Stages of research activity. Fundamentals of research Implementation of applied research is carried out on

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6.4. Scientific preparation of production

6.4.1. Research work (R&D)

Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, search and applied (table 6.2).

Table 6.2

Research work

Research types	Research results
Fundamental	Expansion of theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area; scientific foundations, methods and principles of research
search engines	Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns
Applied	Solving specific scientific problems to create new products. Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods, etc.

Directly to the processes of creating new goods are applied R&D.

Fundamental and exploratory R&D are usually not included in the scope of work on the creation and development of new products.

The procedure for conducting research work (R&D) of an applied nature is regulated by GOST 15.101.-80.

The main stages of research:

1) development of terms of reference (TOR) for R&D;
2) choice of research direction;
3) theoretical and experimental research;
4) generalization and evaluation of research results.

The specific composition of the stages and work on them is determined, of course, by the specifics of R&D. An approximate list of works at the stages of research is given in Table. 6.3.

Table 6.3

Stages and scope of research work

Stages of research	Scope of work
Development of technical specifications for research	- scientific forecasting; - analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research; - study of patent documentation; - taking into account customer requirements
Choice of research direction	- collection and study of scientific and technical information; - drawing up an analytical review; - conducting patent research; - formulation of possible directions problem solving set in the TOR R&D, and a comparative assessment; - selection and justification of the accepted direction of research and methods for solving problems; - comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of the results of research and development with the existing indicators of analogue products; - assessment of the estimated economic efficiency of new products; - development general methodology conducting research (programs of work, schedules, network models);
Theoretical and experimental studies	- development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions; - identifying the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions theoretical research or to obtain specific values of the parameters necessary for the calculations; - development of methodology experimental studies, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as test equipment; - conducting experiments, processing the obtained data; - comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies; - adjustment of the theoretical models of the object; - carrying out additional experiments if necessary; - conducting feasibility studies; - preparation of an interim report
Generalization and evaluation of research results	- generalization of the results of previous stages of work; - assessment of the completeness of problem solving; - development of recommendations for further research and development work; - development of a draft TOR for R&D; - preparation of the final report; - acceptance of research by the commission.

6.4.2. Development work (R&D)

After completion of applied R&D, subject to positive results economic analysis that satisfies the firm in terms of its goals, resources, and market conditions, begin development work (R&D). R&D is the most important link in the materialization of the results of previous R&D. Based on the results of research, new products are created and tested.

The main stages of R&D (GOST 15.001-73):

1. Development of technical specifications for R&D.
2. Technical proposal.
3. Preliminary design.
4. Technical design.
5. Development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype.
6. Preliminary testing of the prototype.
7. State (departmental) testing of a prototype.
8. Development of documentation based on test results.

An approximate list of works at the stages of R&D is given in Table. 6.4.

Table 6.4

Approximate list of works at the stages of R&D

OKR stages	Main tasks and scope of work
Development of technical specifications for R&D	- preparation of a draft statement of work by the customer; - elaboration of the draft TOR by the contractor; - establishment of a list of contractors and coordination of private TK with them; - coordination and approval of TK
Technical proposal (is the basis for adjusting the TOR and performing a draft design)	Identification of additional or refined requirements for the product, its technical characteristics and quality indicators that cannot be specified in the TOR: - elaboration of research results; - elaboration of forecasting results; - study of scientific and technical information; - preliminary calculations and clarification of the requirements of the TOR
Preliminary design (serves as the basis for technical design)	Development of fundamental technical solutions: - performance of work on the stage of the technical proposal, if this stage is not performed; - choice of element base of development; - selection of basic technical solutions; - development of structural and functional schemes of the product; - selection of the main structural elements; - metrological examination of the project; - development and testing of layouts
Engineering design	The final choice of technical solutions for the product as a whole and its components: - development of basic electrical, kinematic, hydraulic and other circuits; - clarification of the main parameters of the product; - Carrying out the structural layout of the product and issuing data for its placement at the facility; - development of projects of specifications for the supply and manufacture of the product; - testing of models of the main devices of the product in natural conditions
Development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype	Formation of a set of design documents: - development of a complete set of working documentation; - its coordination with the customer and the manufacturer of serial products; - verification of design documentation for unification and standardization; - production in pilot production of a prototype: - tuning and complex adjustment of the prototype
Preliminary tests	Checking the compliance of the prototype with the requirements of the TOR and possible presentation for state (departmental) tests: - bench tests; - preliminary tests at the facility; - reliability tests
State (departmental) tests	Assessing the compliance with the TOR and the possibility of organizing mass production
Development of documentation based on test results	- making the necessary clarifications and changes to the documentation; - assignment of documentation letter " O 1"; - transfer of documentation to the manufacturer

6.5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of research and development work

The probabilistic nature of R&D results complicates the assessment of economic efficiency and leads to their step-by-step determination with an increasing degree of accuracy. In the early stages of implementation design work Calculations are predictive in nature and include:

Feasibility study of expected results;
- selection of a base for comparison and reduction of options to a comparable form;
- calculation of pre-production and capital costs in the field of production and operation;
- calculation and analysis of indicators of economic efficiency.

Annual economic effect and economic efficiency in the operation of new products.

Methods for calculating the annual economic effect depend on whether the annual productivity of products differs in the compared options. If their annual productivity is equal (Q H = Q A), the calculation of the annual economic effect is based on the absolute values of capital investments K and operating costs (expenses) AND:

At .

If, in the new version, the annual productivity of the product is higher than in the analogue , then the annual economic effect Eg is calculated on the basis of specific cost values k, u:

At ,

where K is the absolute value of capital investments;
And - the absolute value of operating costs;
k - specific capital investments;
u - specific operating costs;
E n - rate of return.

During the economic evaluation of a new product, the payback period for additional investments and the return on investment (in our case, capital investments) are also calculated (see Section 4.8 of Topic 4).

Investments (capital investments) are made in order to bring a profit greater than the cost of acquiring capital by an entrepreneur or when an investor invests capital in another business or places capital in a bank at interest. Therefore, to analyze new projects associated with the need to make a profit, often use the rate of return corresponding to different types capital investments. The use in the calculations of one or another value of the rate of return depends entirely on the entrepreneur and investor, the goals of the company and the specific market situation. However, it can be recommended indicative values E n depending on the types of investments mentioned above (Table 6.5).

Table 6.5

Rates of return depending on the types of investments

Estimated profitability(accounting rate of return) of capital investments are estimated by the ratio

Payback period calculated as the reciprocal of the estimated profitability (accounting rate of return):

The value of the rate of return E n can also be taken equal to the actual return on investment of the best projects in a similar direction, the real interest rate on the capital market or bank interest. The real interest rate is the nominal interest rate expressed in current prices but adjusted for inflation.

The developed product in operation is cost-effective if the inequality is observed.

Within the limits of compliance with this inequality, it is possible to change the price level of a new product depending on the goals pursued by entrepreneurs (developer and manufacturer).

If the strategy of capital owners is the strategy of "skimming the cream", that is, extracting the maximum profit during the billing period, then the most likely decision will be to set the maximum price for a new product that the market can only withstand (products will remain competitive and will be successfully sold during the billing period). ).

With a strategy of "deep market penetration" (gaining market share), prices can be reduced to the minimum level at which inequality is observed among the producer.

If during the operation of a new development (new product) there is an increase in profits and a decrease in the cost of manufactured products or work (in an organization using a new development), the annual economic effect can be calculated by the formula

where P a is the annual profit from the operation of an analogue product available at the enterprise (machine, device, etc.);
Q is the volume of production (works);
Q n - during the operation of a new product development;
Q a - during the operation of the product development available at the enterprise);
Z n, Z a - the cost of manufactured products, respectively, during the operation of a new product and an analogue product;
K - additional investment in new product development;
E n - rate of return.

When determining the annual economic effect, it is necessary to ensure the comparability of the compared options for a new product and an analogue product in terms of such indicators as:

The volume of products (work) produced with the help of a new product;
- quality parameters;
- time factor;
- social factors of production and use of products.

Comparability in terms of the volume of products produced with the help of a new product and an analogue product was considered earlier.

It should also be taken into account that the transition from single to serial and mass production significantly reduces the unit cost of production by reducing the share of semi-fixed costs and increasing the level of mechanization of processes.

An analogue product and a newly developed product must be qualitatively comparable. Depending on the purpose and conditions of its operation, qualitative indicators of comparability can be, for example, reliability, durability, maintainability, power consumption, weight, dimensions, accuracy, speed, degree of automation, etc.

If the analogue product does not provide the performance of any function that is available in the new product, then additional funds should be provided for it, necessary to bring this indicator to the level of the new product.

In the designed products, there may be several indicators that must be taken into account when determining the overall quality indicator. Usually determine the specific weight of the importance of each indicator in general characteristics new development. They are then evaluated by point system(for example, ten points). The scoring is made by an expert (Table 6.6).

The integral indicator (coefficient) of quality (K and) of a new product is determined by the formula

where n is the number of product parameters;
a i - weight coefficient of importance of the i-th parameter;
b in, b ia are the values of this parameter, respectively, of a new product and an analogue product, evaluated by experts in points.

Calculation of the annual economic effect in the production of new products

Annual economic effect in the production (development) of new products E g

where P h - profit from the sale of new products after paying taxes and interest on loans;
K - capital investments.

In the case when a new product is mastered instead of an analogue product,

where - respectively, the economic effect in the production of a new product and an analogue product.

If capital investments are associated with the commissioning of fixed assets, depreciation deductions (A d) can be taken into account when calculating the annual economic effect, then

In this case, the annual profitability of capital investments for the development of new products is estimated by the ratio

The criterion for making a decision on the development of new products in the production is

(or ),

where and - respectively, the payback period of investments: calculated and standard.

The indicator of the economic effect from the production of new products should be a positive value, which means the excess of the return on investment (capital investment) over the norm E n.

When calculating when bringing income and costs to one point in time (t 0), you need to solve the following problem. Find the value at which the integral economic effect for the calculation period (term of the economic life of investments) Ei would be equal to zero:

at ,

where - profit from the sale of new products of the t-th year;
- capital investments of the t-th year;
T is the number of years of the investment life cycle;
J q - discount factor.

This method of calculation is discussed in detail in the course "Analysis of economic activity".

Taking into account the time factor in assessing the economic efficiency of research and development

When performing economic calculations at the stages of research and development, it must be taken into account that investments, as a rule, are made in the years preceding the start of production of new products at the manufacturer and prior to the start of operation of these systems. Therefore, all indicators of income and costs are considered reduced to one point in time - the first year of the billing period (the beginning of the manufacture or operation of new products). If necessary, such a reduction is done by dividing the indicators of a given year by the discount factor Jq:

where t is the number of years between year t, to which this indicator refers, and year "0" - the first year of the calculation period.

In the economic calculations of indicators after the billing year, they are brought to the calculated "0" year by multiplying by the discount factor.

Determination of production costs of products at the stages of research and development

At the stages of research and development, there is still no data on the manufacturing technology of a new product, its labor intensity and material consumption, therefore, determining production costs at these stages presents certain difficulties. At the same time, a comprehensive economic analysis, both in production and in the field of operation, is necessary to make decisions about the feasibility of new developments.

Approximate cost calculations, in these cases, are carried out by establishing analogies between the created product and the previously created product based on the analysis of its parameters, elements and functions. Most often, the cost price is calculated using one of the following methods:

According to specific indicators;
- by specific weight costs;
- scoring;
- correlation;
- normative calculation.

Method of specific indicators

When calculating according to this method, it is assumed that the costs change in proportion to the change in the defining parameter of the product (for example, power consumption, performance, speed, etc.).

Typically, indicators such as the cost per unit of weight, the cost per unit of power, speed, the cost of one function, etc. are used.

The unit cost of the selected parameter is determined on the basis of the statistical data of the analogue product.

The cost of a new product Z n is determined as the product of the specific cost Z ud by the value of the main parameter of the new product X n:

Calculations of this type can be refined with the help of differentiated specific indicators, such as the cost of materials Z m.ud and labor intensity t ud per unit of the main parameter. Then

where C t is the hourly rate of a piece worker (or the hourly rate of a time worker);
- coefficients taking into account, respectively, shop, factory and non-production costs.

Weighted cost method

This method is based on calculating one of the costing items of a new product in a direct way, for example, the cost of basic materials and components, and determining the cost of a new product, based on the assumption that the share of this article in the cost structure of a new product will be equal to the share of this article in the cost structure of an analogue product:

Point method

The method of points is based on the assessment of the main technical and operational characteristics of products by conditional points, for example, according to a ten-point system.

The scoring procedure is carried out using line charts(Figure 6.8) or tables (Table 6.6).

Rice. 6.8 Graph of the scoring of parameters A and B for two types of materials M c and M d (n - new product; a - analogue product)

Table 6.6

Table of scoring parameters X i of a new product (H) and an analogue product (a)

Parameters Xi	Unit ism	Weight coefficient importance a i	New item (N)			Analogue product(s)
Parameters Xi	Unit ism	Weight coefficient importance a i	Numeric meaning	Number of points b in	Significance	Numeric meaning	Number of points	Significance
Parameter X 1
Parameter X 2
. . .
Parameter Xn
Total

The scores established for each parameter by an expert are summed up for a new product and an analogue product separately.

The calculation of the cost of a new product Z n is carried out according to the formula

where is the value multiplier obtained by dividing the actual cost of the analogue product For by the sum of points corresponding to its technical characteristics:

where a i is the weighting coefficient of importance of the i-th product parameter.

The method of points is applicable in the early stages of design for rough cost calculations only if the principle of proportional dependence of costs on parameters is preserved.

Correlation method

The method is based on the correlation dependence of the cost on any parameters of the product.

This dependence can be expressed either as a linear equation

or in the form of a power dependence (with a curvilinear form of the correlation field)

For i=1, ..., n,

where Z n - cost;
x i - considered parameter;
- constants characterizing the degree of influence of the considered parameter on the cost price.

On the basis of statistical data for 3-5 years on the production of analogous products, it is possible to determine trends in the cost of change and, if the results of research and development do not radically change the structure and value of the cost, determine the coefficients of the equation (using the least squares method).

So, for example, the equations of connection of the cost price Z n (for the group semiconductor devices) with the labor intensity of manufacturing tpcs, the yield coefficient of good K in.g, the production volume Q and the year of manufacture T has the following form:

The process of establishing correlation dependencies is very time-consuming, it requires the selection of a large statistical material on analogous products, but the accuracy of determining the cost of costs in the early stages of design increases.

Standard costing method

The standard costing method (see topic 4, section 4.3) is the most accurate method for determining the cost of products, but the lack of reliable standard data on actual production costs makes it impossible in the early stages of design.

Method of average cost of functional elements

The method is based on the limited set of functional elements in the manufacture of the product and is mainly used in instrumentation. The average cost of some classes of functional elements differs slightly. The average cost of phase detectors, modulators, UPT triggers and other elements is almost the same for all radio equipment. This allows you to determine the cost of a product (device) by summing up the costs of functional elements, taking into account their class:

where n is a number various classes in this device;
N i - number of elements of one class;
S i - average cost of a functional element;
W sb - the cost of the overall layout and adjustment.

The values of n and N i are most often known or can be determined at the stage of preliminary design. The average cost of a functional element is determined by dividing the cost of a block of the same i-th class of an analogue device by the number of functional elements in the device. The costs associated with the overall layout, setup and adjustment of the instrument are determined by any known methods of determining the cost. The total error of the deviation of the actual cost from the calculated one is no more than 10%, which is quite acceptable for economic calculations at the early stages of design.

Accounting for price changes when determining the cost (cost indexation)

For determining general level increase in costs, it is necessary to determine private indices of price changes for individual components and take into account the share of these costs in total costs. The summary index of change in the cost price I can be determined by the formula

where n is the number of individual components;
- the share of material, labor costs and (or) costs for the sale of products and other costs;
- index of changes in prices for materials, consumer prices, average wages, product sales prices, etc.

When determining the change in cost, it is advisable to take into account only the main cost items, that is, those costs that are directly related to ensuring the release of products.

Calculation and comparison of capital investments for new products of compared options

The calculation of capital investments of the consumer is given earlier (section 4.5 of topic 4).

Calculation and comparison of specific capital investments

In cases where the annual productivity of new products (for example, devices) in the compared options is not the same, it is necessary to compare not absolute, but specific values of capital investments:

where k - specific capital investments in the new (k n) and the old (k a) version;
K - the absolute value of capital investments in the new (K n) and former (K a) options;
Q - annual productivity of the product (Q n - new; Q a - analogue).

6.6. Market testing of goods (trial marketing)

With the successful completion of functional testing of a new product, many firms produce market tests (trial marketing). The problem of conducting market trials of new products depends on many factors, the main of which are the following:

The goals and resources of the firm;
- type of product, expected volume of production and type of market;
- the degree of reliability of marketing information and research;
- the degree of firm confidence in the competitive success of a new product in the market;
- the company's policy in relation to risk;
- assessment of the time delay of the full range of work on the creation and development of a new product.

Deciding whether to conduct (or not to conduct) market tests, as well as decide which design documentation (prototype, serial production) and in which production (experimental or serial) a pilot batch of a new product for trial marketing will be manufactured and whether to suspend or to continue pre-production work until the results of market tests are obtained - depend on the specific conditions of the functioning of the firm, its goals, resources, working methods and policies.

Purpose of Market Tests- testing the product in real-life conditions, identifying opinions, comments from consumers and salespeople about the features of its use and sales problems, as well as determining the size of the market and the overall sales forecast, i.e. production program.

Market test results and their use

Tests in market conditions provide management with information to make a final decision on the feasibility of releasing a new product. If the firm goes into commercial production, it will face large costs for the completion of pre-production, the cost of capital property and development of production, the cost of distribution channels and promotion of the new product. At the same time, it must solve the following main questions - when, where, to whom and how to sell a new product.

WHEN. The first decision is made on the timeliness of the release of a new product on the market. If the new product undermines the sales of other similar products of the firm, or if further improvements can be made to its design, it is likely that the introduction of the new product to the market will be delayed.

WHERE. A decision is made on the sale of goods in certain geographical markets or on a national or international scale. In the absence of sufficient confidence, funds and opportunities to enter the national market with a new product, a time schedule for the consistent development of markets is established.

TO WHOM. The most profitable markets in the group of developed markets are selected and sales promotion efforts are concentrated to develop them.

HOW. An action plan is being developed for the consistent launch of a new product on the markets - a marketing plan.

The answers to these questions, simple in form, but extremely complex in their essence, have an impact on the further course of preparation for production and the industrial development of new goods, since they determine:

The production capacity of the company;
- type of production;
- production structure;
- production schedule by years.

7.1. Types of R&D and their main stages

Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, exploratory and applied (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1

Types of research work

Research types	Research results
Fundamental R&D	Expansion of theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area; scientific foundations, methods and principles of research
Exploratory research	Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns
Applied Research	Solving specific scientific problems to create new products. Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods. Determination of the possibility of conducting R & D on the subject of R&D

Fundamental and prospecting works are usually not included in the product life cycle. However, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into R&D projects.

Applied research is one of the stages of the product life cycle. Their task is to answer the question: is it possible to create a new type of product and with what characteristics? The procedure for conducting research is regulated by GOST 15.101-80. The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within their framework are determined by the specifics of R&D.

development of terms of reference (TOR) for R&D;

choice of research directions;

theoretical and experimental research;

generalization and evaluation of research results.

An approximate list of works at the stages of research and development is given in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2

Stages of R&D and the scope of work on them

Stages of research	Scope of work
Development of technical specifications for research	scientific forecasting; analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research; study of patent documentation; taking into account customer requirements.
Choice of research direction	collection and study of scientific and technical information; drawing up an analytical review; conducting patent research; formulation of possible directions for solving the tasks set in the TOR of R&D, and their comparative assessment; selection and justification of the accepted direction of research and methods for solving problems; comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of the results of research and development with the existing indicators of analogue products; assessment of the estimated economic efficiency of new products; development of a general methodology for conducting research;
Theoretical and experimental studies	development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions; identification of the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values of the parameters necessary for calculations; development of experimental research methodology, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as test equipment; conducting experiments, processing the obtained data; comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies; correction of theoretical models of the object; carrying out additional experiments if necessary; conducting feasibility studies; preparation of an interim report.

Continuation of the table. 7.2

7.2. Information support for applied research

At the stage of developing the terms of reference for research, the following types of information are used:

Object of study;

Description of the requirements for the object of study;

List of functions of the object of study of a general technical nature;

A list of physical and other effects, regularities and theories that can be the basis of the principle of operation of the product;

Technical solutions (in predictive studies);

Information about the scientific and technical potential of the research contractor;

Information about production resources (in relation to the object of research);

Information about material resources;

Marketing information;

Data on the expected economic effect.

Additionally, the following information is used:

Methods for solving individual problems and processing information;

General technical requirements (standards, restrictions on harmful effects, requirements for reliability, maintainability, ergonomics, and so on);

Projected terms of product renewal;

Offers of licenses and "know-how" on the object of research.

At the subsequent stages of R&D, the information listed above is mainly used as a base. Additionally used:

Information about new principles of action, new hypotheses, theories, results of research;

Data of economic assessment, modeling of the main processes, optimization of multicriteria tasks, prototyping, typical calculations, restrictions;

Requirements for information entered into information systems, etc.

7.3. Methods for assessing the scientific and technical effectiveness of research

The result of research is the achievement of scientific, scientific-technical, economic and social effects. scientific effect characterized by the acquisition of new scientific knowledge and reflects the growth of information intended for "intra-scientific" consumption. The scientific and technical effect characterizes the possibility of using the results of ongoing research in other R&D and provides the information necessary to create new products. The economic effect characterizes the commercial effect obtained by using the results of applied R&D. The social effect is manifested in the improvement of working conditions, the improvement of economic characteristics, the development of culture, health care, science, and education.

Scientific activity is multifaceted, its results, as a rule, can be used in many areas of the economy for a long time.

Evaluation of the scientific and scientific and technical effectiveness of R&D is carried out using a system of weighted scoring. For fundamental R&D, only the coefficient of scientific effectiveness is calculated (Table 7.3), and for exploration work, the coefficient of scientific and technical effectiveness is calculated (Table 7.4). Estimates of coefficients can only be established on the basis of the experience and knowledge of scientists who are used as experts. The assessment of the scientific and technical effectiveness of applied R&D is carried out on the basis of a comparison of the technical parameters achieved as a result of the R&D with the basic ones (which could have been implemented before the R&D was completed).

Table 7.3

Characteristics of factors and signs of scientific effectiveness of R&D

Scientific performance factor	Coef. the significance of the factor	Factor quality	Factor characteristic	Coef. achieved level
The novelty of the results obtained			Fundamentally new results new theory, the discovery of a new regularity
			Some general patterns, methods, ways to create a fundamentally new product
		Insufficient	Positive decision based on simple generalizations, analysis of factor relationships, extension of known principles to new objects
		Trivial	Description of individual factors, dissemination of previous results, abstract reviews

Continuation of the table. 7.3

Depth of scientific study		Perform complex theoretical calculations, check for large amount of experimental data
		Low complexity of calculations, verification on a small amount of experimental data
	Insufficient	Theoretical calculations are simple, the experiment was not carried out
Degree of probability of success
	Moderate

Table 7.4

Characteristics of factors and signs of scientific and technical

effectiveness of R&D

Factor of scientific and technical effectiveness	Coef. the significance of the factor	Factor quality	Factor characteristic	Coef. Achieved level
Prospects for using the results		paramount	The results can be applied in many scientific areas.
			The results will be used in the development of new technical solutions
		Useful	The results will be used in subsequent research and development

Continuation of the table. 7.4

Scale of implementation of results	National economy	Implementation time:
		Implementation time: up to 3 years, up to 5 years, up to 10 years, over 10 years
	Individual firms and enterprises	Implementation time: up to 3 years, up to 5 years, up to 10 years, over 10 years
Completeness of results		Terms of Reference for R&D

	Insufficient	Overview, information

In this case, the coefficient of scientific and technical effectiveness is determined by the formula

where k is the number of estimated parameters;

K VL i - coefficient of influence of the i-th parameter on scientific and technical performance;

K P i - coefficient of relative increase of the i-th parameter in comparison with the base value.

For the convenience of performing calculations, the data are summarized in Table 7.5.

Table 7.5

Assessment of the scientific and technical effectiveness of applied R&D

For the success of scientific research, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out in a certain sequence. The general scheme for the implementation of scientific research is shown in fig. 4.1.

These plans and the sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of scientific research.

With regard to master's theses, the following successive stages of their implementation can be outlined:

1) preparatory;

2) conducting theoretical and empirical research;

3) work on the manuscript and its design;

4) implementation of the results of scientific research.

Rice. 4.1. Scheme of scientific research execution

It seems necessary to first give a general description of each stage of research work, and then consider in more detail those of them that have great importance to carry out scientific research by students.

Preparatory (first) stage includes:

choice of topic;

substantiation of the need to conduct research on it;

definition of hypotheses, goals and objectives of the study;

development of a plan or program of scientific research;

preparation of research tools (tools).

First, the topic of scientific research is formulated and the reasons for its development are substantiated. By preliminary acquaintance with the literature and materials of previous studies, it becomes clear to what extent the issues of the topic have been studied and what are the results obtained.

A list of regulations, domestic and foreign literature, list of topics of dissertations and abstracts of dissertations.

A research methodology is being developed. Research tools are being prepared in the form of questionnaires, questionnaires, interview forms, observation programs, etc.

Research (second) stage comprises:

systematic study of literature on the topic, statistical information and archival materials;

conducting theoretical and empirical research, including the collection of socio-economic and statistical information, field practice materials;

processing, generalization and analysis of the obtained data;

explanation of new scientific facts, argumentation and formulation of provisions, conclusions and practical advice and offers.

Third stage includes:

determination of the composition (construction of the internal structure) of the work;

clarification of the title, titles of chapters and paragraphs;

preparation of a draft manuscript and its editing;

text design, including a list of references and applications.

Fourth stage consists of the implementation of research results into practice and the author's support of the implemented developments. Scientific research does not always end at this stage, but sometimes the scientific work of students and the results of dissertation research are recommended for implementation in practical activities governing bodies and in the educational process.

Questions for self-examination:

1. What is meant by the accumulation of scientific facts?

2. What are the stages of scientific research?

3. What questions are solved at the first stage of the research?

4. At what stage is empirical research carried out?

5. Is the design of the manuscript always the final stage?

6. What is meant by the relevance of the research topic?

7. Define the term "problem"?

8. What does it mean to formulate a scientific problem?

9. Is the purpose of scientific research a reflection of the research topic?

10. Goals and objectives of scientific research.

11. Object and subject of scientific research.

12. What is the difference between the object of study and the subject of study? How do they compare?

13. What is meant by research methods?

14. What are the features of fundamental research?

15. What are the features of applied research?

16. Developments and their importance in technical sciences.

17. Tell us about the relationship of the structural units of the scientific direction.

18. List the basic requirements for the topic of scientific research.

19. What information is contained in the conclusions?

Modern production cannot develop successfully without appropriate scientific research. Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, exploratory and applied (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2 – Types of research work

Research types	Characteristic	Research results
Fundamental	Expansion of theoretical knowledge. They open up fundamentally new ways of transforming nature, society, productive forces, creating technology and using new energy sources. Conducted in academic institutions, universities	Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area; formation of a complex of scientific and technical problems of an applied nature in relation to specific areas of science, technology and production
search engines	Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Designed to explore the possibility of creating new technology, forms and methods of organization of production. Conducted in industry research institutes, rarely in universities	Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns
Applied	Solving specific scientific problems to create new products. Conducted by large enterprises, industry research institutes and universities	Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods. Determination of the possibility of conducting R & D on the subject of R&D

Fundamental and prospecting works are usually not included in the product life cycle. However, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into R&D projects.

Applied Research are part of the life cycle of a product. Their task is to answer the question: Is it possible to create a new type of product and with what characteristics? The procedure for conducting research is regulated by the standard. The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within their framework are determined by the specifics of R&D.

1) development of terms of reference (TOR) for research;

2) choice of research areas;

3) theoretical and experimental research;

4) generalization and evaluation of research results;

5) acceptance of R&D.

When performing applied R&D, they often also include the stage of development, production, testing of a model or model of equipment.

An approximate list of works at the stages of research and development is given in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 -- Stages of R&D and the scope of work on them

Stages of research	Scope of work

Development of technical specifications for research	Scientific forecasting. Analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research. Study of patent documentation. Accounting for customer requirements.
Choice of research direction	Collection and study of scientific and technical information. Drawing up an analytical review. Conducting patent research. Formulation of possible directions for solving the tasks set in the TOR of research and their comparative assessment. Selection and justification of the accepted research direction and methods of solving problems. Comparison of the expected indicators of new products after the implementation of the results of research and development with the existing indicators of analogue products. Evaluation of the estimated economic efficiency of new products. Development of a general methodology for conducting research. Preparation of an interim report.
Theoretical and experimental studies	Development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions. Identification of the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values of the parameters necessary for calculations. Development of experimental research methodology, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as test equipment. Conducting experiments, processing the obtained data. Comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies. Correction of theoretical models of the object. Carrying out additional experiments if necessary. Conducting feasibility studies. Preparation of an interim report.

The end of the table. 3.3

The Terms of Reference (TOR) is an initial document that specifies the purpose, content and procedure of work, outlines a way to implement the research results. It contains a feasibility study of the work, provides the expected results, notes the advantages over existing analogues, and calculates the estimated economic efficiency of the work. The TOR is developed by the R&D performer and agreed with the customer.

At the stage of developing the terms of reference for research, the following types of information are used:

Object of study;

Description of the requirements for the object of study;

List of functions of the object of study of a general technical nature;

A list of physical and other effects, regularities and theories that can be the basis of the principle of operation of the product;

Technical solutions (in predictive studies);

Information about the scientific and technical potential of the research contractor;

Information about production resources (in relation to the object of research);

Information about material resources;

Marketing information;

Data on the expected economic effect.

Additionally, the following information is used:

Methods for solving individual problems and processing information;

General technical requirements (standards, restrictions on harmful effects, requirements for reliability, maintainability, ergonomics, and so on);

Projected terms of product renewal;

Offers of licenses and "know-how" on the object of research.

At the subsequent stages of R&D, the information listed above is mainly used as a base.

Additionally used:

Information about new principles of action, new hypotheses, theories, results of research;

Data of economic assessment, modeling of the main processes, optimization of multicriteria tasks, prototyping, typical calculations, restrictions;

Requirements for information entered into information systems, etc.

The result of research is the achievement of scientific, scientific and technical, economic and social effects.

scientific effect characterized by the acquisition of new scientific knowledge and reflects the growth of information intended for "intra-scientific" consumption.

Scientific and technical the effect characterizes the possibility of using the results of ongoing research in other R&D and provides information necessary to create new products.

Economic effect characterizes the commercial effect obtained by using the results of applied research.

Social effect is manifested in the improvement of working conditions, the improvement of economic characteristics, the development of culture, health care, science, and education.

The evaluation of the scientific and scientific and technical effectiveness of R&D is carried out using weighted scoring systems.

For fundamental R&D, only scientific performance ratio( tab. 3.4 ), and for search work and coefficient of scientific and technical effectiveness( tab. 3.5 ). Estimates of the coefficients can only be established by an expert.

Table 3.4 - Characteristics of factors and signs of scientific performance

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

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Introduction

Innovation is the formalized result of fundamental, applied research, development or experimental work in any area of activity to improve its efficiency.

Innovations can take the form of: discoveries, inventions, patents, trademarks, rationalization proposals, documentation for a new or improved product, technology, management or production process, etc. Investing in the development of innovation is half the battle. The main thing is to introduce innovation, to turn innovation into a form of innovation, i.e. complete the innovation activity and get a positive result.

Innovation (innovation) - the end result of the introduction of innovation in order to change the object and obtain an economic, social, environmental, scientific, technical or other effect.

The main tasks of R&D are:

Obtaining new knowledge in the field of development of nature and society, new areas of their application;

Theoretical and experimental verification of the possibility of materialization in the production sphere of the standards of competitiveness of the organization's goods developed at the stage of strategic marketing;

Practical implementation of a portfolio of innovations and innovations.

Basic R&D principles:

1. Implementation of the previously considered scientific approaches, principles, functions, management methods in solving any problems, developing rational management decisions. The number of applied components of scientific management is determined by the complexity, cost of the control object and other factors.

2. Orientation of innovation activity towards the development of human capital.

Conducting research and development can be considered as scientific preparation of production (SPE), R & D - as the main part of design preparation of production (KPP) and partially technological (TPP), and the actual preparation of production at a serial plant as the end of the PP, conducting mainly TPP, as well as organizational training production (OPP).

1. Types of R&D and their main stages

Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, exploratory and applied (Table 1)

Table 1 - Types of research work

Research types	Research results
Fundamental	Expansion of theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data on the processes, phenomena, patterns that exist in the study area; scientific foundations, methods and principles of research
search engines	Increasing the volume of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns
Applied	Solving specific scientific problems to create new products. Obtaining recommendations, instructions, settlement and technical materials, methods. Determination of the possibility of conducting R & D on the subject of R&D

Fundamental and prospecting works are usually not included in the product life cycle. However, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into R&D projects.

Applied research is one of the stages of the product life cycle. scientific research experimental design

Their task is to answer the question: "Is it possible to create a new type of product and with what characteristics?"

The procedure for conducting research is regulated by GOST 15.101-80. The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within their framework are determined by the specifics of R&D.

1) development of terms of reference (TOR) for research;

2) choice of research areas;

3) theoretical and experimental research;

4) generalization and evaluation of research results.

An approximate list of works at the stages of research and development is given in table 2.

Table 2 - Stages of R&D and the scope of work on them

Stages of research	Scope of work
Development of technical specifications for research	scientific forecasting Analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research Examining Patent Documents Accounting for customer requirements
Choice of research direction	Collection and study of scientific and technical information Compilation of an analytical review Conducting patent research Formulation of possible directions for solving the tasks set in the TOR of R&D, and their comparative assessment Selection and justification of the accepted research direction and methods for solving problems Comparison of the expected performance of new products after the implementation of research results with the existing performance of analogue products Evaluation of the estimated economic efficiency of new products Development of a general methodology for conducting research
Theoretical and experimental studies	Development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, substantiation of assumptions Identification of the need for experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values of the parameters necessary for calculations Development of a methodology for experimental studies, preparation of models (models, experimental samples), as well as test equipment Conducting experiments, processing the obtained data Comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies Correction of the theoretical models of the object Carrying out additional experiments if necessary Conducting feasibility studies Preparation of an interim report
Generalization and evaluation of research results	Generalization of the results of the previous stages of work Evaluation of the completeness of problem solving Development of a draft TOR for R&D Compilation of the final report acceptance of research by the commission

2. Information support for applied research

At the stage of developing the terms of reference for research, the following types of information are used:

Object of study;

Description of the requirements for the object of study;

List of functions of the object of study of a general technical nature;

A list of physical and other effects, regularities and theories that can be the basis of the principle of operation of the product;

Technical solutions (in predictive studies);

Information about the scientific and technical potential of the research contractor;

Information about production resources (in relation to the object of research);

Information about material resources;

Marketing information;

Data on the expected economic effect.

Additionally, the following information is used:

Methods for solving individual problems and processing information;

General technical requirements (standards, restrictions on harmful effects, requirements for reliability, maintainability, ergonomics, and so on);

Projected terms of product renewal;

Proposals of licenses and "KNOW-HOW" on the object of research.

At the subsequent stages of R&D, the information listed above is mainly used as a base.

Additionally used:

Information about new principles of action, new hypotheses, theories, results of research;

Data of economic assessment, modeling of the main processes, optimization of multicriteria tasks, prototyping, typical calculations, restrictions;

Requirements for information entered into information systems, etc.

3. Methods for assessing the scientific and technical effectiveness of R&D

The result of research is the achievement of scientific, scientific-technical, economic and social effects. The scientific effect is characterized by the acquisition of new scientific knowledge and reflects the increase in information intended for "intra-scientific" consumption.

The scientific and technical effect characterizes the possibility of using the results of ongoing research in other R&D and provides the information necessary to create new products.

The economic effect characterizes the commercial effect obtained by using the results of applied R&D.

The social effect is manifested in the improvement of working conditions, the improvement of economic characteristics, the development of culture, health care, science, and education.

Scientific activity is multifaceted, its results, as a rule, can be used in many areas of the economy for a long time.

4 . Main tasks and stages of R&D

After the completion of applied R&D, subject to the positive results of an economic analysis that satisfies the firm in terms of its goals, resources and market conditions, they begin to perform development work (R&D).

R&D is the most important link in the materialization of the results of previous R&D.

Its main task is to create a set of design documentation for mass production.

The main stages of R&D (GOST 15.001-73):

1) development of technical specifications for R&D;

2) technical proposal;

3) preliminary design;

4) technical design;

5) development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype;

6) preliminary tests of a prototype;

7) state (departmental) testing of a prototype;

8) development of documentation based on test results.

An approximate list of works at the R&D stages is shown in Table 8.1.

Table 3 - Approximate list of works at the stages of R&D

OKR stages	Main tasks and scope of work
Development of technical specifications for R&D	Drawing up a draft TK by the customer Development of the draft TOR by the contractor Establishment of a list of counterparties and coordination of private TK with them Coordination and approval of TK
Technical proposal (is the basis for adjusting the TOR and performing a draft design)	Identification of additional or refined requirements for the product, its technical characteristics and quality indicators that cannot be specified in the TOR: elaboration of research results; elaboration of forecasting results; study of scientific and technical information; preliminary calculations and clarification of the requirements of the TOR
Preliminary design (serves as the basis for technical design)	Development of fundamental technical solutions: performance of work on the stage of the technical proposal, if this stage is not carried out; choice of element base of development; selection of basic technical solutions; development of structural and functional schemes of the product; selection of basic structural elements; metrological examination of the project; development and testing of layouts.
Engineering design	The final choice of technical solutions for the product as a whole and its components: development of basic electrical, kinematic, hydraulic and other circuits; clarification of the main parameters of the product; carrying out the structural layout of the product and issuing data for its placement at the facility; development of projects of specifications for the supply and manufacture of the product; testing mock-ups of the main devices of the product in natural conditions.
Development of working documentation for the manufacture and testing of a prototype	Formation of a set of design documents: development of a complete set of working documentation; its coordination with the customer and the manufacturer of serial products; verification of design documentation for unification and standardization; production in pilot production of a prototype; tuning and complex adjustment of the prototype.
Preliminary tests	Verification of the compliance of the prototype with the requirements of the TOR and determination of the possibility of its presentation for state (departmental) tests: bench tests; preliminary tests at the facility; reliability tests.
State (departmental) tests	Assessment of compliance with the requirements of the TOR and the possibility of organizing mass production
Development of documentation based on test results	Making the necessary clarifications and changes in the documentation. Assignment of the documentation of the letter "O 1". Transfer of documentation to the manufacturer.

R&D is a key step in the innovation process.

Here, the results of the previous stages are materialized into a new product.

The main task of R&D is to create a set of design documentation suitable for mass production of the product.

In order to work out the documentation and verify the compliance of the R&D results with the requirements of the technical specifications in the pilot production, a prototype is manufactured and tested in the factory and in full-scale conditions.

OKR represents in the informational sense a field of complex interactions various areas knowledge: natural sciences, mathematics, economics, organization of production, management of a team of developers, etc.

The key task of technical and economic design as part of R&D is to ensure the effectiveness of a new product and, consequently, its competitiveness in the market. In this regard, the construction of an integral quality indicator and an integral economic indicator of a product is of particular importance.

In managing the effectiveness of development, in addition to ensuring its own technical and economic indicators, the reduction of time for R&D and the choice of the moment for bringing a new product to the market is of decisive importance.

The innovation process is a complex organizational event with information-rich stages of making the most diverse decisions. The conceptual organization of such a process, outlined above, makes it possible to reduce the risk of erroneous decisions and costs in the process of performing R&D and organizing mass production of a new product.

5 . Product Life Cycle Structure

The main components of the life cycle of any product are as follows:

1) marketing research of market needs;

2) idea generation and filtering;

3) technical and economic expertise of the project;

4) research work on the subject of the product;

5) development work;

6) trial marketing;

7) preparation of the production of the product at the factory-manufacturer of serial products);

8) actual production and marketing;

9) operation of products;

10) disposal of products.

Stages 4-7 are pre-production, and they can be considered as a complex of scientific and technical preparation of production.

It is advisable in the course of product life cycle management to rely on a system of cycle control points. At all control points, deviations of the qualitative and quantitative parameters of the product from the design values are analyzed according to technical and economic criteria and appropriate solutions are developed according to the "effect-costs" criterion.

The number of control points (CT) depends on the nature of the product.

KT-1 - decision to start the project;

KT-2 - completion of the technical project (decision on the development of working documentation and the manufacture of a prototype);

CT-3 - the end of the R&D (decision on the production of a prototype);

CT-4 - end of trial marketing (decision to start mass production and commercial sale of the product);

KT-5 - assessment of the quality of mass-produced products (decision to improve quality and reliability);

CT-6 - assessment of the need to update or modernize products;

KT-7 - assessment of the optimality of methods for marketing products;

KT-8 - assessment of the feasibility and methods of overhaul of products during operation;

KT-9 - assessment of the feasibility of removing the product from production;

KT-10 - decommissioning of the product and its transfer for disposal.

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