an exhibition of eighteen paintings by Monet opens. It brings the artist long-awaited success. The sale of paintings from this exhibition allows Monet to improve his financial situation. In the 1880s Monet often travels to Normandy, where nature, the sea and the special atmosphere of this land attract him. There he works, living now in Dieppe, then in Pourville, then in Etretat, then in Belle-Isle and creates a number of magnificent landscapes ( "Mannpore Gate to Etretat"). In 1883, together with the Hoschede Monet family, he moved to Giverny (a place 80 km north of Paris). The following year, the artist travels to Italy, to Bordighera ( "Bordighera. Italy"). In 1888, Monet works in Antibes.
IN 1889 Monet finally achieves real and lasting success: in the gallery of the art dealer Georges Petit, simultaneously with an exhibition of works by the sculptor O. Rodin, a retrospective exhibition of Monet is organized, which exhibits one hundred and forty-five of his works, from 1864 to 1889.
Monet becomes a famous and respected painter. Monet lived in Giverny for 43 years, until his death. The artist rented a house from a certain Norman landowner, bought a neighboring plot of land with a pond and laid out two gardens: one in the traditional French style, the other - exotic, the so-called "Garden on the Water". The garden became Monet's favorite brainchild; the motifs of the "Garden at Giverny" occupy a large place in the artist's work ( "Garden of irises in Giverny", "Path in the garden of Giverny", "Pond with water lilies", "Japanese bridge"). In 1892, Monet married Alice Hoshede, with whom he had been in love for many years. In 1888, Monet begins the Haystack cycle ( "Haystack. Sunset") - the first large series of paintings where the artist tries to capture the nuances of lighting, which changes depending on the time of day and weather. He works simultaneously on several canvases, transitioning from one to another as the lighting effects change. This series was a great success. Monet returns to the experience of "Racks" in a new series - "Poplars" ("Poplars on Epte"). This series, exhibited at the Durand-Ruel Gallery in 1892, was also a great success, but the large series was even more enthusiastically received. "Rouen Cathedral" ("Rouen Cathedral. Symphony in gray and red"), on which Monet worked in 1892 and 1893. Consistently displaying the change in lighting from dawn to evening twilight, the artist painted fifty views of the majestic Gothic facade. In 1902 in Giverny, Monet begins a cycle "Waters" ("Waters. Clouds") on which he will work until his death. The beginning of the new century finds Monet in London; the artist again paints the building of the London Parliament ( "Parliament Building. Sunset") and a number of paintings united by one motif - fog. From 1899 to 1901 Monet traveled to Great Britain three times and in 1904 exhibited thirty-seven views of London in the Durand-Ruel Gallery ( "Waterloo Bridge. Sunset"). In the summer he returns to the Water Lilies and in February of the following year participates in a large exhibition of the Impressionists organized by Durand-Ruel in London, exhibiting 55 of his works. In 1908, Monet sets off on his penultimate journey: he travels with his wife to Venice. The artist spent two months in Venice. Upon returning to France, he continues to work on Venetian landscapes, which he will exhibit only in 1912. At the end of his life, Monet suffered heavy losses: in 1911, his wife Alice died, three years later, his eldest son Jean.
Beginning in 1908, Monet experienced serious vision problems. However, he continued to write last days. 5th of December 1926 Monet is dead.
to the Giverny page
Chenonceau
Story
The possessions of Chenonceau on the banks of the river Cher belonged from 1243 to the Mark family. In 1512, the family was forced to sell the estate due to debts. It was bought by a tax collector from Normandy boye. The old estate looked more like a castle and was not suitable for social life, so only a tower remained of it, and a square Renaissance palace was built on the water. After the death of the Boyes spouses, King Francis 1, who once visited the palace, decided to take it into his own hands. He accused Boye, who by the end of his life became the financial manager of the French king in Italy, of large financial expenses and took the estate from the heir as compensation.The king with the Dauphin Henry 2 and his retinue, which included the favorites of the king and his heir - the Duchess of Etamp and Diane de Poitiers, came to the palace to hunt. After the death of Francis, Henry donated the estate Diane de Poitiers. Under Diana, the estate was constantly developing - a garden was laid out, a bridge was built that connected the palace with the opposite bank.
Immediately after the death of Heinrich at the tournament, Catherine de Medici took away the jewels of the crown and Chenonceau from Diana. Catherine celebrated her victory over her rival with a big tournament in honor of her son Francis II in Chenonceau. Catherine set up her own in front of Diana's garden, built on a bridge, turning it into a covered one. Here, despite the ongoing civil war, she held holidays.
After the death of Catherine Chenonceau withdrew Queen Louise, the wife of Henry 3, who was killed by the fanatic Jean Clement. The grieving queen retired to the palace, changing the interiors to black, and devoted the rest of her life to mourning her husband, praying and helping the local poor. Queen Louise wore white clothes as a sign of mourning, for which she was called the White Lady.
In the 18th century the palace passed to the farmer Claude Dupin, whose wife loved to surround herself with the outstanding minds of that time - Montesquieu, Condillac, Voltaire often visited the estate. Rousseau was Madame's secretary and gave lessons to her daughter.
The revolution, fortunately, did not affect the palace. From the beginning of the 20th century The estate belongs to the Meunier family.
Description
A long alley from the entrance leads to Markov Tower- the only thing that has survived from a small fortress built by the first owners. It was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. It now houses a small gift shop.After crossing the bridge, visitors enter the main part palace. It is not difficult to get around the cramped rooms of the palace in half an hour. On the ground floor there are (in a circle, clockwise): a guard room (with an oak door and tapestries of the 16th century), a chapel, a room of Diane Poitiers (with tapestries of the 16th century, Madonna and Child by Murillo), a green study in which Catherine de Medici worked (tapestry, Italian cabinets of the 16th century, paintings by Tintoretto, Jordan, Veronese, Poussin, Van Dyck, etc.), Catherine's library. The gallery (essentially a covered bridge) leads to the other side of the river. Going down the stairs, we find ourselves in the kitchen. Climbing back and continuing to bypass the rooms in a circle, we pass through the room of Francis 1 and the room of Louis 14.
Then you need to climb the stairs to the second floor. Here you can see the room of the five queens, in which two daughters and three daughters-in-law of Catherine de Medici lived at different times (there is also a 16th-century tapestry and works by Rubens and Mignard in the room), Catherine's bedroom.
On the third floor is a black bedroom where the widowed Queen Louise spent her time.
To the left of the palace, if you stand with your back to it, garden, broken by Catherine de Medici, on the right - Diana Poitier. In addition, it is interesting to see a 16th-century farm, a vegetable garden, wine cellars, and if you have time, a labyrinth.
journey /
Amboise (Amboise)
Story
The site was originally a Gallo-Roman camp. In the 9th century Amboise was granted to the Counts of Anjou, and they erected a fortress on this site. After one of the owners of the castle unsuccessfully participated in a conspiracy against the king's adviser Charles 7, the castle became the property of the king. The first of the kings to really live here was the son of Charles 7 - Louis 11. His main occupation was hunting, so he did not pay much attention to the castle itself, unlike his son Charles 8.Carl 8(late 15th century) liked to surround himself with courtiers, guards, artists and poets. There was not enough space in the castle for the entire retinue and the staff serving it, so it was decided to expand the castle. From Italy, where he went to claim the throne of Naples, the king brings many works of Italian art, as well as architects, craftsmen and gardeners. Italian craftsmen brought the features of the Italian Renaissance to the appearance of the castle, although the castle itself remained essentially Gothic. Work on the decoration and improvement of the castle continued until the ridiculous death of the king from a blow on the jamb in 1498.
For the legacy Louis 12 divorced Jeanne of France and married the widow of Charles 8 Anna. Amboise, the creation of Charles 8, did not suit Louis - he preferred to move to. However, he continued to work in the palace - on his orders a large gallery and 2 towers were built. From the beginning of the 16th century Louise of Savoy and her children, Margaret (the future Margaret of Navarre) and the heir to the throne, Francis of Angouleme, settled in the palace.
King Francis 1 he loved entertainment, luxury and art, and besides, he liked to start grandiose projects. Under him, work was completed in Amboise and Blois and the construction of Chambord began. Under Francis, as under Charles 8, Amboise became the center of secular and political life. Since 1516, not far from the palace, in the Clos Luce estate, at the invitation of Francis, Leonardo da Vinci settled. Francis admired da Vinci, often visited him, for which an underground passage was dug from the palace to the da Vinci estate. As a legacy to the king, the artist left Gioconda and two paintings depicting St. Anna and John the Baptist. After the death of Francis, the children of his successor, Henry II and Catherine de Medici, were brought up here.
During civil war, which began after the death of Henry 2, Amboise became the place of reprisal against the conspiracy. After that, the castles of the Loire were abandoned by the court. Kings come to Amboise to hunt, in addition, noble prisoners are kept here.
During the Revolution and after it, Amboise was badly ruined, but then again returned to the possession of the French kings.
travel / sightseeing in brief
Blois
Story
In medieval Latin monuments, Blois bears the Latin name Blesum (also Blesis and Blesa), since the 15th century. it changed in Blaisois. When the ancient county family, to which the English king Stephen (1135-1154) also belonged, died out in the male tribe, the county of Blois passed by marriage to the house of Chatillon, the last descendant of which sold his possessions to the son of Charles 5, Duke Louis of Orleans (1391). Louis d'Orléans and his wife, Valentina Visconti from Milan, laid the foundation for a collection of books and documents, from which the famous palace library was later formed, enriched with treasures looted in Milan and Naples. Under the grandson of Louis d'Orléans, King Louis XII, Blois was added to the crown in 1498.Louis 12 was the first crowned owner of the palace and set about building a new flamboyant Gothic wing through which visitors enter the courtyard, adorned with the figure of Louis II. Louis often decided the most important affairs of state in the castle. On January 15, 1499, an alliance between France and Venice was concluded here, and on March 14, 1513, an offensive and defensive alliance against the Pope and the Emperor.
After the death of Louis II Francis 1 often came to the castle and also began to expand it to accommodate a large retinue. Under him, a wing was built to the right of the entrance in the Renaissance style. The corner room connecting these two wings is the oldest part of the palace, a medieval castle in the Gothic style (10th century), a Gothic hall of the 13th century has been preserved in it. Under Francis, famous poets, artists and architects, including Benvenuto Cellini, lived in the palace.
During the religious wars Catherine de Medici, the widow of Henry 2, continues to lead the same way of life - she arranges numerous holidays in castles on the Loire. There are intrigues and conspiracies here. After Bartholomew's Night, the castles of the Loire were abandoned for three years. Henry 3 was forced to retire to Blois, leaving Paris to Duke Henri de Guise. There was a conspiracy to eliminate Henry 3, but he was warned. The Duke of Guise was invited to Blois, where he was killed. A few days later, Catherine died in the palace, and six months later, Jacques Clement killed Heinrich 3.
The third wing, which closes the courtyard, was built in the classical style by Gaston of Orléans, who was in exile here.
From the 17th century the palace was abandoned, plundered during the Revolution. In December 1870, Blois was occupied by the Prussians and remained in their hands until the conclusion of a preliminary peace treaty. In the 20th century the palace was restored.
Description
Hall of the Estates General(13th century). The hall was used for adjudication by the Counts of Blois. Under Henry 3, the Estates General met here twice (1576 and 1588). The hall has retained its original structure. The painting was made based on the medieval in the 19th century. From the 13th century castle the tower du Foix has also been preserved, on a terrace overlooking the city.Louis Wing 2(late 15th - early 16th century). The first floor of the royal apartments was in the 19th century. turned into the art museum of Blois. The collection presents works from the 16th to 19th centuries, including French and Flemish tapestries.
Chapel of St. Gale also built by Louis XII.
Francis Wing 1(1515-1524). The wing of Francis 1 was built on the basis of a 13th-century fortress, and its two-meter-thick walls are partially preserved inside.
First floor: the apartments of Francis 1 and then Catherine de Medici, the royal hall - the hall used for ceremonies, the guards' hall - weapons from the 15th-17th centuries are presented here, the royal bedroom - the bedroom of Catherine de Medici, in which she died in 1589, the office - this the room retains the decoration of the 1520s (the interior is made in the form of carved wooden panels).
Second floor - connected with the assassination of the Duke of Guise. The paintings in the Guise Hall (19th century) tell the story of the wars of religion and the assassination of the Duke of Guise. According to legend, the murder took place in the next room, the so-called king's bedroom.
travel / sightseeing in brief
Brittany
Some Breton words and roots
| Bihan, vihan Biniou Beg Braz, bras, vraz, vras Castell, castell Chistr Coat, hoat, c'hoatr, koad Coz, cos, kozh Creis, creis, creiz Douar Dour Du Enez, Enes Gwenn, Guen, ven Gwern Hir Huel, huella, Uhel Iliz Izel, izella Kenavo Ker, kkr, guer, quer Krampouezh Lan Lann Lost manner Maez, mes, mez Men Menez, mene Meur, veur Milin, vilin, meilh, meil, veil Mor, vor Nevez, neve Pell Penn, pen plou (plo, plu, ple) Porzh, porz, pors Run, rhun, reun Stang, stanc Ster Toull, toul Ti, ty tre |
- small - bagpipe - point, peak - big - lock - cider - forest - old - a lot of - Earth - water - night - island - white - swamp - long - tall, elevated - church - short - Goodbye - village, house, dwelling - Crap - church, monastery - plain - end, tail - house, estate - large field, plain - stone - hill, mountain - big, important - mill - sea - new - far - end, edge, beginning, head - settlement - refuge, shelter, bay, port - hill, hill - gulf, reservoir - shore - hole, aperture - house - habitat |
Story
In the prehistoric period, the peninsula looked different - the sea level was almost 100 meters lower than now, so many prehistoric monuments were on the very shore or under water. The water level began to rise in the 10th millennium BC. Near 5000 BC people began to cultivate the land and lead a sedentary lifestyle. This period includes the most ancient megaliths. Megalithic burials were built, the oldest of which is the Barnenez pyramid (4600 BC, accessible by bus from Morlaix), and rows of menirs, presumably for astronomical and religious purposes.Around 500 BC the peninsula was conquered Celts. The peninsula was named Armorica - a country near the sea.
IN 57 BC came Romans. For 400 years, Armorica was part of a Roman province. A network of roads was built and several cities founded, among them Rennes, Nantes and Van. In 250-300 AD The Roman Empire began to lose power, the cities were ruined by Frankish and Saxon pirates.
IN 5th-6th century many representatives of another Celtic people, Britons, from Wales and Cornwall crossed the English Channel and settled in Armorica, which they called Brittany. This migration continued for 200 years. Among the settlers were monks who spread Christianity throughout the peninsula, some were canonized as saints. Monastic cloisters and monasteries were built. Religious customs arose that have survived to this day - penitential processions and pilgrimages. Many settlements received characteristic Breton names.
Seven saints are considered the most important: Samson, Malo, Brie, Paul Aurelien, Patern, Corentin and Tugdual, in their honor since the 12th century. becomes popular pilgrimage route through the seven cities where the saints are buried - Tro Breiz. Previously, the pilgrimage lasted a month (600 km). Now every year there are week-long pilgrimages in one of the seven stages.
Kingdom of Brittany. From the 6th to the 10th c. the Bretons resisted the attempts of the Frankish kings to subjugate the peninsula. The Carolingians were able to create an intermediate zone - the Marchais, stretching from Mont Saint-Michel to the mouth of the Loire. In 819, Nominoe, who came from a noble Breton family, was appointed by King Louis the Pious Count of Vannes, and then his emissary in Brittany. Until the death of Ludovic, Nominoe was loyal to him. In 843, he entered into an alliance with Emperor Lothair (brother of Charles the Bald) and Pepin 2 of Aquitaine, and together with them took Nantes. In 845, Nominoe defeated Charles the Bald in the battle of Ballone and signed an agreement with Charles in which he formally recognized himself as a vassal in exchange for the title of duke. Under Nominoe, wars began with the Normans. Nominoe's son Erispoe once again defeated Charles the Bald in 851 and received the title of king. Erispoe was killed in 857 by his cousin Salomon, under whom the kingdom reached its peak. At the end of his life, Salomon enjoyed unlimited power, which caused a conspiracy of the feudal lords, as a result of which, in 874, the king was killed. After his death, a civil war broke out.
The raids of the Normans from Scandinavia to Brittany began at the end of the 8th century. and became more and more frequent, especially during the period of civil strife after the death of Salomon. Some calm reigned under King Alain 1 the Great until his death in 907, but after his death Brittany was again divided into parts, and by 919 it was almost completely captured by the Normans. The Normans were defeated by Alain 1's grandson, Alain 2 Crooked Beard in 939 with the help of English troops. Alain 2 received the title of Duke of Brittany, he made Nantes the capital of the duchy.
Duchy of Brittany. From the middle of the 10th to the middle of the 14th century. Brittany was a duchy with weak power, often changing rulers. In the 12th century it came under the rule of the English king and Count of Anjou Henry 2 Plantagenet, then under the direct control of the French crown. As a result, in the 13th century. the duke of Brittany, who took the oath to the French king, was at the same time, like the count of Richmond, a vassal of the English king, and inside Brittany itself his power was limited to the feudal nobility - the barons of Vitre and Fougères, the viscounts of Leon and others.
From 1341 to 1364 there was a war for the Breton inheritance between two families - Pentivre and Montfort. The war became part of the Hundred Years' War: the first family supported the kings of France, the second - the kings of England. The war ended in favor of the Counts of Montfort. Almost a hundred years after that, Brittany was independent from France. The wealth of the people grew thanks to maritime trade and textile production in Vitra, Locronan and León. A university was founded in Nantes in 1460.
Independence ended in 1488 when Duke Francis II was defeated French king Louis 11 and soon died. His daughter and heiress, Anne of Brittany was 11 years old at the time. At the age of 13, she was forced to marry King Charles 8 of France. Brittany became part of the French kingdom, but retained some independence, and Anna ruled it on her own as a duchess. Anne's marriage to Charles 8 remained childless, and in order to retain Brittany, Charles' heir, Louis 12, married Anne of Brittany. Their daughter Claude married the future King Francis 1 of Angoulême. Anna of Brittany died in 1514 at the age of 37. Of her 9 children, two survived. Throughout her life she patronized artists and writers and was very popular with the Bretons. In 1505 she made a great pilgrimage through Brittany in the hope that she would have a male heir.
In 1532, Francis I, using military force, obtained from the Breton Parliament the issuance of an act on the inseparability of the union between the French crown and the Duchy of Brittany. Brittany, thus, was actually turned into a French province, but retained internal self-government. In Brittany, the estate-representative body continued to operate - the States of Brittany, which was also in charge of taxation issues.
To the Brittany page.
Strasbourg
The first historical evidence of human settlement in the vicinity of Strasbourg dates back to 6000 BC. Around 1300 BC. e. the ancestors of the Celts settled in this place. By the end of the 3rd c. BC e. a Celtic settlement called Argentorat is formed, in which there was a market and a place for religious rites. The first mention of Strasbourg dates back to 12 BC, when, under the name Argentorate, it became one of the border cities of the Roman Empire.Since 406, the Allemans finally settled Alsace. In 451 Argentorat was destroyed by Attila's Huns. In 496, after the first victory of the Germanic Franks over the Alemanni, Argentorate for the first time fell into the sphere of influence of the kingdom of the Germanic Franks. Argentorat is renamed Strateburgum (city of roads).
In 842, the grandsons of Charlemagne, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, exchanged the famous Strasbourg Letters - the first written evidence of the existence of the Romance and Old High German languages, thus dividing the Carolingian kingdom among themselves. In 870, Louis the German receives Alsace, which is now part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation as the western part of the Duchy of Swabia (Allemannia).
In 974, the city authorities, headed by the bishop who rules the city, receive the right to mint their own coin.
In 1482, the last changes were made to the Strasbourg Constitution, which remained unchanged until the French Revolution.
In 1621, the Protestant gymnasium, founded in 1538, received the status of a university.
In 1681, the army of King Louis XIV of France besieges Strasbourg and thus forces the city to recognize the power of the king. Under the terms of the agreement, the townspeople took an oath of allegiance to Louis, but retained a number of their rights and privileges. Since that time, the city goes to France.
In 1870, after the siege, Strasbourg capitulated to Prussia. In 1871 the city became the capital of the imperial state of Alsace-Lorraine. After the abdication of Wilhelm II in 1918, French troops came to the city.
In 1940, German troops occupied Strasbourg, annexed Alsace. Strasbourg was liberated in 1944.
In 1949 the city was chosen as the seat of the Council of Europe. In 1979, the first session of the European Parliament, as well as elections to the European Parliament, take place in Strasbourg. In 1992, a decision was made to locate the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, as a result of which the construction of a new building with a meeting room began, completed in 1998.
Completion of the main process of feudalization by the middle of the XI century. led to the political collapse of the empire Charlemagne (Charlemagne) that began after his death (814). Large feudal lords became almost independent of the central government; small and medium feudal lords, becoming their vassals, were much more connected with the magnates than with the head of state - the king. The peasantry was basically already enserfed.
Son and successor of Charlemagne Louis the Pious(814-840), so named for his particularly zealous commitment to the church and generous gifts in its favor, in 817 divided the empire between his sons, retaining only supreme power.
In 843, after the death of Louis, his sons, having gathered in, concluded an agreement on a new division of the empire. Due to the fact that the new section corresponded to the boundaries of the settlement of the French, German and Italian nationalities, Treaty of Verdun actually laid the foundation for the existence of three modern states of Western and Central Europe - France, Germany, Italy.
Under the Treaty of Verdun, the youngest son of Louis the Pious, Charles, nicknamed the Bald, received lands west of the rivers Scheldt, Meuse and Rhone - the West Frankish kingdom, which included the main territories of the future France.
France in the 9th-11th centuries
After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, the eastern border of France ran mainly along the rivers Meuse, Moselle and Rhone.
In the 10th century, internecine wars between the German and French Carolingians were fought almost continuously. Many disasters were brought by the constant raids of the Normans. In a fierce struggle with them, the rich and influential Counts of Paris(Robertines). They successfully defended their cities from the enemy - and, becoming the main rivals of the last Carolingians in the struggle for the crown. In 987, the largest secular and spiritual feudal lords elected Robertin king, and from then until the end of the 18th century (the French crown remained with the descendants of the Capetians.
In the 10th century, feudal relations were established in the French kingdom and the long process of merging heterogeneous 
ethnic elements. On the basis of the Gallo-Roman nationality mixed with the Germans, two new ones developed, which became the core of the future French nation: the North French and the Provençal. The border between them passed somewhat south of the course of the Loire River.
In the 10th century, the country acquired its present name. It began to be called not Gaul or the West-Frankish kingdom, but France (after the name of the region around Paris - Ile-de-France).
On the territory occupied by the northern French people, several large feudal estates were formed: Duchy of Normandy, County of Blois, Touraine,Anjou, Poitou. The Capetian lands (royal domain) were concentrated around Paris and Orleans.
On the territory of the Provencal people, the counties of Poitou, Auvergne, Toulouse and the duchies of Aquitaine, Gascony, Burgundy and others were formed.
The first kings from the Capetian house were not much different from large feudal lords. They did not have a permanent residence, they moved with their retinue from one estate to another. In the 11th century, the Capetians slowly accumulated land holdings, deriving income mainly from their own estates, that is, from the direct exploitation of dependent and serfs who were in personal, land and judicial dependence on them.
The peasants resisted feudal exploitation in every possible way. In 997, the uprising swept. The peasants demanded the restoration of their former rights to the free and gratuitous use of communal lands. In 1024, a peasant uprising broke out in. As the chronicle says, the peasants revolted "without leaders and weapons", but managed to put up heroic resistance to the knightly detachments. Defending their rights, the peasants usually acted as whole communities.
France in the XI-XIII centuries
In the 11th-13th centuries, agriculture in France received significant development: the three-field system was widely spread, the plow was improved, wheat took the first place among grain crops. Thanks to the new harness system, it was possible to use horses instead of oxen. In the XII century, a massive clearing of fallow lands and forests for arable land began. The practice of fertilizing the fields spread more widely. In the gardens began to grow new varieties of vegetables. At the end of the 12th century, windmills appeared in France.
Labor productivity grew mainly in the peasant economy. On his allotment, the peasant worked much harder and better than on corvée. It became more profitable for the lords to collect feudal rent not in the form of forced corvee labor, but from the harvest taken by the peasants from their plots. Other circumstances also contributed to the victory of food rent over labor rent, in particular, the clearing of forests. The main role in these works belonged to the fugitive peasants who settled in the new lands, personally free, but dependent on the feudal lords in land and judicial matters. Some of the peasants remained in the serfdom in the 11th-12th centuries.
With the final establishment of feudalism, the fragmentation of France reached its end, and the feudal hierarchy was distinguished by the greatest complexity. The king was a lord only for his immediate vassals: dukes, counts, as well as barons and knights of his domain. The rule of feudal law was in effect: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal."
The feudal fragmentation of France was further exacerbated by significant differences in the socio-economic and political development northern and southern parts of the country, as well as the presence on its territory of two nationalities - northern French and southern French (Provencal). As in the earlier period, these peoples spoke local dialects of various languages: in the south of France - Provençal, in the north - northern French. According to the different pronunciation of the word "yes" in these languages ("os" - in Provencal, "oil" - in northern French), later, in the XIII-XIV centuries, the northern regions of France were called " Languedeul", and the southern ones -" Languedoc».
In the 10th century, on the basis of the separation of craft from agriculture, feudal cities began their life - economic centers of craft and trade. Old cities flourished and numerous new cities arose. In the 13th century, the whole country was already covered with many cities. The southern cities became virtually independent republics. Nobles also lived and traded in them. Independent wealthy southern cities had little to do with each other. Therefore, even at the time of their highest prosperity in the XII century, a single economic and political center was not created in the south. The power of large feudal lords was weakened by the independence of large cities.
A more difficult fate fell to the cities of the North, as their economic activity met many obstacles in its path. The cities were in the power of seniors, mostly bishops, who mercilessly robbed the townspeople under various pretexts, often resorting to violence. The townspeople had no rights, their property was constantly under the threat of appropriation by the feudal lords. Therefore, the fight against seniors has become a matter of paramount importance for the cities of the North. Usually the townspeople organized a secret conspiracy and, with weapons in their hands, attacked the lord and his knights. If the uprising was successful, the feudal lords were forced to grant the city a greater or lesser degree of self-government.
The growth of cities has accelerated the socio-economic differentiation of the urban population. Merchants and craftsmen of some guilds (butchers, cloth makers, jewelers, etc.) got rich and grew very strong. in the communes they completely seized power, neglecting the interests of the mass of artisans and small merchants. In the cities began a fierce internal struggle. Taking advantage of this, the kings intervened in the internal affairs of the communes and from the beginning of the 14th century began to gradually deprive them of their former rights and privileges.
The city economically subjugated a rather extensive rural district. Fugitive serfs flocked to it, gaining freedom there. Strong walls and armed guards now protected the cities from the encroachments of the feudal lords.
In the XII century, the process of state centralization began in France. At first, it is deployed in Northern France, where there were economic and social prerequisites for it. The policy of royal power, aimed at subordinating feudal lords to it, was dictated primarily by the interests of the feudal class as a whole. Its main goal was to strengthen the central government to suppress the resistance of the peasants. This was especially needed by small and medium feudal lords, who did not have sufficient means of non-economic coercion. They were also interested in strengthening royal power because they saw in it protection from the violence and oppression of more powerful large feudal lords.
Opponents of this policy were large feudal lords, who valued their political independence most of all; they were supported by part of the higher clergy. The strengthening of royal power was favored by the continuous hostility of large feudal lords among themselves. Each of them sought to strengthen at the expense of the others. The kings took advantage of this and fomented the fight.
The turning point in the process of growth of royal power corresponds to the beginning of the XII century, when the resistance of the feudal lords in the royal domain was put to an end. The importance of royal power increased greatly at the beginning of the 13th century after Anjou, Maine, Touraine entered the domain. Royal possessions by this time had increased by about four times.
In the 13th century, the strengthening of royal power was consolidated by a series of important reforms. For example, on the territory of the royal domain, judicial duels (that is, the resolution of litigations by means of a duel between the parties), which were widely used in senior courts, were prohibited; litigants were given the opportunity to take the case to the royal court. The decision of any feudal court could be appealed to the royal court, which thus became the supreme authority for court cases the whole kingdom. A number of the most important criminal cases were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the feudal courts and were considered exclusively by the royal court.
Went further development central control. From the Royal Council stood out a special judicial chamber, called "Parliament". To connect the central authorities with the local authorities, royal auditors were appointed, who controlled the activities of the local administration and reported to the king about all abuses.
Wars between feudal lords were forbidden in the royal domain, and in the possessions that were not yet attached to the domain, the custom of “40 days of the king” was legalized, that is, the period during which the caller could appeal to the king. This weakened the feudal strife. A unified monetary system was introduced in the royal domain, and the royal coin was to be accepted throughout the country along with the local one. This contributed to the economic cohesion of France. Gradually, the royal coin began to displace the local one from circulation.
Thus, the formation of a feudal state in France in the 11th-13th centuries went through a number of stages. Feudal fragmentation was first overcome in the northern part of the country on the basis of the development of cities and the strengthening of economic ties between regions. Paris, which turned into a major trade, craft and political center, became the capital of France. Part of the southern regions was annexed to the possessions of the Capetians later, when the northern part of the country was already quite firmly united around Paris and the royal power.
The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to the seas, rich reserves natural resources contributed to France throughout its history being the "locomotive" of the European continent. And such a country remains now. Occupying a leading position in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic in the 21st century remains a state whose history is being created every day.
Location
The country of the Franks, if the name of France is translated from Latin, is located in Western Europe. The neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The shores of France are washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountains, plains, beaches, forests. Numerous monuments of nature, historical, architectural, cultural sights, ruins of castles, caves, fortresses are hidden among the picturesque nature.
Celtic period
In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Celtic tribes came to the lands of the modern French Republic, whom the Romans called the Gauls. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The territory of the Gauls or Celts was called by the Romans Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.
In the 7th-6th centuries. BC, the Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships and founded colonies on the Mediterranean coast. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.
Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.
During the Roman domination, other important events took place in the history of the peoples of the future France:
- In the 3rd century AD, Christianity penetrated into Gaul and began to spread.
- The invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
- The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, laid the first dynasty.
The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of constant migration flows that passed from north to south, from west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to expel the Romans, but to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.
The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom
Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly seen in the castles built in the Loire Valley. Castles, which were built in this part of the country in order to protect the kingdom, began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco and decor, the interior was changed, which was distinguished by luxury.
Also under Francis the First, typography arose and began to develop, which had a huge impact on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.
Francis I was replaced on the throne by his son Henry II, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles that is written about in all the history books of 16th-century France took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French near Verdun, Tul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.
Heinrich was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The queen ruled the country when her three sons were on the throne:
- Francis II,
- Charles the Ninth
- Henry III.
Francis ruled for only a year, and then died of an illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. His mother was in complete control. Charles was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted the Protestants, called the Huguenots.
On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all the Huguenots in France. This event was named because the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry the Third became king. His opponent in the struggle for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.
France in the 17th–19th centuries
These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include the following:
- In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which was issued by Henry the Fourth, finished in France. The Huguenots became full members of French society.
- France took an active part in the first international conflict - the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648.
- The kingdom experienced its golden age in the 17th century. under the reign of Louis XIII and, as well as gray cardinals - Richelieu and Mazarin.
- The nobles constantly fought with the royal power for the expansion of their rights.
- France 17th century constantly faced with dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from the inside.
- Louis XIV dragged the state into the War of the Spanish Succession, which caused the invasion of foreign states into French territory.
- Kings Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth paid great attention to the creation of a strong army, which made it possible to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
- At the end of the 18th century in France began, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy, the establishment of a dictatorship.
- In the early 19th century, Napoleon proclaimed France an empire.
- In the 1830s An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.
In 1848, in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe, a revolution broke out, which was called the "Spring of Nations". The revolutionary 19th century resulted in the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.
Second half of the 19th century was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.
The empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which brought about the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. the country's leadership pursued an active foreign policy, creating new ones in different regions of the world:
- in North Africa,
- Madagascar
- equatorial africa,
- West Africa.
During the 80–90s. 19th century France constantly competed with Germany. The contradictions between the states deepened and escalated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.
Features of development in the 20th–21st centuries
The First World War, which began in 1914, was a chance for France to regain the lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern outlines.
During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the work Paris conference fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively participated in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, she sent her ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans who helped the government of the Ukrainian people's republic expel the Bolsheviks from their territory.
With the participation of France, peace treaties were signed with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.
In the mid 1920s. diplomatic relations were established with the Soviet Union, a non-aggression pact was signed with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of ultra-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But this did not save France from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, the Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing the pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.
The country was liberated in 1944 by the underground movement, the allied armies of the US and Britain.
The Second World War hit hard on the political, social and economic life of France. The Marshall Plan helped to get out of the crisis, the country's participation in the economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s. deployed in Europe. In the mid 1950s. France gave up its colonial possessions in Africa, granting independence to the former colonies.
Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency, which led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic was proclaimed in France. De Gaulle made the country a leader on the European continent. Progressive laws were adopted that changed the social life of the republic. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, create their own organizations and movements.
In 1965, for the first time, the country elected a head of state by universal suffrage. De Gaulle became president, who remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:
- Georges Pompidou - 1969-1974;
- Valerie d'Estaing 1974-1981;
- François Mitterrand 1981–1995;
- Jacques Chirac - 1995-2007;
- Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007-2012;
- Francois Hollande - 2012-2017;
- Emmanuel Macron - from 2017 to the present.
France after World War II developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. Government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The leadership of France provides support to the former colonies in Africa.
Modern France is an actively developing European country, which is a member of many European, international and regional organizations, has an impact on the formation of the world market. There are internal problems in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the Republic, Macron, contributes to the development of new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in line with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.
