To date, there is no exact hypothesis about how and where ancient human ancestors. Most scientists are of the opinion about the common ancestor in humans and monkeys. It is believed that about 5-8 million years ago, the evolution of anthropoid apes went in two separate directions. Some of them remained to live in the animal world, and the rest, after millions of years, turned into people.

Rice. 1 - Human evolution

Dryopithecus

One of the ancient ancestors of man is Dryopithecus "tree monkey"(Fig. 2), who lived in Africa and Europe 25 million years ago. He led a herd life, was strikingly similar to the modern chimpanzee. Due to the fact that he constantly lived in trees, his forelimbs could turn in any direction, which played a lot important role further development of man.

Features of driopithecus:

• developed upper limbs contributed to the emergence of the ability to manipulate objects;
• coordination improved, color vision formed. There was a transition from a herd to a social way of life, as a result of which speech sounds began to develop;
• increased brain size;
• a thin layer of enamel on the teeth of driopithecus indicates the predominance of food of plant origin in its diet.

Rice. 2 - Dryopitek - the early ancestor of man

Remains of Australopithecus (Fig. 3) were found in Africa. Lived about 3-5.5 million years ago. Walked on his feet, but his arms were much longer than modern man. The climate of Africa gradually changed, became drier, which led to a decrease in forests. Most of the anthropoids have adapted to new living conditions in the open. Due to the hot climate ancient human ancestors, basically began to move on their feet, which saved them from overheating of the sun (the area of ​​​​the back is much larger than the crown of the head). As a result, this led to a decrease in sweating, thereby reducing water consumption.

Features of Australopithecus:

• knew how to use primitive objects of labor: sticks, stones, and so on;
• the brain was 3 times smaller than the brain of a modern person, but much more brain the great apes of our time;
• differed in short stature: 110-150 cm, and body weight could be from 20 to 50 kg;
• ate vegetable and meat food;
• earned his livelihood, using for this purpose personally made tools;
• life span - 18-20 years.

Rice. 3 - Australopithecus

(Fig. 4) lived approximately 2-2.5 million years ago. The posture of his figure was very close to that of a human. Moved to upright position, from this he received his second name - "upright man." Habitat Africa, as well as some places in Asia and Europe. In the Olduvai Gorge (East Africa), next to the remains of a "handy" man, things from partially processed pebbles were found. This suggests that the ancient ancestors of man of that time already knew how to create simple objects of labor and hunting, and choose raw materials for their manufacture. Presumably a direct descendant of Australopithecus.

Features of a "skillful" person:

• brain size - 600 cm²;
• the front part of the skull became smaller, giving way to the brain part;
• the teeth are not very large, like in Australopithecus;
• was omnivorous;
• the foot acquired an arch, which contributed to better walking on two limbs;
• the hand has become more developed, thereby expanding its grasping abilities, and the grip strength has increased;
• although the larynx was not yet able to reproduce speech, the part of the brain responsible for this was finally formed.

Rice. 4 - Man "skillful"

Homo erectus

Other name - erectus(Fig. 5). No doubt considered a representative of the human race. There was 1 million - 300 years ago. It got its name from the final transition to straight walking.

Features of Homo erectus:

• had the ability to speak and think abstractly;
• he knew how to create quite complex objects of labor, handle fire. There is an assumption that an erect man could make fire on his own;
• appearance resembles the features of modern people. However, there are significant differences: the walls of the skull are quite thick, the frontal bone is located lower and has massive supraocular protrusions. The heavy lower jaw is larger, and the chin protrusion is almost invisible;
• males were much larger than females;
• height about 150-180 cm, brain size increased to 1100 cm³.

The way of life of the erect walking ancestor of man consisted in hunting and picking up edible plants, berries, mushrooms. inhabited social groups which contributed to the formation of speech. It may have been supplanted by the Neanderthal 300 thousand years ago, but this version has no solid arguments.

Rice. 5 - Erectus

Pithecanthropus

Pithecanthropus - rightfully considered one of the ancient human ancestors. This is one of the varieties of an upright person. Habitat Halo: Southeast Asia, lived about 500-700 thousand years ago. The remains of the "monkey man" were first found on the island of Java. It is assumed that he is not a direct ancestor modern humanity, most likely it can be considered our "cousin".

Sinanthropus

Another type of human "upright". It existed 600-400 thousand years ago in the current territory of China. Sinanthropes are relatively developed ancient human ancestors.

A representative of the human race, previously it was considered a subspecies of a “reasonable” person. Its habitat is Europe and North Africa more than 100 thousand years ago. The period of life of the Neanderthals fell just in time for the ice age, respectively, in harsh climatic conditions, they had to take care of making clothes and building housing. The main food is meat. It does not belong to the direct relationship of a reasonable person, but he could well live next to the Cro-Magnons, which contributed to their mutual interbreeding. Some scientists believe that there was a constant struggle between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, which led to the extinction of the Neanderthals. It is assumed that both species preyed on each other. Neanderthals (Fig. 6) had a massive, large physique, compared with Cro-Magnons.

Features of Neanderthals:

• brain size - 1200-1600 cm³;
• height - about 150 cm;
• due to the large brain, the skull had a backwards shape. True, the frontal bone was located low, the cheekbones had a wide shape, and the jaw itself was large. The chin had a slightly pronounced character, and the superciliary ridge was distinguished by an impressive protrusion.

Rice. 6 - Neanderthal

Neanderthals led a cultural life: musical instruments were found during excavations. Religion was also present, as indicated by special rites at the funeral of their fellow tribesmen. There is evidence that these ancient human ancestors possessed medical knowledge. For example, they knew how to heal fractures.

A direct descendant of a "reasonable" person. It existed about 40 thousand years ago.

Features of Cro-Magnons (Fig. 7):

• had a more developed human appearance. Distinctive features: a fairly high straight forehead, the absence of a superciliary ridge, a chin protrusion of a brighter shape;
• height - 180 cm, but body weight is much less than that of Neanderthals;
• brain size was 1400-1900 cm³;
• owned a clear speech;
• considered the founder of the first true human cell;
• lived in groups of 100 people, so to speak, tribal communities, building the first villages;
• was engaged in the construction of huts, dugouts, using the skins of dead animals for this. He created clothes, household items and hunting tools;
• knew agriculture;
• he went hunting with a group of fellow tribesmen, chasing and driving the animal into a prepared trap. Over time, he learned to domesticate animals;
• had its own highly developed culture, which has survived to this day in the form of rock paintings and clay sculptures;
• performed rituals during the burial of relatives. It follows from this that the Cro-Magnons, like the Neanderthals, believed in another life after death;

Science officially believes that it is the Cro-Magnon man who is the direct descendant of modern people.

The ancient ancestors of man will be considered in more detail in the following lectures.

Rice. 7 - Cro-Magnon

Human evolution is a theory of the origin of humans created by the English naturalist and traveler Charles Darwin. He claimed that the ancient one was descended from a monkey. To confirm his theory, Darwin traveled a lot and tried to collect different ones.

It is important to emphasize here that evolution (from Latin evolutio - “deployment”), as a natural process of the development of wildlife, accompanied by a change in the genetic composition of populations, really takes place.

But with regard to the emergence of life in general and the emergence of man in particular, evolution is rather meager on scientific evidence. It is no coincidence that it is still considered just a hypothetical theory.

Some tend to believe in evolution, considering it the only reasonable explanation for the origin of modern people. Others completely reject evolution as an anti-scientific thing, and prefer to believe that man was created by the Creator without any intermediate options.

So far, neither side has been able to scientifically convince opponents that they are right, so we can confidently assume that both positions are based purely on faith. What do you think? Write about it in the comments.

But let's deal with the most common terms associated with the Darwinian idea.

australopithecines

Who are Australopithecus? This word can often be heard in pseudo-scientific conversations about human evolution.

Australopithecus (southern monkeys) are upright descendants of driopithecus that lived in the steppes about 4 million years ago. These were quite highly developed primates.

skillful man

It was from them that the most ancient view people whom scientists call Homo habilis - "handy man."

The authors of the theory of evolution believe that in appearance and structure a skilled man did not differ from anthropoid apes, but at the same time he already knew how to make primitive cutting and chopping tools from roughly processed pebbles.

Homo erectus

The fossil species of people Homo erectus (“upright man”), according to the theory of evolution, appeared in the East and already 1.6 million years ago spread widely across Europe and Asia.

Homo erectus was of medium height (up to 180 cm) and was distinguished by a straight gait.

Representatives of this species learned to make stone tools for labor and hunting, used animal skins as clothing, lived in caves, used fire and cooked food on it.

Neanderthals

Once upon a time, the Neanderthal man (Homo neanderthalensis) was considered the ancestor of modern man. This species, according to the theory of evolution, appeared about 200 thousand years ago, and ceased to exist 30 thousand years ago.

Neanderthals were hunters and had a powerful physique. However, their height did not exceed 170 centimeters. Scientists now believe that Neanderthals were most likely just a side branch of the evolutionary tree from which man originated.

Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens (in Latin - Homo sapiens) appeared, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, 100-160 thousand years ago. Homo sapiens built huts and huts, sometimes even living pits, the walls of which were sheathed with wood.

They skillfully used bows and arrows, spears and bone hooks for catching fish, and also built boats.

Homo sapiens was very fond of painting the body, decorating clothes and household items with drawings. It was Homo sapiens who created the human civilization that exists and develops to this day.

Stages of development of ancient man according to the theory of evolution

It should be said that this entire evolutionary chain of human origin is exclusively Darwin's theory, which still has no scientific evidence.

Scientists have not been able to come to a consensus about who the ancestors of people are, debates in scientific circles have been going on for more than a century. The most popular is evolutionary theory proposed by the famous Charles Darwin. Taking for truth the fact that man is a "descendant" of the great ape, it is interesting to trace the main stages of evolution.

Evolutionary theory: human ancestors

As already mentioned, most scientists are inclined to agree with the evolutionary version that explains the Ancestors of people, if you rely on this theory, the great apes. The transformation process took over 30 million years, the exact figure has not been established.

The founder of the theory is Charles Darwin, who lived in the 19th century. It is based on factors such as natural selection, hereditary variability.

Parapithecus

Parapithecus is the common ancestor of humans and apes. Presumably, these animals inhabited the earth 35 million years ago. It is these that are currently considered the initial link in the evolution of great apes. Dryopithecus, gibbons and orangutans are their "descendants".

Unfortunately, little is known about ancient primates, the data was obtained thanks to paleontological finds. It has been established that tree monkeys preferred to settle in trees or open spaces.

Dryopithecus

Dryopithecus is an ancient ancestor of man, descended, if we rely on the available data, from parapithecus. The time of appearance of these animals is not precisely established, scientists suggest that this happened about 18 million years ago. Semi-terrestrial apes gave rise to gorillas, chimpanzees and australopithecines.

To establish that driopithecus can be called the ancestor of modern man, the study of the structure of the teeth and jaw of the animal helped. The material for the study was the remains found in France in 1856. It is known that the hands of driopithecus allowed them to grab and hold objects, as well as throw them. Great apes settled mainly on trees, preferred a herd way of life (protection from attacks of predators). Their food was mainly fruits and berries, which is confirmed by a thin layer of enamel on the molars.

australopithecines

Australopithecus is a highly developed ape-like ancestor of man, who supposedly inhabited the earth about 5 million years ago. The monkeys used their hind limbs for locomotion and walked in a half-upright position. The growth of the average Australopithecus was 130-140 cm, there were also higher or lower individuals. Body weight also differed - from 20 to 50 kg. It was also possible to establish the volume of the brain, which was approximately 600 cubic centimeters, this figure is higher than that of the great apes living today.

Obviously, the transition to upright posture led to the release of hands. Gradually, the predecessors of man began to master the primitive tools used to fight enemies, hunt, but have not yet begun to make them. Stones, sticks, animal bones acted as tools. Australopithecus preferred to settle in groups, as this helped to effectively defend themselves from enemies. Food preferences were different, not only fruits and berries were used, but also animal meat.

Outwardly, Australopithecus looked more like monkeys than like people. Their bodies were covered with thick hair.

skillful man

A skilled man outwardly practically did not differ from Australopithecus, but significantly surpassed him in development. It is believed that the first representative of the human race appeared about two million years ago. For the first time the remains were found in Tanzania, it happened in 1959. The volume of the brain, which a skilled person possessed, exceeded that of Australopithecus (the difference was about 100 cubic centimeters). The growth of the average individual did not go beyond 150 cm.

These descendants of Australopithecus earned their name primarily for the fact that they began to make primitive tools. Products were mostly stone, used during hunting. It was possible to establish that meat was constantly present in the diet of a skilled person. The study of the biological characteristics of the brain allowed scientists to assume the likelihood of the beginnings of speech, but this theory has not received direct confirmation.

Homo erectus

The settlement of this species occurred about a million years ago, the remains of Homo erectus were found in Asia, Europe, and Africa. The volume of the brain possessed by representatives of Homo erectus was up to 1100 cubic centimeters. They were already able to make sounds-signals, but these sounds still remained inarticulate.

Homo erectus is known primarily for the fact that it succeeded in collective activity, which was facilitated by the increased brain volume in comparison with the previous links in evolution. The ancestors of people successfully hunted large animals, learned how to make fire, as evidenced by the heaps of charcoal found in the caves, as well as burnt bones.

Homo erectus had the same height as a skilled man, differed by the archaic structure of the skull (low frontal bone, sloping chin). Until recently, scientists believed that representatives of this species disappeared about 300 thousand years ago, but recent findings refute this theory. It is possible that Homo erectus caught the appearance

Neanderthals

Not so long ago it was assumed that Neanderthals are direct ancestors. However, recent data suggest that they represent a dead end evolutionary branch. Representatives of Homo neanderthalensis had a brain, the volume of which was approximately equal to the volume of the brain, which is endowed with modern people. Outwardly, Neanderthals almost did not resemble monkeys, the structure of their lower jaw indicates the ability to articulate speech.

It is believed that Neanderthals appeared about 200 thousand years ago. The places of residence they chose depended on the climate. These could be caves, rocky sheds, river banks. The tools that the Neanderthals made became more advanced. The main source of subsistence was hunting, which was practiced by large groups.

It was possible to find out that the Neanderthals had certain rituals, including those associated with the afterlife. It was they who had the first rudiments of morality, expressed in concern for fellow tribesmen. The first timid steps were taken in such a field as art.

Homo sapiens

The first representatives of Homo sapiens appeared about 130 thousand years ago. Some scientists suggest that this happened even earlier. Outwardly, they looked almost the same? like the people who inhabit the planet today, the volume of the brain did not differ.

Artifacts found as a result of archaeological excavations make it possible to assert that the first people were highly developed in terms of culture. This is evidenced by such finds as cave paintings, various decorations, sculptures and engravings created by them. Approximately 15 thousand years it took a reasonable person to populate the entire planet. The improvement of labor tools led to the development of a productive economy; Homo sapiens became popular with such activities as animal husbandry and agriculture. The first large settlements belong to the Neolithic era.

Humans and monkeys: similarities

Similarities between humans and great apes are still the subject of research. Monkeys are able to move on their hind limbs, but the hands are used as a support. The fingers of these animals do not contain claws, but nails. The number of ribs of the orangutan is 13 pairs, while the representatives of the human race have 12. The number of incisors, canines and molars in humans and monkeys is the same. It is also impossible not to note the similar structure of organ systems, sensory organs.

The similarities between humans and great apes become especially pronounced when we consider the ways of expressing feelings. They show sadness, anger, joy in the same way. They have a developed parental instinct, which is manifested in caring for the cubs. They not only caress their offspring, but also punish them for disobedience. Monkeys have excellent memory, are able to hold objects and use them as tools.

Humans and monkeys: the main differences

Not all scientists agree that great apes are the ancestors of modern man. the average is 1600 cubic centimeters, while this figure in animals is 600 cubic centimeters. see Approximately 3.5 times different and the area of ​​the cerebral cortex.

The list of differences related to appearance can be long. For example, representatives of the human race have a chin, inverted lips, allowing you to see the mucous membrane. They do not have fangs, the VID centers are more developed. Monkeys have a barrel-shaped chest, while humans have a flat chest. Also, a person is distinguished by an expanded pelvis, reinforced sacrum. In animals, the length of the body exceeds the length of the lower limbs.

People have consciousness, they are able to generalize and abstract, to use abstract and concrete thinking. Representatives of the human race are able to create tools, develop such areas as art and science. They have a linguistic form of communication.

Alternative theories

As already mentioned, not all people agree that monkeys are the ancestors of man. Darwin's theory has many opponents who bring more and more new arguments. There are also alternative theories explaining the appearance of representatives of Homo sapiens on planet Earth. The most ancient is the theory of creationism, which implies that a person is a creation created by a supernatural being. The appearance of the creator depends on religious beliefs. For example, Christians believe that people appeared on the planet thanks to God.

Another popular theory is the cosmic one. It says that the human race is of extraterrestrial origin. This theory considers the existence of people as the result of an experiment conducted by the cosmic mind. There is another version, which says that the human race originated from alien beings.

The textbook complies with the Federal State educational standard medium (full) general education recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and included in the Federal List of Textbooks.

The textbook is addressed to students in grade 11 and is designed to teach the subject 1 or 2 hours per week.

Modern design, multi-level questions and tasks, Additional Information and the possibility of parallel work with an electronic application contribute to the effective assimilation of educational material.

Remember!

List the main factors of human evolution. Which of them are common to the evolution of all living organisms?

The study of human evolution is mainly based on the study of fossil remains.

human predecessors. At the very end of the Mesozoic era, first placental mammals. About 35 million years ago from primitive insectivores a group of animals separated, which later gave rise to primates. Of those living today, the closest to this group are tupai - lower primates. In the Paleogene cenozoic era a branch separated from the ancestors of modern Tupai parapithecus- small arboreal animals that fed on insects and plants. Their teeth and jaws were the same as those of great apes. Parapithecus gave rise to gibbons, orangutans and dryopithecus. For almost 10 million years, driopithecus lived in tropical forests. During this time, they have adapted well to the arboreal way of life, which requires the development of well-defined properties and characteristics. In order to climb trees with the help of grasping movements, it was necessary to have movable limbs and a hand capable of precise capture. The clavicle, which provides free movement in the shoulder joint and allows you to spread your arms to the sides, does not develop in terrestrial animals that move on four limbs.

Our distant ancestors had to move at high speed in the space of the rainforest, constantly assessing the strength of the jump, the flight range, changing the direction of movement. The advantage was given to those individuals that had the best motor skills. This direction of selection contributed to the development of the motor parts of the brain. The arboreal lifestyle required sharp binocular vision, which would allow you to accurately estimate the distance when jumping. If in the first primitive mammals the eyes were located on the sides of the head, then in driopithecus they were already located frontally, in the same plane. In dense thickets, first of all, one had to rely on sight and hearing, the sense of smell was important for animals in open spaces. Life on trees contributed to a decrease in fertility, which was compensated by increased concern for small offspring.

Features of the structure of modern man, his abilities and social status were predetermined millions of years ago by the fact that our distant ancestors were animals that led an arboreal lifestyle.

Cooling came in the second half of the Paleogene. The areas of forests were reduced, they were replaced by savannahs. It is probable that populations of driopithecus settled in different habitats. Animals left in the rainforests gave rise to modern great apes - the gorilla and chimpanzee. Other populations moved to the savannas. In order to navigate the vast open spaces, it was necessary to rise on the hind limbs. Our distant ancestors did not have sharp fangs and claws, they did not know how to run fast. The new harsh conditions forced them to wage a hard struggle for existence. Those who, gathering in flocks, combined their forces and used their freed hands to manipulate objects, obtain food, defend and attack, and care for the cubs, survived. Bipedal locomotion has played a decisive role in human evolution. Driopithecus populations that switched to a terrestrial way of life marked the beginning of human evolution. Thus, in the Paleogene, the paths of great apes and humans diverged (Fig. 62).

australopithecines. 5-3 million years ago, Australopithecus, descendants of Driopithecus, lived in South Africa. They were 120–160 cm tall, weighed 30–60 kg, and their brain volume did not exceed 550 cm3. Australopithecus led a herd life, engaged in gathering and hunting, using stones as weapons. Meat made up the bulk of their diet. It is now known that animal proteins are essential for normal brain development. Perhaps the menu of our distant ancestors played an important role in the development of the central nervous system.

Human evolution " class="img-responsive img-thumbnail">

Rice. 62. General scheme human origin

A skilled man. About 2.5–1.5 million years ago along the southern and East Africa settled creatures that knew how to make the simplest tools and had a more progressive structure than Australopithecus. The volume of their brain reached 650 cm 3, and the features of its structure, according to modern scientists, suggest that these people already had the beginnings of primitive speech (Fig. 63). Apparently, Homo habilis was a descendant of some group of Australopithecus. Further evolution at this stage went in the direction of the development of bipedalism and the ability to work. A skilled man first began to use fire and build primitive dwellings and outbuildings.

Rice. 63. Evolution of the skull. The skeleton of a teenager, found in Kenya in 1983, has an antiquity of 1.6 million years and belongs to a species that arose among populations of the Handyman (Homo habilis)

The oldest people(archanthropes). The oldest people lived in the interval of 1.8–0.1 million years ago. Several fossil forms of archanthropes are known: Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, heidelberg man, which are now classified as one species - Homo erectus (Homo erectus). Archanthropes differed from modern humans in larger jaws, powerful occipital and superciliary ridges, a low and sloping forehead, and the absence of a chin protrusion. The volume of their brain was 800-1100 cm 3, which is quite enough for the development of speech. They successfully hunted rhinos and deer, made stone tools, used fire, built simple ground structures such as huts and equipped caves.

For further development Man of great importance was the mastery of articulate speech. In the process of evolution, speech first appeared to express various emotional states, but later, when words became signs for denoting objects and actions, and later abstract concepts, speech began to perform another very important task. important task. Our distant ancestors led a social lifestyle, and speech was necessary for the exchange of information. With the help of speech, parents could teach their children, that is, it became possible to pass on experience from generation to generation. The advantage in the struggle for existence began to receive those groups of ancient people who supported not only physically strong individuals, but also preserved the elderly as carriers of knowledge. TO biological factors evolution gradually joined social.

Ancient people (paleoanthropes, Neanderthals). Paleoanthropes occupied an intermediate position between the archanthropes and Homo sapiens. They settled widely in Africa, Europe and Asia in the period from 250 to 35 thousand years ago. It was a very heterogeneous group in which two lines of evolution were clearly distinguished. One line went in the direction of powerful physical development: small stature (155-165 cm), powerful muscles, low sloping forehead, thick skull bones, well-developed jaws.

The other group was significantly inferior to the first in physical development, but had an advantage in the development of the brain. In the harsh conditions of the ice age, they survived at all costs, but, as it turned out later, joint labor activity, collective hunting, accumulation and transfer of experience, care for fellow tribesmen contributed to success in the struggle for life - the path that the second line of ancient people followed, which gave the beginning of the formation of a new species - Homo sapiens.

Modern people (neoanthropes). Neoanthropes arose about 50-40 thousand years ago. For some time they existed together with paleoanthropes, but then the Neanderthals were completely replaced by the first modern people - Cro-Magnons. Outwardly similar to a modern person and speaking, Cro-Magnons made complex bone and stone tools, built dwellings and made fire. Hunting with the use of perfect tools was very effective, the Cro-Magnons widely used driven methods. Art developed: wall painting in caves, ornaments on bone crafts, stone and bone sculpture. Burial rituals and cult objects arose, which speaks of the origin religious beliefs. Most experts believe that with the advent of the Cro-Magnons, human evolution got out of the leading control of biological factors and acquired social features.

After the completion of the formation, the species Homo sapiens retains its biological stability for tens of thousands of years. This is due to the fact that in the process social development(construction of dwellings, use of clothing, keeping Agriculture) the relative constancy of the conditions for the existence of mankind is maintained.

For a long time, scientists believed that human evolution was more or less linear: one form replaced another, and each new one was more progressive, closer to modern man than the previous one. Now it is clear that everything was much more complicated. The evolutionary tree of hominids is highly branched. The time intervals of existence of many species overlap greatly. Sometimes several different types hominids, located at different "levels" of proximity to modern man, coexisted at the same time.

Most likely, the fossil hominids known today are only a small part of their true diversity. The paleontological record of hominids is still extremely incomplete.

Review questions and assignments

1. What is the source of information for the study of anthropogenesis?

2. From which group of mammals did the order of primates originate?

3. How the features of the structure and lifestyle of ape-like ancestors predetermined the development of the characteristics of the Homo sapiens species.

4. Describe the progressive features in the development of ancient people.

5. What was the importance of mastering articulate speech in human evolution?

6. When did modern humans (neoanthropes) appear?

Think! Execute!

1. Why modern great apes cannot be considered human ancestors?

2. How is the development of the brain and the improvement of tools related?

3. What data may indicate the high development of the higher nervous activity of the Cro-Magnons?

4. Explain why at the beginning of anthropogenesis there were relatively rapid changes in the structure of man, and in the last 40 thousand years, the appearance of man has not changed much.

5. Organize an excursion to the local history or local history museum. What museum exhibits are dedicated to ancient history your edge? Are there archaeological finds from the Cro-Magnon era and earlier periods among them? Based on the results of the excursion, prepare a report (collective project) on the topic “Sites of ancient people on the territory of the region (territory, region, etc.)”.

6. If you are interested in the history of human development, read the book by Roni Senior "Struggle for fire." In what era do you think the events described in the book took place? Which of the groups of predecessors of modern man are involved in them?

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The position of man in the system of the animal world

Anthropology is the science of the origin of man.

2. Fill in the table

Development of views on the origin of man

3. What is the main evidence of the origin of man from animals?
The data of comparative anatomy and embryology show similarities in the structure of the body and the development of man and animals.
Features inherent in Chordovs:
In humans, in the early stages of development, the internal skeleton is represented by a notochord, neural tube laid on the dorsal side, the body has bilateral symmetry. Further, the chord is replaced by the spinal column, the skull is formed, five sections of the brain. Heart on the ventral side of the body, there is a skeleton of paired free limbs.
Features inherent in the class Mammals:
Five sections of the spine, the skin is covered with hair, there are sweat and sebaceous glands. Feeding children with milk, four-chambered heart, warm-bloodedness, diaphragm.
Placental traits:
Carrying a fetus inside the body, nourishing the fetus through the placenta.
The main features of the order Primates:
The structure of the limbs, nails, eyes in the same plane, the replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones.
Similar features to the great apes. The presence of atavisms (features of ancestral forms, manifested in individual individuals of a given species) is a tail, multi-mammary, abundant hair, etc. and rudiments (organs or parts of the body that have lost their original functions during evolution and are available in all individuals of this biological species) - this is an appendix, "wisdom" teeth, etc.

4. Describe the position of man in the system of the organic world.
Kingdom Animals, Subkingdom Multicellular, phylum Chordates, subtype Vertebrates, class Mammals, subclass Placentals, detachment Primates, suborder Apes, family People (Hominids), genus Man (Homo), species Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens), Subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens.

5. Make a table.

Similarities and differences between humans and great apes.

1. Define the concept.
Anthropogenesis- part of the biological evolution that led to the emergence of Homo sapiens, who separated from other hominids, great apes and placental mammals; process of historical and evolutionary formation physical type person, the initial development of his labor activity, speech.

2. What concept underlies modern scientific ideas about the origin of man?
At the core contemporary ideas about the origin of man lies the concept, according to which man came out of the animal world, and the first scientific evidence in favor of this concept was presented by Charles Darwin in his work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" (1871). Scientists believe that from some group of driopithecus (an extinct group of higher apes), the evolutionary line of hominids begins.

3. What paleontological finds make it possible to identify the main stages and directions historical development human and great apes?
The analysis of paleontological finds makes it possible to identify the main stages and directions of the historical development of man and great apes. These include the remains of Australopithecus archanthropes (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus), Paleoanthropus (Neanderthal), Cro-Magnon man, their tools and rock paintings. That is, humans and modern great apes had a common ancestor. Further, their evolutionary development followed the path of divergence (divergence of features, accumulation of differences) in connection with adaptation to specific and various conditions of existence.

4. Why can't we say that man is descended from the great ape?
The development of man and great apes are not successive stages, but parallel branches of evolution, the discrepancy between which in evolutionary terms is very deep. That is, humans and modern great apes had a common ancestor. Further, their evolutionary development followed the path of divergence (divergence of features, accumulation of differences) in connection with adaptation to specific and various conditions of existence.

5. Fill in the table.

The main stages of anthropogenesis

Driving Forces of Anthropogenesis

1. Define the concept.
social evolution- the process of structural reorganization in time, as a result of which there is social form or a structure qualitatively different from the preceding form.

2. Draw a diagram.

Factors of anthropogenesis.

3. What is the role of biological and social factors in anthropogenesis?
In anthropogenesis, an important role belongs not only to biological factors (variability, heredity, selection), but also to social factors (speech, accumulated work experience and public behavior). Human characteristics, due to social factors, are not fixed genetically and are not inherited, but in the process of education and training. In the first stages of evolution, selection for greater adaptability to rapidly changing circumstances was of decisive importance. Subsequently, however, the ability to pass on genetic acquisitions from generation to generation in the form of a variety of scientific, technical and cultural information began to play an increasingly important role, freeing man from the strict control of natural selection. Social patterns have acquired great importance in human evolution. The winners in the struggle for existence were not necessarily the strongest, but those who kept the weak: children - the future of the population, the elderly - the keepers of information about how to survive. The victory of populations in the struggle for existence was ensured not only by strength and intelligence, but also by the ability to sacrifice themselves in the name of the tribe. Man is a social being, the distinguishing feature of which is consciousness, formed on the basis of collective labor.
Social relations play an ever-increasing role in the evolution of Homo sapiens. For modern people, social and labor relations have become leading and determining. This is the qualitative originality of human evolution.

4. What contemporary issues human society can you name?
People are increasingly using surrogates and imitations of natural biological activity, up to the "virtualization" of life. The human population is characterized by phenomena that are impossible for animal populations. The human population accumulates a genetic load of hereditary diseases, predisposition to diseases, malignant neoplasms, infections, mental and allergic disorders, maladjustment phenomena, etc. Inhabitants of large cities experience overpopulation stress phenomena. Many people support their existence and capacity only with the help of artificial devices and medicines.
Rapid population growth creates economic problems and increases the social inequality of people. There is a growing gap between the maximum opportunities for obtaining benefits and their availability for the majority of people. At different people life chances are very unequal.
Stimulated and produced products that are not only not needed for human life, but also harmful (alcohol, tobacco, drugs).
All these factors as a whole can eventually lead to a crisis of modern human civilization, degradation and disappearance of Homo sapiens as a species.

5. What factors contributed to the development of upright posture in humans?
There are a number of hypotheses regarding the development of upright posture in humans. The appearance in human ancestors of an S-shaped spine, arched foot, extended pelvis, strong sacrum are hereditary changes that contributed to upright posture.
According to the hypothesis of Jan Lindblad, the ape-like ancestors of man were forced to rise on their hind limbs when searching for food in the water and when fording water obstacles. Also, human ancestors were forced to climb down from trees to the ground due to climate and flora changes. To search for food in the tall grass, they had to get up from all fours on their hind limbs.

6. What advantages and what problems, including health problems, have a person got in connection with bipedalism?
Individuals capable of moving on their hind limbs were in a more advantageous position. The horizons expanded, hands were freed, with the help of which human ancestors got the opportunity to use improvised means - sticks and stones, and subsequently - to make the tools themselves.
The disadvantages of upright walking include loss of speed, a large load on the legs, spine. Also, there was an incorrect distribution of blood volume between the lower and upper halves of the body. In this case, the lower limbs are constantly in a state of hypertension, while the upper limbs are in hypotension.
The vertical position of the human body leads to indigestion and back pain, varicose veins and other disorders of its vital functions. The same reason extremely complicates and delays pregnancy and childbirth.

7. Can it be argued that the biological evolution of modern man has completely stopped?
Evolution- a continuous process, therefore, for the species of Homo sapiens, it did not stop. Evolution has moved to another level. A person adapts to new conditions of life, physical labor becomes less important and widespread. Due to the weakening of biological factors and the increase social man will be subject to changes both external and internal, what exactly - this is a matter of time, the answer to which scientists are looking for today.

Origin of human races

1. Give definitions of concepts.
human races- historically formed groupings of people within the species Homo sapiens sapiens, characterized by the similarity of morphological and physiological features.
Racism- anti-scientific ideology about the inequality of human races.

2. Consider the drawing "Race of Man". Write on it the names of the races you know.
Australo-Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid.

3. What hypotheses of racial genesis do you know?
Rasogenesis is the process of the emergence and formation of human races. There are several hypotheses of raceogenesis.
The first is monocentrism. Scientists recognize a common origin, socio-psychological development, a single level of mental development. Evidence of the monocentric hypothesis translates it into the category of theories (hypothesis + evidence):
differences in minor features;
there is no genetic isolation;
biological evolutionary changes (decrease in the massiveness of the skeleton, increase in growth, acceleration of development) are manifested in representatives of all races;
the results obtained in the study of human DNA: the first was the division of the African branch into Negroid and Mongoloid-Caucasoid about 40-100 thousand years ago.
Polycentrists believe that races arose independently from each other from different ancestors and in different places. Their hypothesis is less scientifically substantiated.

4. What are the main factors of racial genesis?
Natural selection;
Mutations;
Insulation;
mixture of populations.
As people populate the globe faced with new environmental conditions, adapted individuals survived and gave offspring. The morphological features formed in the course of biological evolution are explained by:
character environment;
climate;
food resources;
amount of sunlight.

5. Fill in the table.

human races

6. What arguments can be given from the positions of criticism of racist theories?
For people of all races, species characteristics are characteristic:
the similarity of the structure of the body (the structure of the skull, brain, internal organs);
physiological similarity (blood types, diseases, defense reactions);
the possibility for unlimited interbreeding, as a result of which fertile offspring appears;
all are of the same origin.
According to the genes of a person, it is impossible to accurately determine his race, therefore, in the genetic sense, there are no races (but only signs, dominant and recessive, various norms of behavior). Racial differences are the result of people's adaptation to certain conditions of existence, as well as the historical and socio-economic development of human society.