What states were part of the German Empire. Proclamation of the German Empire. Germany forges the foundations of its unprecedented economic strength

Continuing a series of publications on the topic of the German Reichs, and answering the question of where the First and Second Reichs have gone, we offer readers a brief article that briefly describes the key moments of the Second Reich - the German Empire, which lasted only 47 years, but played one of the key roles in formation modern world as we know it.

Second Reich– German Empire (1871-1918) During these years, the German state reaches highest point of his might. Germany is becoming the largest colonial power, playing one of the leading roles on the planet.

After the victory of the German army in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. King Wilhelm I and Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck begin the unification of German territories in order to seize leadership of the European continent from France. January 18, 1871 Bismarck and Wilhelm I announce the reunification of Germany. Bismarck's old dream came true - for the first time in history, a truly unified German state, the German Reich, was created.

The newly formed empire is joined by states that were not previously part of the North German Confederation (a state association that preceded the formation of the German Empire): Saxony and a number of other South German lands. However, Austria (the Austro-Hungarian Empire) did not enter the united Germany, which preferred independent development, although it continued to be an ally of the German Empire until its fall.

The victory over France was a powerful impetus for the development of the German economy and the rapid transformation of the country into a major world power. The huge indemnity paid to the Reich by the French formed a solid foundation in the construction of the German state.
So in the last quarter of the 19th century, a new powerful state appeared on the planet - the German Reich. The territory of the Second Reich was 540,857 km², the population exceeded 40 million people, and the army numbered almost 1 million bayonets.

Imperial power and state administration
According to the constitution, the first person of the German Empire was the Prussian king, who was the German emperor. However, the emperor had the right to participate in legislative matters only in the status of the Prussian king. The head of the German Empire promulgated laws; but since, according to the basic law, he did not even use the right of veto, this right of his should be considered only as a simple duty of the executive power. At the same time, the emperor had every right to issue personal orders. In a situation threatening the security of the state, he had the right, both in wartime and in peacetime, to declare a state of siege in any region of the empire (except Bavaria).

The emperor appointed and dismissed all the main imperial officials, starting with the chancellor, who in turn was the main person of the executive branch and at the same time the only state official responsible to the Reichstag and the federal council for all the activities of his branch of power. In addition to the Reich Chancellor himself, there was no position of minister in the empire. The functions of ministers were performed by secretaries of state, who were subordinate to the Reich Chancellor and presided over various imperial departments.

The parliament of the empire was bicameral, consisted of the Bundesrat (Allied Council) and the Reichstag (Imperial Assembly). The upper house - the Bundesrat - consisted of representatives of the lands appointed by local governments. The lower house - the Reichstag - was first elected for 3 years, and since 1888 - for 5 years by secret popular vote, in which men over 25 years old took part.

German economic power
By the end of the 19th century, imperial industry was experiencing rapid growth. Based on the latest technical achievements, Germany is getting the most modern chemical, metallurgical, and machine-building industries, electrical engineering is developing, and production is rapidly mechanizing and expanding. Industrial and banking monopolies are created in the empire. Moreover, this process is much more intensive than in other European countries. The bulk of lending operations are concentrated in the hands of a few giant banks firmly connected with the industrial monopolies. In the course of the formation of monopolies, famous financial magnates stand out: Kirdorf and Krupp, who concentrated in their hands colossal funds and the greatest economic power, which sooner or later had to be thrown out somewhere. The accumulation of a critical mass of economic, industrial and military potential of European empires caused the outbreak of the First World War - the first war in the history of mankind to complete annihilation.

Germany in the First World War - the culmination of the power of the empire and its collapse
The first months of the war were successful for Germany: Russian troops were defeated in East Prussia, the Germans occupied Belgium and Luxembourg, entered Northeast France. Paris is wholly and completely indebted only to the selfless offensive of Russia on the Eastern Front.

In the course of active hostilities in the first months of the war, Germany won many striking victories, but by 1915 the war had acquired a protracted positional character, things were going to the mutual exhaustion of all the parties involved. Despite the colossal industrial potential, Germany failed to organize a major offensive and thereby change the nature of hostilities. As a result, the strength of the empire was depleted, and the chances of its successful exit from the war were fading away every day.

Reich Chancellor Otto von Bismarck

As a result, in November 1918, Germany capitulated to the Entente countries. 47 years after its triumphant creation, the Second Reich fell, losing not only its colonies, but also part of its national territory. Emperor - Wilhelm II, fled to Holland and spent the rest of his days in exile. In Berlin, as well as shortly before that in Petrograd, a Provisional Government was formed, which signed the Treaty of Compiègne, shameful for Germany.

In January 1919, a peace conference, as a result of which Germany lost about 13% of its territory. Germany lost its ancestral territories: Alsace and Lorraine, West Prussia, Upper Silesia, southeastern Prussia and Northern Schleswig-Holstein. Together with these territories, Germany was deprived not only of human resources, but also of the prerequisites for economic growth, minerals and a number of important industries.

Most importantly, Germany was deprived of international equality. The dismemberment of the country, multimillion-dollar indemnity, the ban on having a regular army, total international humiliation, bordering on a real lynching, gave rise to deep disappointment in German society, nationwide resentment and discontent, and most importantly, a hitherto unconscious thirst for revenge. Most German citizens dreamed of reviving the power of their country, the great German Reich. A little more than ten years remained before the advent of the Nazis coming to power ...

Plan
Introduction
1. History
2 Administrative-territorial division
3 Armed forces
4 Central management
5 Colonies of Germany
6 First World War
7 German Empire (1918-1934)
8 German Empire (1934-1945)
Bibliography
German Empire

Introduction

German Empire (German) Deutsches Reich); the term Kaiser Germany is also found) - the name of the German state in 1871-1945. After the November Revolution of 1918, it continued to be called the German Reich ( Deutsches Reich) - a term that includes the Kaiser era. The founders of the German Empire are Otto von Bismarck and Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern. Sometimes it is also called the "Second Reich". The German Empire ceased to exist in May 1945, after the defeat in World War II. At present, in historiography, the name "German Empire" is used, as a rule, only for the period 1871-1918. (which corresponds to the term of the German historiography Deutsches Kaiserreich). Terms like Weimar Republic and the Third Reich, as a rule, do not belong to this term.

Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles. Bismarck in white in the center of the picture.

1. History

In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began. Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck and King Wilhelm I hoped to unite Germany and undermine the power of France as a result of the war. The French emperor Napoleon III sought to prevent the unification of Germany and maintain the European hegemony of France. The troops of the North German Confederation won a complete victory. On January 18, 1871, at Versailles, Bismarck and Wilhelm I announced the creation of the German Empire. The empire was quickly joined by states that were not part of the North German Confederation - Bavaria and other South German countries. Austria did not become part of Germany. The five billion francs that the French paid to the Germans as an indemnity became a solid foundation for the German economy. Bismarck became the second man in Germany, but this is only formal.

After Wilhelm's death in 1888, the mortally ill Frederick III succeeded to the throne. The second Sovereign reigned only 99 days.

After Frederick's death, his son Wilhelm ascended the throne. Shortly before his accession to the throne, Germany acquired colonies in Africa and Asia (Togo, Cameroon, German South-West Africa, the port of Qingdao), a military alliance was concluded with Austria and Russia (Russia soon withdrew from the union) against France and England, were enlarged army and navy. At the same time, a progressive income tax was introduced (the tax rate depends on income, and increases along with income). On November 9, 1918, a revolution began in Germany, as a result of which the monarchy was overthrown, and Wilhelm was forced to flee to the Netherlands.

2. Administrative-territorial division

After the unification of Germany, the rulers of the once independent German states retained their power and obeyed only the emperor - the king of Prussia. So in Germany there was no unified system administrative-territorial division.

The united state included:

Four semi-autonomous kingdoms:

Prussia

Saxony

Bavaria

Württemberg.

The governments of the three "free Hanseatic cities" retained their power:

Hamburg

· Bremen.

In addition, there were six Grand Duchies with Grand Dukes:

Hesse and the Rhine

Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Oldenburg

Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.

Five duchies:

Anhalt

Braunschweig

Saxe-Altenburg

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

Saxe-Meiningen

Seven principalities:

Waldeck

junior line Reuss

Reuss senior line

Schaumburg-Lippe

Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen

· Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.

The “Imperial Land” of Alsace-Lorraine stood out as a separate territory.

3. Armed Forces

4. Central control

According to the constitution, the presidency belonged to the Prussian king, who used the title of German emperor. The emperor had the right to participate in legislative matters only in his capacity as King of Prussia. The emperor had the right to promulgate laws; but since he did not even constitutionally enjoy the veto of delay, this right is a simple duty of the executive power. The emperor was given, however, a fairly broad right to issue his own orders. The emperor was given the right, in cases threatening public safety, both in wartime and in peacetime, to declare any part of the empire (with the exception of Bavaria) in a state of siege.

The emperor had the right to appoint and dismiss all the main imperial officials, starting with the chancellor. The Imperial Chancellor was the main organ of executive power and, at the same time, the only person responsible to the Federal Council and the Reichstag for all the actions of this power. Apart from the Chancellor himself, there were no ministers in the German Empire. Instead, there were state secretaries subordinate to the Reich Chancellor, who presided over the imperial departments (German. Reichsamter). This is how the Reichseisenbahnamt, Reichspostamt, Reichsjustizamt, Reichsschatzamt, Alsace-Lorraine administration, foreign and domestic political departments, Reichsmarineamt and finally Reichskolonialamt appeared.

5. Colonies of Germany

Germany joined the colonial race very late - in the mid-80s of the XIX century. Nevertheless, this did not prevent her from acquiring quite significant possessions in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

On the African continent this is Togo, Cameroon, German East Africa and German South West Africa.

· Togo - from the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century, together with part of Ghana - a German colony.

Cameroon - from the end of the XIX century - a protectorate of Germany.

· German East Africa - the continental part of Tanzania (Tanganyika), Rwanda and Burundi.

Tanganyika (continental part of Tanzania). Since the 1880s - under the rule of Germany.

· Burundi. Before colonization - Burundi. Since 1903 - included (as part of Ruanda-Urundi) in the colony of German East Africa.

Rwanda. From the end of the 19th century, it was captured by Germany and included (as part of Ruanda-Urundi) in the colony of German East Africa.

· German South West Africa - Namibia. Since 1884 - the German protectorate of German South-West Africa.

In Asia- the port of Qingdao (Kaitchou) on the Shandong Peninsula, captured in 1897, and then "leased" from the Chinese government for 99 years.

In Oceania- New Guinea, Micronesia (Nauru, Palau, Marshall, Caroline, Mariana Islands), Western Samoa.

German New Guinea

· New Guinea. Since the mid-1880s, the northeastern part of the island has been colonized by Germany.

Nauru. Since 1888 - part of the German protectorate of New Guinea.

· Palau. Since 1899 - a German colony.

The Mariana Islands were sold by Spain to Germany in 1889.

The Marshall Islands were captured in 1885. Since 1886 - a German protectorate.

· Caroline Islands also purchased from Spain.

Western Samoa. IN late XIX centuries captured by Germany.

After losing the First World War, Germany lost its overseas possessions. Togo and Cameroon were divided between Britain and France. Tanganyika went to Great Britain, Rwanda and Burundi - to Belgium. Namibia was ceded to the Union of South Africa. Qingdao is captured by Japan, New Guinea by Australia. The Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, Palau went to Japan, Western Samoa - to New Zealand. At the end of World War II, Japan lost its recent "German" acquisitions.

6. World War I

The beginning of the war was successful for Germany: Russian troops were defeated in East Prussia, the German army occupied Belgium and Luxembourg, invaded Northeast France. Paris was saved, but the threat remained.

Germany's allies fought worse: the Austrians were utterly defeated in Galicia, the Turks suffered many defeats on the Caucasian front. Italy betrayed its allies and on May 23, 1915 declared war on Austria-Hungary. Only with the help of the German army, the Austrians and Turks returned some positions, the Italians were defeated at Caporetto.

Germany won many victories in the course of active hostilities, but by 1915 a positional war began on all fronts, which was a mutual siege - for attrition. Despite its industrial potential, Germany could not defeat the enemy in a positional war. The German colonies were occupied. The Entente had an advantage in resources, and on November 11, 1918, two days after the start of the revolution, Germany surrendered. After the war, the country lay in ruins, absolutely exhausted. As a result, Germany was gripped by an economic crisis, at the height of which in December 1922 a kilogram of bread cost about 130 marks, and a year later - over 300 billion. In July 1923 the gold mark was worth 262,000 paper marks, and in November it was already 100 billion. Thus, in four months the price of a paper stamp fell 382,000 times.

German Empire (1918-1934)

German Empire (1934-1945)

Bibliography:

1. The arrest of Reich President Karl Dönitz and the "Flensburg government"

2. Hyperinflation in Germany in 1923.

German Empire

  • 1. German Confederation
  • 2. North German Confederation
  • 3. Formation of the German Empire
  • 4. Constitution of the German Empire 1871

1. In 1814 was formed German Confederation, consisting of 34 states (kingdoms, principalities, duchies) and four free cities - Frankfurt, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck.

The German Confederation was an international association of states. Each of the states that entered the union retained its independence. The real leadership in the union belonged to Austria. The only central authority was the Union Sejm, which consisted of representatives of the governments of the states that were part of the Union. The decisions of the Sejm required the unanimous consent of all its members, which paralyzed its activities.

Prussia, which instead of Austria claimed the role of a unifying force in Germany, adopted in 1818 a customs law that abolished all customs borders within the Prussian kingdom and proclaimed freedom of movement between all its provinces. In 1819, at the Vienna Conference of German Governments, Prussian delegates took the initiative to extend the Prussian customs law to the entire union.

Despite the anti-Prussian reaction of the Austrian government, from 1819 to 1833. Prussia achieved the conclusion of customs agreements with individual German governments. The result was the creation in 1834. Customs Union of German States, which included 20 members of the German Union under the leadership of Prussia. Austria tried to subordinate the Customs Union to the Federal Diet, but these attempts were thwarted by Prussia.

In 1847, at the conference of the Customs Union, the All-German bill of exchange charter was adopted, which for the first time applied uniform regulation of the bill of exchange. Its adoption strengthened the position of Prussia in the legal sphere, since the Prussian draft Bill of Exchange was taken as the basis for the charter.

In 1857, two drafts of the Commercial Code were presented for discussion by the Allied Sejm: the Prussian and the Austrian. The legislators chose the Prussian draft, more concise and clear, as the basis for the future all-German codification of commercial law. The adoption in 1861 of the All-German Commercial Code finally consolidated the leading role of Prussia in the creation of a single economic and legal space in Germany.

2. As a result of the war with Austria in 1866, Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Frankfurt and other lands, thereby increasing its territory. In the same 1866, the German Confederation was abolished and North German Confederation, which included all the North German states, as well as a number of Western and South German states.

In 1867, the constitution of the North German Confederation was adopted, according to which all power was transferred to the president of the union - the Prussian king, the chancellor and the All-Union Reichstag. The lower house of the Reichstag was created on the basis of universal suffrage.

3. In 1870, Prussia began a war with France, victoriously ending it and concluding in 1871 frankfurt world- an agreement under which Alsace and Lorraine were annexed to Germany and an indemnity of 5 billion francs was received.

The unification of Germany ended with the accession of Baden, Bavaria, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, which was formalized by agreements ratified by the parliaments of the respective countries. On January 18, 1871, in the Palace of Versailles, the King of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor under the name of Wilhelm I, and thus a new state arose in the center of Europe - German Empire.

4. According to the Constitution of the German Empire in 1871, the empire included 22 monarchies and several free cities.

The head of the empire was the Prussian king. The king was given the title of emperor. He was the head of the armed forces, appointed officials of the empire, including the head of government - the imperial chancellor. The emperor was given the right to appoint members of the upper house of parliament from Prussia. The constitution allowed him direct leadership of the ministers of the empire and of Prussia itself.

Members of the upper chamber - the Union Council (Bundesrat) - were appointed by the governments of the allied states. The Bundesrat was considered the highest representative body in which the German states were represented. The norms of representation from each land were set in the constitution. Prussia was represented by 17 deputies, the rest of the states had from one to six deputies.

The Federal Council, together with the Reichstag, represented the executive and legislative powers. The Reichstag was at first the constituent assembly, and then the body involved in legislation, the adoption of the budget and control over the executive branch.

The constitution gave the Reichstag an important place in the legislative process, but the actual power of the Reichstag was small. The laws passed by the Reichstag had to be approved by the Bundesrat. In cases where the Reichstag rejected a bill submitted by the government, the Bundesrat approved it as a decree. The imperial government was represented by a single person, the Chancellor. The Cabinet of Ministers did not exist.

During the Franco-Prussian war, the German lands were finally united and on January 18, 1871, the creation of the German Empire was solemnly proclaimed in Versailles, the first chancellor of which was A. Wismark. Since then, Germany has held key positions in European international relations.

According to the constitution of 1871, the German Empire was a federal union of 22 monarchies, in which individual states had internal autonomy. The supreme executive power belonged to the emperor, who appointed the imperial chancellor with broad powers. The emperor also had legislative power, he led the armed forces, had the right to declare war and make peace. The highest representative bodies were the Reichstag and the Federal Council (Bundesrat). The Reichstag had a legislative initiative and elections were held on the basis of universal suffrage. The Federal Council consisted of representatives of the governments of all German lands and solved external and internal political problems. The role of the legislature was limited and they could make laws only after prior agreement with the emperor. In addition, legislators were almost never consulted on important foreign policy issues. So "in comparison with France and England, the legislative bodies of Germany were small and could not influence government policy.

The overwhelming majority in the Reichstag were representatives of the Conservative Party, which reflected the interests of the big bourgeoisie and landlords. The party advocated strengthening the power of the emperor, demanded the introduction of agrarian protectionism and the buildup of the military power of the German army. The conservatives had a strong influence in the imperial government apparatus and the Prussian Landtag. Influential was the Catholic party, or the Center Party, which received 20-25% of the vote. Among its supporters were Christian trade unions, peasant and youth associations. This party advocated the freedom of activity of the Catholic Church and the preservation of church schools. At the beginning of the century, the position of the National Liberal Party (the "progressive" party), which represented the interests of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, significantly weakened. The reactionary part of the party, together with the conservatives, in 1904 formed the Imperial Union for the Struggle against Social Democracy. Social Democrats were also in opposition to the government, among whom the controversy connected with the attempt of By did not die out. Bernstein to direct the socialist movement not to revolutionary transformations, but to reformist paths of struggle for social rights.

The constitution was designed in such a way as to give the chancellor (until 1890 the country was actually ruled by A. von Bismarck) and the monarch full power. Universal suffrage was introduced only because Bismarck believed that the countryside would vote for the Conservative candidates. In addition, the division into constituencies took place in such a way as to provide an advantage precisely to the villagers. Bismarck considered the Liberals, the Center Party and the Social Democrats to be enemies as they tried to change the conservative character of the empire.

The centralization and unification of the governing bodies of the "liberal era" (1871-1878) made it possible to carry out a number of reforms of an all-imperial nature, the most important of which were the introduction of a single monetary system - marks, the creation of the Reichsbank (Reichsbank) and unified armed forces.

After the creation of the empire and the adoption of the constitution, Bismarck was faced with the task of curbing the opposition, in particular the Catholic Center Party and the Socialists. The "Iron Chancellor" Bismarck dealt the first blow to the Catholics. Of the 41 million population of the German Empire, 63% were Protestants, 36% were Roman Catholics.

The latter distrusted Protestant Prussia and often opposed the Bismarck government. Bismarck's ally in the fight against the Catholics was the liberals, who considered the Roman Catholic Church politically conservative and were afraid of its influence on a third of the Germans. Bismarck did not intend to destroy Catholicism in Germany, but set the task of undermining the political influence of the Catholic Center Party.

The German government's measures against Catholics were called "Kulturkampf" - the struggle for culture (1871-1887). This term came into use after, in 1873, the Prussian scholar and liberal statesman G. Virchow announced that the battle with the Catholics "acquired the character great battle for humanism."

In July 1871, Bismarck abolished the Catholic administration in the Prussian Ministry of Education and Spiritual Affairs. In November of the same year, Catholic priests were forbidden to speak on political topics during sermons. In March 1872 all religious schools were placed under state control. In the summer of the same year, priest teachers were released from public schools, the Jesuit order was banned from operating in Germany, and diplomatic relations with the Vatican were severed. In May 1873 the Prussian Minister of Culture A. Falk took the appointment of priests under state control. The culmination of "Kulturkampfu" was 1875 p., When a law on compulsory civil marriage was passed in Germany. Dioceses that did not comply with the orders of officials were closed, priests were expelled, and church property was confiscated.

However, Bismarck could not overcome the resistance of the Catholics, which, on the contrary, intensified. In the 1874 elections to the Reichstag, the Center Party doubled its representation. Bismarck, as a pragmatic politician, decided to retreat and admitted that some of his measures were too cruel and did not achieve the desired goal. In the 1980s, most of the Kulturkampfu legislation was repealed.

The reason for the fight against the socialists, who in 1875 created a single Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and in the elections of 1877 to the Reichstag received the support of almost 500 thousand people and got 12 deputies into parliament, was the assassination attempt on Wilhelm i on May 11 and June 2, 1878. On June 2, the emperor was seriously wounded. Bismarck dissolved the Reichstag and called new elections, which were held in an atmosphere of frenzied propaganda against the Social Democrats, who were accused of terrorist acts. In the new composition of the Reichstag, the right-wing parties received a majority. On October 19, 1878, they adopted the Law Against the Socially Dangerous Intentions of Social Democracy, which was introduced as a temporary one for 2 years, but was valid until 1890. During its operation, more than 2 thousand people were arrested or deported from the country, hundreds of periodicals , workers' unions and unions are closed and banned.

However, the Socialists kept the party alive even while operating in Switzerland. Here the official organ of the party was published - the newspaper "Social Democrat", which was illegally delivered to Germany and distributed among the workers. The real leader of the party was A. Bebel, who defended the idea of ​​fighting for socialism by peaceful means. The influence of the Social Democrats grew and in 1887 they brought 24 deputies to parliament. The fight against the Social Democrats for Bismarck ended in failure. In 1912, the Social Democrats won 110 out of 397 seats in the Reichstag.

In the early 80s, Bismarck made statements about the need for broad social reforms in the spirit of the theory of "social monarchy", which provided for the strengthening of the monarchical regime by achieving social harmony between different strata and classes of society, the introduction of labor legislation and the practical provision of social protection.

Bismarck ran into opposition in the Reichstag among the deputies who represented the circle of wealthy industrialists, since social reforms really threatened their super-high profits. The chancellor managed to break the opposition with the support of the emperor and broad public thought. In 1883-1889 pp. The Reichstag passed three laws on insurance against sickness, injury, old age and disability (the latter provided for the payment of a pension to workers who have reached the age of 70). Germany became the first country in Europe to adopt broad social legislation.

However domestic politics Bismarck, aimed at supporting the accelerated social and economic modernization of Germany for trying to prevent any reform of the authoritarian political system, led to constant political crises and was criticized by polar political forces. After the death of Wilhelm I in 1888, his grandson Wilhelm II (1888-1941) became emperor. His relationship with the 74-year-old Chancellor was tense from the start. The reason for the final break was the results of the elections to the Reichstag in 1890, in which almost 1.5 million voters voted for the socialists. The law against the socialists had to be repealed and the offended chancellor resigned. The emperor did not stop him, assuring everyone that the course of the founder of the German Empire would remain unchanged.

Bismarck's successor was JI. von Caprivi, a former military man and an insufficiently experienced politician. Unlike his predecessor, the new chancellor tried to cooperate with polar political forces - the Center Party and the Social Democrats. With their support, customs tariffs for the import of grain crops to Germany were reduced, and profitable trade agreements were concluded with Russia, Austria-Hungary and Romania. Food prices fell, industrial growth began and the standard of living of the population increased. However, the wealthy landowners were offended that the chancellor neglected their interests for the sake of other segments of the population. Having great political influence in Prussia, the junkers in 1894 were able to dismiss Caprivi.

Chancellors changed frequently until 1900, when By became the new head of government. von Bülow, who actively supported the policy of "pan-Germanism" aimed at establishing world domination. On his initiative, the Pannimetsky Union was created - an organization of an openly chauvinistic persuasion, which united conservatives, national liberals and the military. their plans envisaged the expansion of Germany to the West - against England and France to the East (the so-called "Drang nach Osten"), primarily against Russia, and to the Middle East. Military spending grew - in 1913 they accounted for almost half of the country's total spending. Enormous funds were allocated for the construction of the navy, and on the eve of the First World War, Germany became the second naval power after Great Britain.

at the end of the 19th century. In terms of industrial production, Germany took second place in the world, and in terms of economic development, it outstripped Great Britain and overtook the United States. The prerequisite for such a dynamic development of the country's economy was the unification of German lands and the formation of the German Empire in 1871, which completed the formation of a single internal market and the industrial revolution. This was also facilitated by the presence of significant natural resources, in particular deposits of coal and iron ore, the experience of economic development of other countries, a 5 billion indemnity from defeated France, high level concentration of production and capital, agricultural productivity, etc.

The beginning of the 1970s is known in German history as the years of "Gründerstvo" (from German - to found). In 1871-1873. 857 new industrial associations with billions of dollars of capital were founded. The railway network has doubled in size. At the expense of French gold, the state began to pay its citizens their debts for previous state and military loans. Thousands of Germans invested in shares of new companies, receiving huge dividends and demonstrating their patriotism and faith in the future of the German Empire. The economic boom continued until the European economic crisis in 1873. Over the next six years, the prices of the nation's agricultural and industrial products plummeted, with almost 20% of newly founded companies going bankrupt. Cheap grain from Russia and the United States reduced the income of large landowners - junkers. A direct consequence of the economic crisis was a huge emigration, especially from the overcrowded rural areas of Prussia. During the 1970s, about 600,000 Germans left for South and North America.

In the 1980s, the revival of German industry began. Every year several dozen monopolies were created, joint-stock companies with big capital.

Monopoly (from the Greek monos - one, poleo - sell) - a capitalist association that monopolized, by agreement among themselves, individual branches of production in order to squeeze out and conquer competitors, as well as to obtain monopoly profits. The emergence of monopolies is a natural result of the concentration of production and capital. Monopolies have forms: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. The first monopolies arose as early as the manufacturing period of capitalist production on the basis of merchant guilds and companies of adventurers in the form of various merchant societies.

In the period 1882-1895. the number of established industrial companies increased by 4.6%, and enterprises employing more than 500 people - by 90%. Among the largest can be identified: "Rhenish-Westphalian iron foundry cartel", "German union of rolling mills", "Rhine-Westphalian coal syndicate" and the like. This made it possible to increase the smelting of iron and steel by 6 times, and coal mining by 3 times. At the end of the XIX century. In terms of production of iron and steel, Germany came in second place in the world, behind only the United States. In the first decades of the 20th century. The decisive role in the industry was played by the Thyssen metallurgical concerns, the I.G. Farbenindustri chemical concern, the General Electric Company (AEG) electrical engineering concern, and others.

Simultaneously with the concentration of production, there was a concentration of capital. The leading place was occupied by the German Bank, the Dresden Bank, the National Bank of Germany. The owners of large industrial enterprises joined the boards of banks, creating powerful financial and industrial groups. In the first decade of the 20th century. 9 major German banks concentrated in their hands more than 80% of banking capital. German capital was actively involved in the construction of railways, invested in underdeveloped countries, and contributed to the expansion of German foreign economic relations.

Agriculture was dominated by large cadet farms (more than 100 hectares of land), in which hired labor was used, agricultural machines were widely used, the achievements of agronomic science were introduced, which made it possible to significantly increase productivity. There was a considerable stratum of wealthy peasants - Grosbauerіv, who practically provided Germany with food and supported the policy of protectionism pursued by the government, which should save them from competition from foreign producers.

The high rates of economic development in Germany after 1871 led to the displacement of British products in world markets. German industry demanded new markets and stimulated the foreign policy activity of the state. But in order to win a "place in the sun", it was necessary to oust rivals from the colonies, primarily England. Anglo-German rivalry became decisive in the territorial division of the world.

German industrialists, united in the Pannimetsky Union, came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a colonial empire in Africa, South America and in the Middle East. The attention of politicians in Berlin was riveted to the Transvaal with rich deposits of gold and diamonds. Most of the mines were under the control of the South African Company, which enjoyed the support of the London bankers. The active penetration of German capital into South Africa began with financing by a group of banks headed by the "Deutsche Bank" Siemens of the construction of a railway that connected the capital of the Transvaal - Pretoria - with the ocean coast. In the end, the German colonial capital managed to establish control over the financial system of the Transvaal. At the same time, broad prospects opened up for Germany's economic penetration into Turkey. In 1898, the Turkish sultan agreed to grant Germany a concession for the construction of the Bosphorus-Baghdad railway and further to the Persian Gulf.

Baghdad Railway- the name of the railway line (approximately 2400 km), connecting the Bosporus with the Persian Gulf, 1898 German Kaiser Wilhelm II traveled to Palestine in the "holy places" of Christianity. In a public lecture in Damascus, he declared himself a friend of 300 million Muslims and their Caliph, the Turkish Sultan. As a result of this visit, the German Bank received an order to finance construction from 1899. Baghdad railway, which should pass through all of Asia Minor to Baghdad and further to the Persian Gulf. This strengthened German influence in Ottoman Empire and conditions were created for the further penetration of Germany into the Middle and Middle East. According to contemporaries. The Baghdad railway was supposed to be "a loaded pistol at the temple of England." The granting of a concession by Turkey to Germany caused an aggravation of the international situation. Construction was completed in 1934-1941. private English and French companies,

Berlin abandoned its claims to South Africa, counting on British support for its plans for Turkey.

In the struggle for colonies, German diplomacy tried to use the contradictions between the great powers. At the beginning of the XX century. (in 1905 and 1911) Germany provoked the Moroccan crises. In March 1905, during his stay in the Moroccan port of Tangier, Emperor Wilhelm II declared that he considered Morocco, which was in the sphere of influence of France, an independent country and Germany would not tolerate the domination of any state in Morocco. The negative reaction of Paris was predictable, but Wilhelm II increased the heat with a reminder of the successes of the German army in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. Frank German blackmail forced France to agree to consider the question of Morocco at an international conference that began in January 1906. France was supported by England and Russia and, unexpectedly for Germany, by Italy, which, back in 1900, received France's consent to seize Cyrenaica and Tripolitania and thus gave her a debt of sorts. At the conference, it was decided that Morocco remained formally an independent state, but France and Italy received exclusive control over the Moroccan police and financial system. French penetration into Morocco became more and more palpable. In the spring of 1911 French troops under the pretext of suppressing the uprising of the Moroccan tribes occupied the capital of Morocco - the city of Fetz. And this time, Germany intervened with the "Panther jump". In July 1911, the German warship Panther anchored in the Moroccan port of Agadir. military force force France to agree to the division of Morocco. However, the provocation of Germany was not successful. The British government declared that in the event of a conflict, Great Britain would not remain neutral and would support its ally France. Berlin was forced to yield. On November 8, 1911, the Franco-German agreement was signed, according to which Germany renounced claims to Morocco for insignificant compensation in the form of part of the French Congo annexed to German Cameroon.

In South America, Germany took control of Chile, in whose economy German capital poured in, the volume of trade exceeded English and American, the armed forces were under German control. Germany organized a wide emigration here, creating compact colonies with pan-Nimets ideology.

Particularly tense was the Anglo-German naval confrontation associated with the implementation by Germany of the great naval program of 1898, which provided for the allocation of more than 300 million marks of annual appropriations for the construction of new ships. Although the overall ratio of ships by tonnage remained in favor of England, Germany came close to her in terms of the number of the most powerful dreadnoughts. Negotiations between both countries on the limitation naval forces ended in vain and the arms race continued.

The Italo-Turkish War of 1911 and the Ballet of the Encounter War of 1912-1913. became a test for the Austro-German bloc and accelerated Germany's preparations for war. In 1914 alone, it was planned to allocate 1.5 billion marks for military needs. German General base believed that in 1914 the most appropriate for the start of the war, since Germany was significantly ahead of the Entente countries in terms of readiness. Any delay could be dangerous, the German strategists believed, because England, France and Russia had the opportunity to radically change the situation, which would lead to the loss of Germany's advantages. Having set a course for war, German diplomacy tried to ensure the participation of its ally, Austria-Hungary, which was assigned the role of the initiator of the military conflict.

  • Foreign policy of European countries in the XVIII century.
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      • Foreign policy of Catherine II in the 80s.
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    • War of Independence in the English Colonies of North America
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  • Leading countries of the world in the XIX century.
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Formation of the German Empire

In the course of the revolution in Germany, the question of the national unification of the country, of the structure of a united Germany, was put forward. The difficult question was under whose auspices the unification of Austria or Prussia would take place. Most of the German bourgeoisie supported the plan to create a "Little Germany", i.e. the unification of the German states under the auspices of the Prussian dynasty of Hohenzollern without the inclusion of Austria.

In 1862, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), the Bundeschancellor, was placed at the head of the Prussian government, responsible only to the President of the North German Confederation, who was the King of Prussia. Bismarck proceeded to unify Germany "with iron and blood." The first steps in the unification process were the wars of Prussia with Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866.

According to the Peace of Prague, the states of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, Frankfurt were annexed to Prussia. Austria abstained from participating in resolving German issues. The Peace of Prague also provided for the creation of the North German Union from the states located north of the river. Mine. Prussia was now the undisputed leader of the national unification of Germany.

Russia maintained its neutrality and thereby facilitated the unification process of Prussia. In the North German Confederation formed in 1867, Prussia played a leading role, which was ensured primarily by the transfer of command over the allied forces to it.

The interests of the bourgeoisie were supported by the introduction complete freedom movement, a unified system of measures and weights, the abolition of the remnants of workshop privileges, which opened up more opportunities for successful development capitalism and strengthened the alliance of the bourgeoisie with government circles. However, the bourgeoisie did not actually gain access to political power. Remnants of feudalism continued to affect various fields life.

The military and political successes of Prussia frightened France. The government of Napoleon III considered it timely in 1870 to start a war against Prussia. Prussia was more prepared for war than France. If Prussia mobilized over 1 million people, then the French army after mobilization totaled 500 thousand people. Surpassed quantitatively and qualitatively and weapons of the Prussian army.

At the first stage, the Franco-Prussian War was historically progressive for the Germans, as they sought to complete the national unification of Germany. France, on the other hand, set itself the goal of delaying the unification of the German states into a single state and retaining its predominant influence in Europe.

On August 4, 1870, German troops launched a general offensive. France immediately began to fail. In the battle in the Sedan area, the numerically superior German troops dealt a crushing blow to the French army. On September 2, by order of Napoleon III, the sedan fortress capitulated. Since September 1870, the nature of the Franco-Prussian War has changed. Now France is waging a war of liberation, and Germany is waging an aggressive war - she is striving to tear Alsace and Lorraine from France.

On October 27, 1870, Marshal A. Baeen (1811-1888) surrendered the Metz fortress with 180,000 troops without a fight. With the surrender of the French, significant enemy forces were released to ensure the siege of Paris. January 18, 1871 Wilhelm I (1797-1888) in the palace French kings Versailles was solemnly proclaimed Hereditary King of the German Empire.

Fear of revolutionary action by the workers forced the French government to conclude peace as soon as possible. On January 28, a truce was signed on difficult terms. The peace treaty concluded on May 10, 1871, was even more difficult. France pledged to pay 5 billion francs indemnity, conceded Alsace and the north-eastern part of Lorraine to Germany.

The victory of Prussia over France completed the unification of Germany into a single state - the German Empire.

The unification of Germany was completed "from above", during the war of conquest. The Prussian Junkers (large landowners) acted as the dominant force in the unification process, in which the policy of militarism played an enormous role.

Those German states that remained outside the North German Confederation were subordinated by Bismarck to Prussia. The German Empire united 22 German monarchies and three free cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg. In April 1871, the German constitution was adopted, which approved the federal state structure of the country.

The national unification of Germany was a progressive further development capitalism in the country. However, the form of unification led by the Prussian monarchy was reactionary and dangerous for the peoples of Europe. The triumph of Germany turned her military forces into the most important instrument of internal and foreign policy. The ruling circles put forward the goal of Germany's breakthrough to world domination.

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