It is customary to start the history of universities from the 12th century and associate it with the Western European tradition. However, many experts point out that the first educational institution, which fully corresponds to the university status, arose earlier. This so-called Magnavrian School, or Constantinople University, which appeared in the middle of the 9th century and operated until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks.

It was founded by the Byzantine regent of the Byzantine throne Vanda and the scientist Leo the Mathematician on the basis of an even earlier school. Main academic disciplines there were philosophy, rhetoric, medicine and jurisprudence. However, the history of this educational institution ends in 1453. At this moment in Western Europe Most of the universities that are still active today already existed.

Initially, Western European universities were not directly related to education and were communities of teachers and students, masters and scholars, bound by mutual oath. According to their structure, they resembled city communes, religious brotherhoods, craft and merchant guilds.

These educational corporations were called studium generale ("general school"), which separated and distinguished them from studium particulare ("local school"). The "Universal School" had the right to award degrees that were recognized by universities around the world. The high status of such schools was guaranteed, first of all, by the authority and support of the head of the Pope, as well as by the patronage of the royal and imperial authorities. Educational corporations were independent of the local secular and spiritual authorities. The right to teach was claimed directly by the Pope.

Over time, the name "studium generale" was replaced by the name "universitas", which in Latin means "collection, community." The medieval university was the "keeper of knowledge", scientific research was not among its tasks. The learning process consisted mainly of lectures and debates, verbal fights were very popular.

Gradually, a special university culture was formed, which had a great influence on further development culture in general. Universities have spread all over the world.

We invite you to plunge into history and learn more about what the oldest universities were like.

University of Bologna

Year of foundation - 1088

The prerequisites for the creation of the University of Bologna appeared as early as 1000, when the traditions of studying Roman law began to revive. He laid the foundations for deep study of lawIrnerius, one of the first teachers and commentators on the code of laws of Justinian, one of the founders of the Western European study of Roman law. In 1088, he opened his public lectures - from that moment on, the history of the University of Bologna is being conducted.

However, at that time the university modern understanding this word did not exist yet. Professors gave lectures at their homes, in rented premises, and more often in city squares. The popularity and fame of the Bologna professors was due to the scientific approach to teaching and the patronage of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1154 he officially recognized the university.

From all over Europe flocked here and formed their own corporations. The meeting of all student corporations under a common statute constituted the University of Bologna by the end of the 12th century.

Interesting Facts

A distinctive feature of the University of Bologna is that it was originally created not as a corporation of professors (universitas magistrorum), to whom the students were supposed to obey, but as a corporation of students (universitas scholarium). Students themselves elected the rector, leaders and lecturers.

Another feature of the University of Bologna is that it was a center for the studyjurisprudence. The study of Roman law, which laid the foundation for the university, and canon law, introduced into the program from the 12th century, remained the main subjects of university teaching.

During the 13th century, famous professors lectured here on philosophy and the liberal arts, in addition to jurisprudence, sciences such as philosophy, Latin and Greek literature, and then medicine began to flourish in Bologna.

However, only in 1565 In the same year, the university acquired its own premises, and all previously disparate schools and corporations were united under one roof. The property of the University of Bologna is its library, founded in 1605 by Professor Aldrovandi. It contains about 250 thousand books and 1350 periodicals.

Famous graduates

Among those who studied at the University of Bologna were the poets Francesco Petrarch and Dante Alighieri, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, Pope Alexander VI, the physician and occultist Paracelsus, as well as the writer Umberto Eco and the Prime Minister of Italy in 1996-1998 and 2006-2008 Romano Prodi.

The current state of affairs

Today, the University of Bologna is one of the top 200 universities in the world and is not only the oldest, but also the second largest university in Italy. About one hundred thousand students study here at 23 faculties, the most famous of which is, of course, the Faculty of Law.

Oxford University

Year of foundation - 1096 or 1167

The exact date of the founding of the university is unknown, there is evidence that teaching there has been going on since1096 of the year. There is a point of view that the university was created in1117 year English clergywho decided to educate their clergy. Another point of reference is1167 the year when Henry IIbanned English students to enter the University of Paris, in connection with which many were forced to return to Foggy Albion and settle in Oxford. In 1188, the historian,Gerald of Wales , held the first public reading before a meeting of dons at Oxford. In 1190, the first international student came here, and the tradition of international scientific relations of the university was laid.

Interesting Facts

Today, to enter Oxford, you need to have an impressive amount of money to pay for tuition and accommodation, and in the Middle Ages, only clergymen studied at the university, who were often very poor.

Oxford is a real student city. It includes38 colleges.The oldest of them - Merton (1260) and Balliol (1264) - were named after their founders (John Balliol and Walter de Merton). The most beautiful and largest college is Christ Church College, and the most luxurious is Magdalen College, located on the banks of the Cherwell River.

The university also includes7 hostels, which are closed educational institutions belonging to various religious orders that do not have college status.

Oxford cherishes itstraditions. For example, when entering a university, each student must undergo a rite of matriculation, which consists in pronouncing the student's oath in Latin in front of the university's chancellors. At graduation, the student also takes an oath in Latin and changes his old robe for a new one corresponding to his degree. Both ceremonies are held at the Sheldonian Theatre, built in the 17th century by famed British architect Christopher Wren.

Famous graduates

Theologian and first translator of the Bible into Middle English John Wycliffe, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Protestant reformer and Bible translator William Tyndale, philosopher John Locke, Cardinal John Henry Newman, also known as Blessed John Henry Newman in the Catholic Church, studied at Oxford; taught by Erasmus of Rotterdam and the philosopher and naturalist Roger Bacon. Tor were educated here 40 Nobel laureates, 25 British prime ministers, 6 kings, about 50 Olympic medalists, about 20 managers of the 100 largest businesses in the world (FTSE 100), thousands of leading politicians, scientists, people of literature and art. Such famous people as Margaret Thatcher, Lewis Carroll, John Tolkien, Clive Staple Lewis, Tony Blair, Felix Yusupov and many others studied and taught here. Russian writers also received honorary degrees from the university: Vasily Zhukovsky, Ivan Turgenev, Konstantin Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova and Joseph Brodsky.

The current state of affairs

Today, Oxford is considered one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Although education in it is paid and costs a lot, the university has a flexible system of various kinds of grants and scholarships, partially or fully covering the cost of education. Now 18.5 thousand students study at Oxford, about a quarter of them are foreigners. The staff of Oxford teachers is almost 4 thousand people, of which 70 are members of the Royal Society, more than 100 are members of the British Academy. Oxford also uses a tutoring system, which consists in the fact that over each student a personal guardianship is established by a specialist in the chosen field.

The main areas of training are humanitarian, mathematical, physical, Social sciencies, medicine, life sciences and the environment.

Cambridge university

Year of foundation - 1218

The existence of a school at the cathedral in the city of Salamanca, near Madrid, is mentioned as early as 1130. But the official date for counting the history of one of the oldest universities in Europe is 1218, when the kingAlphonse IXdecreed the creation of the "Studium Generale" or "general school" in Salamanca, uniting a network of schools specialized in the study of Holy Scripture and canon law. Even then, there were departments of canon and civil law, medicine, logic, grammar and music.

Under King Alfonso X, the institution changed from a "general school" to a "university". In 1255, Pope Alexander IV recognized the university status of Salamanca, and also granted the university the right to its own press, and for its graduates approved the right to teach at all existing universities.

Interesting Facts

The University of Salamanca was the first in Europe to receive the status of a "university". It also became the first European educational institution withown public library.

It was at the University of Salaman that theTransatlantic project of Christopher Columbus.Here, after the discovery of America, the rights of the local population were fully recognized.

The university remained papal until May 21, 1852, when the ecclesiastical faculties were abolished in it.

The University of Salamanca has 16 faculties and 10 university centers. Some of the campuses are located in the historical center, some in the modern part of the city, so it seems that only students live in the city.

Famous graduates

It is interesting what different people studied at the University of Salamanca: Hernan Cortes, the Spanish conquistador who conquered Mexico and destroyed the statehood of the Aztecs, and Francisco de Vitoria, one of the founders of international law, who was the first to defend the Indians. The founder of the Jesuit order, Ignacio Loyola, also studied science here, while the extremely “unreliable” philosopher and poet-mystic Luis de Leon was a doctor of theology. It was while teaching at the University of Salaman that Antonio Nebrija, professor of rhetoric and author of the world's first grammar of the "folk" Romance language, easily received the highest blessing for the publication of his work.

The current state of affairs

Today the University of Salamanca the best place to study Spanish philology and Latin America. It is the teachers from this university that create and check the DELE exams (examinations in Spanish for foreigners). University unites whole line scientific centers: Center for Multimedia Technology, Center for the Study of Behavioral Responses and Center for Linguistic Research.

The university also regularly hosts symposiums and conferences on a variety of topics - from Translation Theory to Cardiology. In a separate building on three floors there are nine scientific laboratories equipped with last word technology. The university has its own radio and television.

About 30 thousand students study here.

University of Padua

Year of foundation - presumably 1222

If the history of Cambridge is closely intertwined with Oxford, then the University of Padua was founded in 1222.teachers and studentswho left the University of Bologna due to a conflict with the authorities. From 1339 to 1813, the university was divided into two parts - Universitas Iuristarum, where they taught law and theology, and Universitas Artistarum, where they studied philosophy, astronomy, dialectics, grammar, medicine, rhetoric.

Interesting Facts

The University of Padua is located inpalace del bo, which means in Venetian "bull" or "ox" (before there were butcher shops nearby). However, he moved here only at the end of the 15th century, and earlier the hotel “Under the Sign of the Ox” was located in the building, and the image of a bull’s head flaunted on the doors.

At the end of the 16th century, the first university in Europe was built at the university.Anatomical theater. It looked like the Colosseum. In the center was operating table, on which demonstrative autopsies were carried out. He was surrounded by ranks for spectators, and not only for teachers and medical students, but also for city onlookers. To get to the "performance", you had to pay a certain fee. Music was playing in the hall, drinks were offered to the guests. Since such procedures were officially prohibited at that time, the university management carefully monitored security. The demonstration room was directly under the dissecting table, and if there was a chance that the Inquisition might turn up, he immediately went down to the Colosseum.

In 1545 at the University of Padua was createdBotanical Garden.He is the second oldest after Pisa, but claims to be the oldest continuously operating, as his competitor has repeatedly moved from place to place.

Famous graduates

Such Renaissance and early modern figures as Pico della Mirandola, Nicholas of Cusa, Copernicus, one of the founders of the Italian literary language Pietro Bembo, Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Vesalius, Belarusian pioneer Francysk Skaryna. In 1678, the first woman to receive a PhD was Elena Cornaro Piscopia. At the beginning of the 18th century, a Russian scientist, Pyotr Vasilievich Postnikov, was a doctor of medicine and philosophy at the University of Padua.

The current state of affairs

Today, 65 thousand students study at the university in 13 faculties. Among them are such as faculty humanities and philosophy, engineering, legal, psychological, physical and mathematical, natural, medical and surgical and others.

After the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, the European Middle Ages began, which determined the development of education for a long time. The boundaries of this era are blurred, individual for each country. The Middle Ages are usually divided into the early Middle Ages (V-XI centuries), developed (XI-XIII centuries), later (XIII-XV centuries) and the Renaissance (XV-XVII centuries). How have schools and universities changed in 16 centuries?

In the early Middle Ages, schools of the ancient type dominated, teaching mainly the clergy. Later, schools of elementary education appeared (taught children of seven to ten years old) and large schools (for children over ten years old).

In the upbringing and education in the Middle Ages, pagan, ancient and Christian traditions intertwined. Church schools occupied a special place in the education system. Pedagogical thought in the Middle Ages was practically absent, replaced by the postulates of the church, religious education. There were two types of church educational institutions: cathedral (cathedral) and monastic schools.

The former trained clerics, but they also prepared them for secular activities. They provided a broader education than the monastic schools. The program of cathedral schools included reading, writing, grammar, counting, church singing. During the late Middle Ages, some cathedral schools taught academic subjects trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) or information from the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music). At the end of the XII century. the cathedral schools were transformed into public schools and later into universities.

Monastic schools were divided into three main types: pastoral-monastic (prepared the clergy for parish service), hostel schools at monasteries (prepared boys to become monks) and schools for literacy and church writing for boys who did not intend to stay at the church or monastery. The study was theological in nature with some secular elements. The cruel punishment of children was considered natural and charitable. Vacations and physical education were virtually absent.

In addition to the Christian tradition, knightly culture had a huge impact on the education system. The feudal lords instilled in their children the ideal of chivalrous upbringing, which included sacrifice, obedience and, at the same time, personal freedom. Parallel to the knightly ideal, there was a program of "seven knightly virtues": riding, swimming, wielding a spear, fencing, hunting, playing chess, writing poetry, and playing musical instruments.

The education of women remained purely domestic. The daughters of feudal lords were brought up in the family under the supervision of mothers and special women. Girls were often taught to read and write by chaplains and monks. The practice was widespread to send girls from noble families to be raised in convents, where they taught Latin, introduced them to the Bible, and instilled noble manners. Girls from the underprivileged classes were at best taught housekeeping, needlework and the basics of the Bible.

In the late Middle Ages, guild and city schools became widespread. This was primarily due to the increased role of cities. Guild schools, maintained at the expense of artisans, provided general education. City schools were born out of guild schools. Under the supervision of the church, they were not for long. The head of the institution was called the rector, and teachers very often had the status of "vagrants". The fact is that the school hired a teacher for a certain period, so after some time he was forced to look for a new place. The program included the following subjects: Latin, arithmetic, office work, geometry, technology, natural sciences.

Often, schools in Central Europe were created by some kind of order (for example, the city schools of the Jesuits during the Renaissance). The educational institutions of this order were distinguished by the fact that they taught the color of the nobility. The order was characterized by the strictest discipline, the unquestioning obedience of the younger to the elder. At the request of the elder, the Jesuit had to lie, slander, kill ... The Jesuits sought to grow their own "future" in order to then influence political and social life.

At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. the first universities appeared. The word "university", derived from the Latin "university", "totality", "set", meant a corporation of teachers and students. The medieval university included the following faculties: law, medicine, theology, philosophy. However, education began with a special, preparatory, faculty, where the famous "seven liberal arts" were taught. And since the Latin for art is "artes", the faculty was called artistic. Teaching was in Latin.

The word "lecture" means reading. The medieval professor actually read the book, sometimes interrupting the lecture with explanations. Thousands of people flocked to the cities, where the famous scientist, professor came. In fact, this is how universities were formed. In the small town of Bologna, where at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. Irnerius, a connoisseur of Roman law, appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose, which turned into the University of Bologna. Similarly, another Italian city, Salerno, became famous as the main university center of medical science. The University of Paris, founded in the 12th century, was recognized as the main center of theology.

In order to become a university, an institution needed to receive a papal bull (decree) on its creation. With such a bull, the Pope took the school out of the control of secular and local church authorities and legitimized the existence of the university. The rights of the educational institution were confirmed by privileges - special documents signed by popes or kings. Privileges consolidated university autonomy (its own court, administration, as well as the right to give degrees), exempted students from military service. Professors, students and employees educational institution subordinated not to the city authorities, but exclusively to the elected rector of the university and the elected deans of the faculties. If a student committed some kind of misconduct, the city authorities could only ask the university leaders to judge and punish the offender.

Students were usually divided into nations, compatriots, denoting associations of students from different regions. They could rent apartments, but many lived in colleges (colleges). These colleges were usually formed according to nations, representatives of one community lived in one college.

The student's duties included attending lectures: obligatory daily (ordinary) and repeated evening lectures. Disputes were an important feature of the universities of that era. The teacher (usually a master or a licentiate) assigned a topic. His assistant, a bachelor, led the discussion, that is, he answered questions and commented on the speeches. If necessary, the master came to the aid of the bachelor. Once or twice a year, debates were held “about anything” (without a strictly defined topic). In this case, burning scientific and philosophical problems were often discussed. The participants in the disputes behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts.

As a rule, a great career awaited a university graduate. On the one hand, universities actively cooperated with the church. On the other hand, along with the gradual expansion of the administrative apparatuses of various feudal lords and cities, the need for literate and educated people increased. Yesterday's students became scribes, notaries, judges, lawyers, prosecutors.

The contingent of students was the most diverse - most came from noble citizens, but even the children of peasants could receive a scholarship and education. There were many monks and clerics. It was in the Middle Ages that the concept of a wandering eternal student, the vagant, appeared. They moved from one university to another in order to obtain knowledge from various sources. The poetry of the Vagantes is known all over the world, it is a combination of folklore and Latin traditions. Its main themes are love, death, fun, revelry, education. The real names of the authors are unknown: as a rule, most of them preferred to remain incognito in order to avoid clashes with representatives of the Inquisition.

Sapozhnikova Marina

The university community was divided into faculties, nations and colleges. University / Encyclopedia F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron (1890 - 1916), 1890, reprint edition, T.58.-M, 1993, S. 239-245 .; Geshtor A. Medieval University: Management and resources.//ALMA MATER.- 1996.- No. 5.- P.23-28.

In addition to the old meaning of the discipline or field of study, from the middle of the 13th century. facultas begins to mean a structure that organizes the teaching of a particular discipline - liberal arts, law, medicine or theology. Teachers and students become members of faculties and, as a result, members of studium generate.

Faculties were the main divisions in Paris and other universities that followed the Parisian model.

In Bologna, things were different. The studium generate of Bologna (and its affiliated universities) was a group of universities, each for students of only one discipline; in addition, the studium was divided into two universities (for people from the Apennine Peninsula and from other regions), and the last one was divided into nations (nationes). Teachers and students - natives of Bologna did not belong to universitas, because it was believed that students of Bologna origin did not need the protection of the nation. The professors had their own corporation - the collegium doctorum. The Bologna model was not fully reproduced in all universities.

Thus, the Spanish universities, founded in the 13th century. kings of Castile, and especially - the universities of Aragon focused on Bologna and their own practice. These universities, while under tighter control by the crown, enjoyed less freedom. Some other universities can also be linked to the Bologna model.

The Prague studium is an interesting example of the flexibility of medieval institutions. This first university of the Holy Roman Empire, founded in 1346 by Emperor Charles IV, consisted of four faculties. For political reasons, the faculty of law separated from this university in 1372 and founded an independent university of law following the Italian model.

In addition to the considered organization, according to which the university and the faculty could be more or less considered synonymous, there was another model based on the four-faculty division of the university (like Paris): Such a university consisted of one junior faculty - the Faculty of Liberal Arts and three senior -theology, law and medicine. Teachers, quickly realizing their own interests, compared these four faculties with the "four rivers of paradise." Saint Bonaventure equated the liberal arts with the foundation of a building, law and medicine with its walls, and theology with its roof.

The studia of northwestern and central Europe were oriented towards the Parisian model. German universities, founded in the 14th and 15th centuries, were formed and adopted charters according to the Parisian model. Sometimes charters were copied from the charter of Cologne, a subsidiary of the University of Paris, founded in 1388.

The ideal university had four faculties, but in the 13th century. Universities with one, two and three faculties were also not uncommon.

One of the reasons for such organizational diversity can be seen in the fact that until the end of the 13th century. the popes of Rome defended the monopoly of Paris on theology and objected to the establishment of theological faculties elsewhere. Another reason was that although almost every university had Faculty of Medicine, it is doubtful that it could function, since the number of students on it did not always reach even 1% of total number students. The Faculty of Liberal Arts remained the most numerous in terms of the number of teachers and students, especially north of the Alps. Although he acted as a preparatory in relation to the three highest, most of his pupils never crossed the threshold of the latter.

In the Middle Ages, the faculties of law were the most attractive - they were attended by everyone more students who were attracted by the brilliant career prospects that opened up to talented young legal graduates.

A significant part of the administrative functions fell on the share of the faculties, which provided the conditions for active participation in the organization and management of studium generate. As a corporation, the faculty had its own head, usually a dean (decanus), treasurer (receptor), university departments, seals and statutes. The dean first appears in the 13th century. in Paris and Montpellier; in the 14th century it can already be found in other universities. At first, it is only a senior master, still busy in teaching. The dean was the chairman of the council, which included the masters of the faculty; he was responsible for administration and teaching, disputes and examinations.

In Oxford, where the first schools appeared in 1208-1209, the faculty of arts dominated (as in Paris), while the higher faculties did not have deans. In the Italian university-faculties, the functions of the rector were similar to those of the deans of the studia north of the Alps. Requirements for the candidacy of the dean, the procedure for his election, terms of office varied from university to university.

The organization of the early medieval university included another form of corporation, the nation. At first, nations arose spontaneously through the efforts of students or students and teachers; later such a corporation became part of the structure of universities.

In the life of many universities the nation played important role; heads of nations often elected rectors and sat on the boards of universities.

At the student universities of Bologna and Padua, the universities of law, arts and medicine were divided into two universitates (citramontana and ultra-montana), which in turn were divided into smaller nations. geographical regions. Admission to other Italian universities also proceeded on a regional basis, which determined the need for a complex organization of the university, in which their attractiveness for individual European countries and regions manifested itself. For example, in Perugia there were only three nations - German, French and Catalan - for the ultramontanes.

The nations in the universities that followed the model of Paris were organized differently. So, in Paris itself, only the largest faculty - the faculty of arts - had nations in its structure. They appeared shortly after the emergence of the university on the basis of a rather vague geographical classification. Four nations were represented here: French, Picardy, Norman and English (English included students from Central and Northern Europe). The nations included Masters of Arts from the Faculty of Arts and professors from higher faculties with a similar degree. The council of the nation was headed by a procurator, who was elected for one month by the masters and often re-elected several times. The nation had its own seal, registers, revenues and expenses.

At first, the nations acted as independent corporations. Their strength and influence on the life of the university varied from university to university, but everywhere they had almost the same structure and organization.

Proctors (procuratores) or consiliari (in some Italian nations), who led the nations, had administrative and financial powers, and to some extent jurisdiction; participated in the work of university bodies as counsellors rector. Sometimes nations had their own treasurers (receptores) and always pedels (bedelli), as in Bologna. In Paris, the nations annually elected one chief pedel (bedellus maior as an assistant to the proctor) and a subbedellus or bedellus to help him. The rod was hallmark pedel. In Paris, proctors of the nations were elected, sworn in, and paid couriers (nuntiiuolantes minores, or ordinarii) who ensured the delivery of news and money to the members of nations and their families. In the late Middle Ages, proctors appointed chief couriers, nuntii maiores, who functioned as university financiers, bankers, and money changers.

Over time, another corporation appears in the universities, surpassing the nation in importance - the college. In some late medieval universities, college structures determined the structure and management of the university or faculty.

The college, or domus scholarium, as it was first called, having originated as a boarding school for poor students, later becomes an autonomous or semi-autonomous academic community living and studying in a donated room. The teachers and students living here could come from a certain region or study the same discipline. In the 12th and 13th centuries the founders and donors to the colleges especially supported the liberal arts and theology, and in the 14th and 15th centuries. - canon and civil law. Medical colleges have always been a rarity.

The University of Paris had colleges almost from its inception. They started with hospitia - boarding houses for groups of students or researchers, also called socii. Only a few, including the first, the College des dix-huit, founded in 1180 for 18 needy students, and the College of St Thomas du Louvre, founded in 1186, received contributions; there were also colleges for students of theology. Around 1257, Robert Sorbon founded a college known as the Sorbonne so that a sufficient number of secular students of theology could live there. At first it housed sixteen, then thirty research fellows (bursarii) and six young masters of arts who were working on doctoral dissertations in theology. Louis IX endowed the college with a plot of land near the ancient Roman baths.

Management functions were performed by the college board, which included representatives of the church and the university administration, and was led by the principal (provisor), who was determined in the annual elections by the researchers (with fixing his duties), and four proctors. Other colleges, like the College de Navarre (1304), in which 70 students were divided into three classes - grammar, arts and theology - remained mostly student. In the 14th and 15th centuries founders' motives change; the desire to help poor young people is supplanted by the desire to provide comfortable living for members of the monastic elite or people from the noble classes.

Scholarship-trained bursales lived more austerely and led rather modest college lives than commensales, or subsidized students. Since the fourteenth century, the premises, service system and libraries belonging to colleges have become attractive to lecturers. Colleges are beginning to give lectures to both outside students and scholarship holders (bursarii), while the university retains the right to manage them. By the end of the 15th century in Paris, there were about 70 colleges, including monasteries. Some of them were founded for foreigners (Danes, Scots, Lombards and Germans).

In Paris, the management of the college was usually carried out by its own administrators. External authorities controlled the degree of filling of places of fellows or bursae, thereby controlling the life of the college. People from outside world. In Oxford and Cambridge, the opposite trend was observed: the colleges had little connection with the university administration; they managed their own property and independently found ways to benefit from university studies and academic degrees; they themselves elected their heads and co-opted persons who governed the life of the college in accordance with their own charters and statutes. In the 12th and early 13th century. senior students of moderate means could obtain the right to live and use university canteens and dormitories. In the 13th century the first colleges were founded for less affluent bachelors or masters of art who wished to continue their studies in the senior departments. Over time, education at Oxford has become more and more - carried out through colleges.

In central Europe, colleges were almost exclusively for masters. In Prague twelve magistri organized the Collegium Carolinum in 1361. The master's Collegium Ducale functioned in Vienna. In Krakow there were three professorial colleges with everything necessary for life. In addition, shelters for poor students were organized in Krakow, such as Bursa Pauperum (1417). In Erfurt, the first college - the Collegium Maius for Masters of Arts - was probably founded simultaneously with the official foundation of the university - in 1379.

Colleges never played an important role in Southern Europe, and not only in the Middle Ages. Students of Italian universities have always maintained a close relationship with the city, living in apartments with the townspeople and sharing their living conditions and political affiliations. The oldest colleges in Bologna, as conceived by their founders, were to provide accommodation, board and financial assistance to a small number of needy students without any training. The largest was the Spanish College (1367) with 30 students, 8 in theology, 18 in canon law and 4 in medicine. Students resided at the college for seven years; theologians and physicians could stay for a longer period after receiving a doctorate. Students came from Spanish dioceses designated by the college's founder, Cardinal Gil Albomoz. Candidates were tested at the entrance exams. They accepted students trained "at least in grammar", and theologians and doctors - in the field of logic. They were provided with a room and a table, two sets of clothes for a year, and an annual stipend. The management of the college was based on truly democratic principles, but internal discipline was strictly maintained. The Collegio di Spagna in Bologna served as a model for the Spanish colleges that appeared in Salamanca at the end of the 14th century. The reasons for the paucity of colleges in Italy and in France south of the Loire are quite understandable. At the faculties of law and medicine, mainly wealthy and already adult students studied. Cheap hostels did not suit them; they preferred a life of comfort in private homes and freedom from disciplinary restrictions. In addition, well-organized student nations provided students with all kinds of support, including financial and legal. Finally, in southern universities there was no mass of young grammarians and art students, and therefore there was no need for their special accommodation.

A large university - Paris - was a state within a state. Nearby existed and acted, often without clearly defined competencies, faculties, nations, test commissions, schools of three monastic orders, half of which only belonged to the university, collegiums, the chapter of the cathedral and both chancellors. In total, the University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them were members of the union - booksellers, copyists of manuscripts, manufacturers of parchment, pens, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. And outside the university there were competing forces that influenced its fate: the pope and his legates, the king, his officials and parliament. Uvarov P.Yu. University of Paris: European universalism, local interests and the idea of ​​representation // City in the medieval civilization of Western Europe. T. 4. / Rep. ed. A.A. Svanidze.- M.: Nauka, S. 52.

Thus, the structure of the university can be called quite complex. In addition to the actual university rules regarding the stay in the faculties, the large cells of the structure were nations that regulated the rights and duties of people on a geographical basis, as well as colleges that looked after the student's personal life. It should be noted that the university environment included many societies that were not bound by strict rules to the university, but were part of university life: writers, practitioners, clerics who dropped out of university education proper, merchants. This will be discussed in subsequent chapters of our work.

Introduction

The early Middle Ages are sometimes referred to as the "Dark Ages". The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was accompanied in Western Europe by a deep decline in culture. Not only the barbarian invasions that destroyed the Western Roman Empire led to the destruction of the cultural values ​​of antiquity. No less destructive than the blows of the Visigoths, Vandals and Lombards, it became for the ancient cultural heritage hostility from the Church. Pope Gregory I waged an open war against culture. He forbade the reading of books by ancient authors and the study of mathematics, accusing the latter of being associated with magic. The most important area of ​​culture - education - was going through especially difficult times. Once Gregory I proclaimed: “Ignorance is the mother of true piety.”*2

Truly ignorance reigned in Western Europe in the 5th-10th centuries. It was almost impossible to find literate people not only among the peasants, but also among the nobility. Many knights put a simple cross instead of a signature. Theodoric of Ostgoth, unable to write, used to sign a tablet on which his name was carved. Until the end of his life, he could not learn to write the founder of the Frankish state, the famous Charlemagne. But the emperor was clearly not indifferent to knowledge. Already in adulthood, he resorted to the services of teachers. Having begun to study the art of writing shortly before his death, Karl carefully kept waxed tablets and sheets of parchment under his pillow, and in free time diligently learned to draw letters. The sovereign patronized scientists. Charles issued a decree on the establishment of schools at the monasteries, and then - the capitulary on education, where the compulsory education of free children was prescribed. This was not carried out due to the lack of a sufficient number of literate people. A special school was organized at the court, where people were trained to govern the state. Charles invited educated people from all over Europe and placed them in high state and church positions. Many of them made up a scientific circle, called the Academy after the name of the philosophical school of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. This academy was something between a meeting of friends and a learned community, where philosophical and theological questions were discussed in free conversation, at a feast, Latin verses were composed and read.

Members of the academy bore special nicknames, which clearly manifested the combination of ancient and Christian ideas in the views of Charles and his entourage. Karl himself had the nickname David, in honor of the biblical king David, the prototype of all God-loving monks.

By his order, a cathedral was erected in Aachen. He ordered to compose a grammar of the Frankish language, and to collect Germanic songs. His court in Aachen became the center of education. In a specially created school, the famous scientist and writer Alcuin (Flakk Albin, c. 735-804, Anglo-Saxon scientist, author of theological treatises, textbooks on philosophy, mathematics, etc.; figure in the Carolingian Renaissance, adviser to Charlemagne, abbot of the Tours monastery), who taught the sons of Charles himself and the children of his entourage. A few educated people came to Aachen from all over illiterate Europe. Following the example of antiquity, the society of scientists gathered at the court began to be called the Academy. Alcuin became the abbot of the richest monastery of St. Martin in the city of Tours, where he also founded a school, many of whose students later became famous teachers of the monastery and church schools in France.

The cultural upsurge that occurred during the reign of Charlemagne and his successors was called the "Carolingian Renaissance". However, it was short-lived. Soon cultural life again concentrated in the monasteries.

Monastic and church schools were the very first educational institutions of the Middle Ages. And although the Christian Church retained only selective remnants of ancient education it needed (primarily Latin), it was in them that the cultural tradition continued, linking different eras.

But time passed. Growing cities and growing states needed more and more educated people. Judges and officials, doctors and teachers were needed.

The time has come for the formation of higher schools - universities.

medieval universities

In the XII century, the world's first higher schools - universities - began to appear in Europe. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna were founded in the XII - XIII centuries. The rest, for example, in Uppsala, Copenhagen, Rostock, Orleans were founded later - in the XIV - XV centuries.

Let's imagine that we are in the auditorium of a medieval university. It resembles the auditorium of a university today: in the same way, benches are arranged in stepped rows, below there is a massive oak pulpit, behind which stands a professor lecturing. Some students listen intently and from time to time write something with lead on waxed boards. Others whisper or, tired, doze off. The diversity of the audience is striking: a variety of camisoles, raincoats, berets. Seventeen-year-old youths and men beginning to go bald are visible. Looking closely, you can see people of different nationalities: Spaniards, Germans, French, British.

Strange: listeners speak different languages yet they all understand. Why? But the fact is that for all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, as well as worship, was Latin. Thousands of schoolchildren were required to learn Latin at that time. Many could not stand it and ran away from cramming and beatings. But for those who still endured, Latin became a familiar and understandable language, and therefore a lecture on Latin was understandable to listeners from different countries.

On the professorial chair, which was supported by a triangular music stand, lay a huge book. The word "lecture" means "reading". Indeed, a medieval professor read a book, sometimes interrupting the reading with explanations. The content of this book students had to perceive by ear, learn by memory. The fact is that books in those days were handwritten and were very expensive. And not everyone could afford to buy it.

Thousands of people flocked to the city where the famous scientist appeared. For example, at the end of the 11th century in the city of Bologna, where Irnerius, an expert on Roman law, appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose. Gradually, this school became the University of Bologna. It was the same with Salerno, another Italian city that became famous as the main university center of medical science. Opened in the 12th century, the University of Paris won recognition as the main center of theology. Following several higher schools of the XII century. most medieval universities arose in the 13th and 14th centuries. in England, France, Spain, Portugal, Czech Republic, Poland and Germany.

It was often difficult for a foreign student to negotiate with the locals. Sellers, innkeepers and innkeepers shortchanged the aliens, and the guards and judges looked at it through their fingers and even ... subjected students to unfair punishments!

The struggle for the protection of their rights forced students and teachers to unite. So, outraged by insults and harassment, students and professors left Bologna for 10 years, and the city immediately lost not only fame, but also the income that the university brought to it. The solemn return of the university followed only after the city recognized its full independence. This meant that the professors, students and employees of the university were not subordinate to the city authorities, but to the elected deans of the faculties and the rector.

Over time, faculties appeared in the medieval university: legal, medical, theological. But the training began with the “preparatory” faculty, where the so-called “seven liberal arts” were taught. And since in Latin art is “artes”, the faculty was also called artistic. Students - "artists" first studied grammar. then rhetoric, dialectics (which meant logic); only after that did they move on to arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. The “artists” were young people, and according to the university regulations, they could be flogged, like schoolchildren, while older students were not subjected to such punishments.

Medieval science was called scholastic (literally - school). the essence of this science and its main flaw was expressed by an old proverb: “Philosophy is the servant of theology.” And not only philosophy, but also all the sciences of that time had to strengthen the truths of religion, blind trust in the teachings of the church with every conclusion, with every word.

Disputes occupied an important place in the academic life of the medieval university. At the so-called master's disputes, the master who taught the students skillfully drew them into the dispute. Offering to confirm or dispute the theses put forward by him, he forced the students to mentally compare these theses with the opinions of the "fathers of the church", with the decisions of church councils and papal messages. During the dispute, each thesis was opposed by the opponent's counterthesis. The tactic of the offensive is to lead the enemy with a string of interrelated questions to such a forced confession, which either contradicts his own statement, or disagrees with the unshakable church truths, which was tantamount to accusation of heresy.

But even in the Middle Ages there were people of bold thought who did not want to repeat the same church truths day after day. They sought to break free from the shackles of scholasticism, to open up a wider scope for science.

In the 12th century, the young scientist Peter Abelard spoke out against the professor of the University of Paris, Guillaume Champeau. In the heated disputes that ensued, the professor could not manage to get the better of his young rival. Champaud demanded that Abelard be expelled from Paris. But this did not stop Abelard. He settled in the suburbs of Paris and continued to follow the professor's every word. After each lecture in the cold and rain, in winter and autumn, tireless students covered at least 30 km in a day, made their way from Paris to the suburbs and back to tell Abelard everything that Champeau had said and put the latter in a dead end in front of Abelard's new objections. This dispute, which lasted for months, ended in a brilliant victory for Abelard. The gray-haired professor not only recognized the correctness of the young opponent, but also considered it necessary to transfer his department to him.

Abelard was not satisfied with the opinion of the scholastics, who believed that "faith precedes understanding." He argued that "it is possible to believe only in such a truth, which becomes understandable to the mind." Thus, faith in incomprehensible, meaningless and fantastic things was rejected. Abelard taught that "through doubt we investigate, and through investigation we come to know the truth."

In the bold teaching of Abelard, the church saw a dangerous threat, since the unshakable truths of the church, the so-called dogmas, would not stand the test of doubt and criticism.

Abelard has come a long way. Physically crippled by his enemies, expelled from Paris, he ended up in a remote monastery. At the end of his life, he was condemned by a church council as a heretic, and the threat of execution constantly hung over him.

But since the time of Abelard, the audiences of medieval universities have increasingly become the arena of the struggle for reason and science.

Since the 13th century, the school has acted as a university. Universitas is a typical product of the Middle Ages. If the ancient analogues, which medieval schools imitated and in some way updated them, were the model of schools, then the university did not have its own prototype. These kinds of corporate formations and free association pupils and mentors with their privileges, established programs, diplomas, titles - antiquity has not seen either in the west or in the east.

The term "university" itself did not originally indicate a center of learning, but rather a corporate association, or, to put it modern language, it was a kind of "syndicate", protecting the interests of a certain category of persons. Paris is a model of organization that other universities have more or less followed. In Paris, the "universitas magistroom et scolarum", the combined corporation of masters and students, prevailed. In the 12th century, the Notre Dame Cathedral School, which gathered under its shadow students from all over Europe, was noted for its special superiority, and soon became the object of attention of the Roman Curia. Autonomization proceeded under the direct supervision of the king, the bishop and his chancellor. A fact worth mentioning is that the desire for freedom of teaching, as opposed to the pressure of local authorities, found tangible support in the form of papal patronage.

2. University and its mitigating effects

Two effects accompanied the activities of universities. The first is the birth of a certain class of scientists, priests and lay people, to whom the church entrusted the mission of teaching the truths of revelation. The historical significance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that even today the official doctrine of the Church should and can be entrusted only to church hierarchs. Masters were officially allowed to discuss matters of faith. Saint Thomas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventure would later be called "Doctors of the Church". Along with the traditional two powers - ecclesiastical and secular - a third appeared - the power of intellectuals, whose influence on social life became more and more noticeable over time.

The second effect is associated with the opening of the University of Paris, where students and teachers of all classes flocked. University society from the very beginning did not know caste distinctions; rather, it formed a new caste of heterogeneous social elements. And, if in subsequent eras the university acquires aristocratic features, the medieval one was originally “folk”, in the sense that the children of peasants and artisans through a system of privileges (in the form low prices for tuition and free housing) became students, taking on the burden of the most severe obligations that are inevitable on this thorny path. Goliards and clerks constituted, as it were, a world in itself. Their "nobility" was no longer determined by their class origin, but hung over the accumulated cultural baggage. A new meaning of the concept of “nobility” and “refinement” appeared in the meaning of the aristocracy of the mind and behavior, the subtlety of the psyche and the refinement of taste. Bocaccio will rightly speak about this: “not the one who, after a long study in Paris, is ready to sell his knowledge on trifles, as many do, is educated, but the one who knows how to inquire into the causes of everything at the very source”

general characteristics Paris University

All classes were conducted in Latin, so the Germans, French, Spaniards could listen to the Italian professor with no less success than his compatriots. Students also communicated in Latin with each other. However, in everyday life, "strangers" were forced to enter into communication with local bakers, brewers, tavern owners and landlords. The latter, of course, did not know Latin and were not averse to cheating and deceiving a foreign scholar. Since the students could not count on the help of the city court in numerous conflicts with local residents, they, together with the teachers, united in a union, which was called the “university”. The University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them were members of the union - booksellers, copyists of manuscripts, manufacturers of parchment, quills, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. In a long struggle with the city authorities, which went on with varying success (sometimes teachers and students left the hated city and moved to another place), the university achieved self-government: now it had elected leaders and its own court. The University of Paris was granted independence from secular authorities in 1200. charter of King Philip II Augustus.

The life of schoolchildren from poor families was not easy. Here is how Chaucer describes it:

Having interrupted hard work on logic,

A Parisian student trudged along next to us.

Hardly a poorer beggar would be found ...

Need and hunger accustomed steadfastly,

He put the log at the head of the bed.

He is sweeter to have twenty books,

Than an expensive dress, a lute, food ... * 5

But the students were not discouraged. They knew how to enjoy life, their youth, to have fun from the heart. This is especially true for vagants - wandering schoolchildren moving from city to city in search of knowledgeable teachers or an opportunity to earn extra money. Often they did not want to bother with their studies, they sang with pleasure the vagants at their feasts:

Let's drop all wisdom

Side teaching!

Enjoy in youth

Our appointment.*6

The teachers of the university created an association in subjects - faculties. They were headed by deans. Teachers and students elected the rector - the head of the university. Medieval graduate School It usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of a future lawyer or physician took five or six years, then the future philosopher - theologian - as much as 15.

However, before entering one of the three faculties, the student had to graduate from the preparatory - artistic - faculty (they studied the "seven liberal arts"; from the Latin "artis" - "art"). In the classroom, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - “reading”) of professors and masters. The erudition of the teacher was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. Hot in heat, sometimes they turned into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

In the 14th - 15th centuries. there are so-called colleges (hence - colleges). At first, this was the name of the student hostel. Over time, they also began to hold lectures and debates. Board. Which was founded by Robert de Sorbon, confessor french king- Sorbonne - gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris.

PRAGUE UNIVERSITY was the largest school of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 15th century, students in Europe attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. * 7 The most famous among them were: Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Kakovo. Many of them exist to this day, deservedly proud of their rich history and carefully preserve ancient traditions.

13th century: The University of Paris and its translations.

A) Dominicans and Franciscans

Medieval schools were often taught by people of different nationalities. Some of these schools, organized on a more or less international basis, fell into decay and ceased to exist. Others have become universities.

In the course of time, however, some centers of scholarship, which had faculties of theology, law, and medicine, became universities in a different sense: they had charters, statutes, and established forms of government, and their professors had the right to teach everywhere. The University of Paris grew out of the cathedral school of Notre Dame, and although the date of its founding is often given as 1215, when its statutes were approved by the papal legate Robert de Courcon, it is clear that these statutes existed before. The University of Paris has developed a system of colleges controlled by doctors or professors. In the thirteenth century, the University of Paris was undoubtedly at the forefront of theology and speculative philosophy. important event in the life of this university there was a dispensation of educational institutions created by new monastic orders. The Order of Preachers, commonly known as the Dominican, showed an understandable interest in the study of theology. But St. Francis of Assisi, with his commitment to the literal following of Christ and the apostles on the path of poverty, did not even think of his followers owning educational institutions and libraries and teaching at universities. * 8 However, the transformation of the original community of followers, or fellows of this saint into an organized community, by members which the priests were, made it necessary to take care of the study. In addition, the Holy See was quick to appreciate the potential of the new fervent mendicant orders. In particular, Gregory IX, who during his time as a cardinal took care of the development of education among the Franciscans, did everything possible to introduce the Dominicans and Franciscans into the life of the University of Paris and strengthen their positions there. In 1217, the Dominicans settled at the University of Paris, and in 1229 received a chair of theology there. In the same year, the Franciscans, who settled in Paris a little later, also received a chair, and their first professor was the Englishman Alexander of Gaels.

The penetration of monastic orders into the University of Paris did not occur without serious opposition from the clergy. From the point of view of the orders, this opposition was undoubtedly an expression of prejudice and a desire to protect their legal property rights. From the point of view of their opponents, the monks claimed unjustified benefits and privileges. Opposition to monastic orders lasted quite a long time, sometimes turning into attacks on monastic life itself. But the Dominicans and Franciscans enjoyed the protection of the Holy See, and although the opposition they encountered was strong, it was nevertheless overcome. Famous philosophers of the XIII century in the vast majority were members of monastic orders.

The training course was designed for a long time. However, in those days younger students came to the university than today. * 9 So in the 13th century in Paris, students first studied for six years at the Faculty of Arts. During this period, a student could become a "bachelor" and help in secondary roles in teaching others. But he could not start teaching until he was twenty years old. The content of the training course was "free arts"; Literature has not been studied much, but great attention devoted to grammar. Logic was, of course, mainly the logic of Aristotle, although Porfiry's "Introduction" was also studied.

As already mentioned, the course of theology was taught at first for eight years, but tended to lengthen. After completing the course at the Faculty of Arts and several years of teaching, the student devoted four years to the study of the Bible and two to the study of the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard. After that, he could become a bachelor and lecture on the Bible for two years, and for one year on the Maxims. He received a master's or doctoral degree after another four to five years.

Some students, of course, withstood such a long study in the hope of moving up the church ladder. However, the curriculum itself was clearly oriented toward teaching, toward graduating teachers or professors. And since the study of the "art" prepared for the study of higher sciences and theology, which was considered the queen of all sciences, obtaining a master's or doctoral degree in theology, giving the right to teach, was naturally seen as the pinnacle of an academic career. From this it is easy to understand why the most prominent thinkers of the Middle Ages were theologians.

B) Prohibition of Aristotle at the Faculty of Arts

The increase in knowledge about Aristotelianism had a huge impact on the intellectual life of the 13th century. Thanks to translations, Aristotle was transformed from a more or less pure logician into a creator of an all-encompassing system. Since this system obviously owed nothing to Christianity, it became, one might say, the embodiment of philosophy, and its author was known as the Philosopher. It is only natural that Aristotle was read in the light of commentaries and studies written by Islamic and Jewish thinkers.

In 1210, the local Council in Paris, under threat of excommunication, forbade the use in the Faculty of Arts of Aristotle's writings on Natural Philosophy, whether publicly or privately. In 1215, shortly before, the approved charter of the University of Paris forbade professors of the Faculty of Arts to lecture on the works of Aristotle on metaphysics and philosophy of nature, or on their expositions. In 1231, Pope Gregory IX issued a bull in which he stated that writings banned in 1210 should not be used in Paris until they were cleared of all suspicious places.

In 1245, Innocent IV extended the prohibitions of 1210 and 1215. To the university in Toulouse, which used to be so proud of its freedom. But it is clear that in Paris these laws were observed for some time. However, starting from about 1255, lectures were given in Paris on all known writings of Aristotle - a fact all the more surprising because in 1263 Urban IV confirmed the bull of Gregory IX in regard to supporting the prohibitions of 1210. This fact was explained by different; in particular, it has been suggested that the pope reissued the bull of his predecessor, without paying attention to the fact that this means a repetition of the prohibition of 1210. It sounds strange. But the confirmation of the prohibition is strange in itself, since Urban IV must have known perfectly well that William of Meerbeck was translating Aristotle in his own curia. Be that as it may, in 1263 lectures on Aristotle in Paris were given freely.

The whole point was that Aristotle's philosophy as a whole seemed to be a comprehensive naturalistic system and that, in particular, some of Aristotle's theories were incompatible with Christian theology. In other words, Aristotelianism was perceived by some minds as a potential threat to the Christian faith. Professors of theology could be trusted to correct all errors or misconceptions. The teachers of the Faculty of Arts were not to be allowed to inculcate certain doctrines or sow doubts in their young pupils. This seems to be the most plausible explanation.*10

The greatness and weakness of university politics

With the departure of many Englishmen during the Hundred Years' War and numerous Germans during the Great Schism, the University of Paris has become increasingly French in composition. At least since the reign of Philip the Fair, he has played a significant political role. Charles V called him the eldest daughter of the King. * 11 The university is officially represented in the national cathedrals of the French Church, in the assembly of the States General. He acts as an intermediary during the struggle of the court and the Parisians, led by Étienne Marcel, during the uprising of the Mayotins; the signature of the representative of the university is under the contract in Troyes.

The prestige of the university is huge. It is explained not only by the number of students and teachers, but also by all the masters who graduated from it, who occupy primary positions throughout France and abroad, maintaining close ties with the university.

At the same time, he is associated with the papacy. In addition, all Avignon popes are French, they clearly patronize the university, bind it to themselves generous gifts. Every year, a scroll with the names of mayors is sent to the Avignon Palace, for which the university graciously asks the pope for feeding or church benefice. If he was the eldest daughter of the King, then he was also the first school of the Church and played the role of international arbiter in theological matters.*12

The schism shook this balance. At first, the university sided with the Avignon pope, but then, tired of the ever-growing extortion of the pope, taking care of restoring the unity of the church, the university leaves the decision to the king of France, while he tirelessly calls for a conciliar reunion in order to end the schism by abdicating rival high priests. At the same time, the university defends the supremacy of the Council over the pope, the relative independence of the national church from the Holy See, i.e. Gallicanism. But if the first requirement raised the prestige of the university in Christendom, then the second led to a chill in relations with the papacy and to the growing influence of the monarchy over it.

It seemed to be a complete success. The Cathedral of Constance, where the university played a leading role, sanctifies this triumph. By the way, the curious positions of some of the university masters are noticeable on it. The English masters take the side of the papacy on the issue of beneficiation. They think about their own interests, and they were better served by this party.

In those days, a purely French crisis broke out, which undermined the position of the Paris University.

After the uprising, Paris becomes the capital of the English king. Of course, the university did not immediately go over to the side of the Burgundians, and those who switched were part of it. The duke relied on mendicant orders with which the university traditionally did not get along. The university condemned and prosecuted Jean Petit, an apologist for the assassination of the Duke of Orleans. At the time of the capture of the city by the British, many masters left Paris. But those who remained in Paris became burgundy and submitted to the will of the British. The most famous episode of this English period The University of Paris were his actions against Joan of Arc. In declaring its hostility towards her, the university wanted not only to please its foreign master. Here he followed popular opinion, which was extremely hostile to Virgin of Orleans. It is known that the university led the process against the Virgin and with undisguised satisfaction reported her condemnation to the English king.

The ashes of the fire in Rouen tarnish the prestige of the university. Having recaptured Paris, Charles VII, and after him Louis XI, are distrustful of the "collaborionist", although the university stood on the side of their Gallican policy and strongly supported the pragmatic sanction.

In 1437, the king deprives the university of tax privileges and forces it to contribute to increased taxes in order to recapture Montero. In 1445, his judicial privilege was taken away from him, he became subject to the decisions of parliament. The king supports the reorganization of the university, carried out by the papal legate, Cardinal d'Etooutville, in 1452. In 1470, Louis XI obliges the masters and students from Burgundy to swear allegiance to him. Finally, in 1499, the university loses its right to strike. From now on, he is in the hands of the king.

What happened to the spirit of education during all these battles? Education has undergone a twofold evolution, which will allow us to better understand the relationship between scholasticism and humanism, to discern the nuances in this opposition, to trace the passing of the torch of reason in the transition from one period to another.

Conclusion

So, we know that until the 13th century, when the formation of universities began, the schools were: monastic (at abbeys), episcopal (at cathedrals), and court (“palatium”). Schools attached to monasteries and abbeys during the period of the barbarian invasions were something of a refuge and repositories of monuments of classical culture, places of making lists; Episcopal schools were predominantly primary education. However, court life brought the greatest revival to cultural life. So, the director of one of these schools was Alcuin of York (730-804), adviser to King Charlemagne on culture and education. A three-stage training was organized:

reading, writing, elementary concepts of vernacular Latin, general idea about the Bible and liturgical texts;

the study of the seven liberal arts (first the trio of grammar, rhetoric and dialectics, then the quartet of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music;

in-depth study of Scripture.

Alcuin boldly formulated the spirit of his innovations: “So new Athens will grow on the land of the Franks, even more brilliant than in ancient times, for our Athens is fertilized by Christ’s teaching, and therefore will surpass the Academy in wisdom.” * 13

Whether he was fully capable of realizing his program or not, his merit in writing and preparing textbooks on each of the seven liberal arts is beyond doubt.

Only Scot Eriugena restored dialectics and philosophy in the second generation in their rights through the inclusion of liberal arts in the context of theology. From forms of erudition, they turned into a tool for research, comprehension and development of Christian truths in general. In this sense, the term “first scholasticism” is acceptable, delineating the period from Scotus Eriugena to Anselm, from the philosophers of the Sharts and St. Victor schools to Abelard.

University of Paris

So the seven liberal arts were included in the context of theology. Theology has separated itself into a separate faculty of the University of Paris. The University of Paris is the largest university of the Middle Ages. The university is a united corporation of masters and students. The University of Paris had a faculty of theology and arts, with the latter serving as a preparation for the former. The universal language is Latin. In the 13th century, he played an important role in politics. The second name is Sorbonne.

In 1970 it was reorganized into an independent network of universities. By 1985, there were 230 thousand students.

Footnotes

*1 - Encyclopedia: " The World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 350

*2 - Encyclopedia: "World History." Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 351

*3 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 351

*4 - Western philosophy. "From the origins to the present: the Middle Ages." Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. LLP TK "Petropolis" St. Petersburg 1995. Page 87

*5 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*6 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*7 - Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997. Page 352

*8 - "History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 182

*9 - "History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 183

*10 - "History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997. Page 187-188

*11 - "Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo - Press. Dolgoprudny 1997. Page 185

*12 - "Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo - Press. Dolgoprudny 1997. Page 186

*13 - Western philosophy. "From the origins to the present: the Middle Ages." Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. LLP TK "Petropolis" St. Petersburg 1995. Page 87

Bibliography

Encyclopedia: "World History". Volume 1. Ch. Editor Maria Aksyonova. Moscow "Avant +" 1997.

Western philosophy. "From the origins to the present: the Middle Ages." Giovanni Reale and Dario Antiseri. LLP TK "Petropolis" St. Petersburg 1995.

"History of Medieval Philosophy". Frederick Copston. "Enigma" Moscow 1997.

"Intellectuals in the Middle Ages". Jacques Le Goff. Allergo - Press. Dolgoprudny 1997.

"History of the Middle Ages" A. Ya. Gurevich, D. E. Kharitonovich. Moscow, INTERPRAX 1995

Encyclopedia: "From the history human society". Volume 8. Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR. Publishing house "Enlightenment" Moscow 1967

Big Soviet Encyclopedia. Moscow " Big Encyclopedia". Ch. Editor A. M. Prokhorov. Moscow 1989.

• introductory
  • The subject of the science of history and its place in the system of historical sciences
  • Functions of historical knowledge
  • Science and course methodology world history
  • Principles of studying historical data
  • Stages of development historical science
  • Variants of periodization of history
• Primitive era of mankind
  • Periodization options ancient history
    • Paleolithic
    • Mesolithic
    • Neolithic
    • Eneolithic
  • Decomposition of the primitive communal system
• History of the states of the ancient East
  • The era of early Antiquity (the end of IV - the end of II millennium BC)
    • Egypt
    • Sumero-Akkadian period
    • The first civilizations in India and China
  • The heyday of the ancient states (the end of the II - the end of the I millennium BC)
    • Mesopotamia
    • Persian power Achaemenid
    • India
    • China
  • Late Antiquity
• History of ancient states
  • Ancient Greece (3rd millennium BC - 30 BC)
    • Archaic period
    • Classical period and Hellenistic era
  • Ancient Rome (VIII century BC - V century AD)
    • Republic period
    • Empire period
• Civilization ancient Rus'
  • Civilization of ancient Rus'
  • The oldest settlements on the territory of our country (from the beginning to the VI century AD)
    • The ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis
  • Eastern Slavs on the threshold of the formation of the state (VI - IX centuries)
    • resettlement Eastern Slavs
    • Economic activity
    • social order
    • Trade, cities
    • Customs, manners and beliefs
• • The formation of European civilization
  • General characteristics of the Western European Middle Ages (V-XVII centuries)
    • Vassalage system
    • Mores, customs
  • Early Middle Ages (V - X centuries)
    • Classes of early feudal society
  • Classical Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries)
    • Peasant uprisings
    • Economy. Agriculture
    • Medieval cities
    • Medieval craft
    • Trade and merchants
    • medieval universities
    • Peculiarities historical development leading European countries
  • Late Middle Ages (XVI - early XVII centuries)
    • Trade
    • Agriculture
    • Reformation of the Church
    • Development of science
• Rus' in the Middle Ages
  • Kievan Rus (IX - XII centuries)
    • Norman theory
    • social order
    • economic life
    • Christianization of Rus'
  • The formation of civilization in the Russian lands (XI - XV centuries)
    • Principal princely lands
    • The fight against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors
  • Formation and rise of the Muscovite state (XIII - XV centuries)
    • The formation of the Moscow centralized state
• States of the East in the Middle Ages
  • Features of the development of the countries of the East in the Middle Ages
  • India (7th–18th centuries)
    • The era of the Muslim conquest of India. Delhi Sultanate (XIII - early XVI centuries)
    • India in the era of the Mughal Empire (XVI-XVIII centuries)
  • China (III - XVII centuries)
    • Imperial period (end of VI-XIII centuries)
    • China in the era of Mongol rule. Yuan Empire (1271-1367)
    • Ming China (1368-1644)
  • Japan (III - XIX centuries)
    • Fujiwara era (645-1192)
    • Japan during the era of the first Minamoto shogunate (1192-1335)
    • Second Ashikaga Shogunate (1335-1573)
    • Unification of the country; Tokugaev shogunate
  • Arab Caliphate (V-XI centuries AD)
• • Europe: transition to a new time
  • Consequences of the Great geographical discoveries
    • Colonial system of nascent capitalism
    • Development of science
  • Netherlands
  • England
    • Sources of primitive capital accumulation
    • Causes of the bourgeois revolution
    • The course of the bourgeois revolution
    • The results of the revolution
  • France
    • Features of socio-economic development
    • Economic policy. Henry IV. Richelieu. Colbertism.
  • Germany
    • Reformation
    • Thirty Years' War
• Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries.
  • Russia in the 16th century
    • The beginning of the reign of Ivan IV
    • Reforms of the 50s
    • agricultural revolution. Oprichnina
    • Foreign policy
    • Economy of Russia
  • XVII century in the history of Russia
    • End of intervention. Fight for Smolensk
    • Cathedral Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
    • Foreign policy
    • Internal political situation
    • Russian economy in the 17th century.
• Europe in the 18th century
  • Enlightenment is a necessary step in cultural development
    • English Enlightenment
    • French Enlightenment
    • Enlightened absolutism
  • Great French revolution
    • Stages of the Revolution
    • The most important events of the Jacobins
    • The results of the Revolution, its significance
  • Economic development European countries in the 18th century
    • Beginning of the Industrial Revolution in England
    • Agriculture
    • Shifts in social structure
• Russia in the 18th century
  • Russia under Peter I
    • Development of manufacturing production
    • Monetary reform
    • Social politics
  • Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 18th century
    • Industry
    • Domestic and foreign trade
    • Development of banking systems
    • Strengthening of feudal landownership and the dictatorship of the nobility
  • Enlightened absolutism in Russia
    • Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code
    • Russian enlighteners

medieval universities

Another part of the Western European medieval society was also mobile - students and masters. The first universities in Western Europe appeared precisely in classical Middle Ages. So, at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. Universities were opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and other European cities. Universities then were the most important and often the only source of information.

University power and university science was exceptionally strong. In this regard, in the XIV-XV centuries. the University of Paris stood out in particular. It is significant that among his students (and there were more than 30 thousand of them in total) there were also completely grown-up people and even old people: everyone came to exchange opinions and get acquainted with new ideas.

University science - scholasticism - is formed in the XI century. Its most important feature was boundless faith in the power of reason in the process of knowing the world. In the course of time, however, scholasticism becomes more and more dogma. Its provisions are considered infallible and final. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and denied experiments, becomes an obvious brake on the development of natural science in Western Europe.

Almost all departments in European universities were then occupied by monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and the usual topics of disputes and scientific works were: “Why did Adam eat an apple in Paradise and not a pear? and "How many angels can fit on the point of a needle?".

The whole system of university education had a very strong influence on the formation of Western European civilization. Universities contributed to the progress in scientific thought, the growth of public consciousness and the growth of individual freedom. Masters and students, moving from city to city, from university to university, which was a constant practice, carried out cultural exchange between countries.

National achievements immediately became known in other European countries. Thus, the "Decameron" by the Italian Javanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) was quickly translated into all the languages ​​​​of Europe, it was read and known everywhere. The beginning of book printing in 1453 also contributed to the formation of Western European culture. Johannes Gutenberg (between 1394-1399 or 1406-1468), who lived in Germany, is considered the first printer.