The definition of the concept of "experimental method" in a broad and narrow sense.

Experimental method in the broad sense of the word, on TV. Kornilova, is a change in any conditions when studying patterns in a particular area of empirical reality.

Experimental method in the narrow sense of the word, on TV. Kornilova, is a test of scientific hypotheses of a causal (causal) nature based on the application of standards experimental method.

The material of subsequent lectures will be devoted to answering the questions:

How do causal or causal hypotheses differ from other types of scientific hypotheses?

What characterizes an experiment as a system of norms for testing hypotheses?

1. The first method, which is usually introduced to students, is observation. In a number of sciences, this is the only empirical method. The classical observational science is astronomy. All its achievements are connected with the improvement of observation techniques. Observation is no less important in the behavioral sciences. The main results in ethology (the science of animal behavior) were obtained by observing the activity of animals in natural conditions. Observation is of great importance in physics, chemistry, and biology. Associated with observation is the so-called idiographic approach to the study of reality. The followers of this approach consider it the only possible one in the sciences that study unique objects, their behavior and history.

The idiographic approach requires observation and recording of single phenomena and events. It is widely used in historical disciplines. It is also important in psychology. Suffice it to recall such studies as the work of A.R. Luria "A Little Book of Great Memory" or Z. Freud's monograph "Leonardo da Vinci".

The idiographic approach is opposed nomothetic approach- a study that reveals general laws development, existence and interaction of objects.

Observation is a method on the basis of which one can implement either a nomothetic or an idiographic approach to the cognition of reality.

Observation is called purposeful, organized and fixed in a certain way the perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called the description of the object's behavior.

Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, observation cards, etc.). However, with the help of observation, one can detect only phenomena that occur in ordinary, "normal" conditions, and in order to know the essential properties of an object, it is necessary to create special conditions that are different from "normal". In addition, observation does not allow the researcher to purposefully vary the conditions of observation in accordance with the plan. The researcher cannot influence the object in order to know its characteristics hidden from direct perception.

The experiment allows you to identify causal relationships and answer the question: "What caused the change in behavior?". Surveillance is used when it is either impossible or inadmissible to interfere with the natural course of the process.

The main features of the observation method are:

Direct connection between the observer and the observed object;

Partiality (emotional coloring) of observation;

Difficulty (sometimes - impossibility) of repeated observation. IN natural sciences the observer, as a rule, does not influence the process (phenomenon) being studied. In psychology, there is a problem of interaction between the observer and the observed. The presence of the researcher, if the subject knows that he is being observed, influences his behavior.

The limitation of the method of observation gave rise to other, more "perfect" methods of empirical research: experiment and measurement. Experiment and measurement make it possible to objectify the process, because they are carried out using special equipment and methods for objectively recording results in a quantitative form.

In contrast to observation and measurement, the experiment makes it possible to reproduce the phenomena of reality under specially created conditions and thereby reveal the cause-and-effect relationships between the phenomenon and the features of external conditions.

2. Measurement carried out both in natural and artificially created conditions. The difference between measurement and experiment is that the researcher does not seek to influence the object, but registers its characteristics as they are " objectively", regardless of the researcher and measurement technique(the latter is impossible for a number of sciences).

Unlike observation, measurement is carried out in the course of device-mediated interaction between the object and the measuring tool: the natural "behavior" of the object is not modified, but is controlled and recorded by the device. When measuring, it is impossible to identify cause-and-effect relationships, but it is possible to establish relationships between the levels of different parameters of objects. So the measurement turns into a correlation study.

Measurement is usually defined as some operation by which numbers are attributed to things. From a mathematical point of view, this "attribution" requires establishing a correspondence between the properties of numbers and the properties of things. From a methodological point of view, measurement is the registration of the state of an object (objects) using the states of another object (device). In this case, a function must be defined that links the states of the object and the device. The operation of assigning numbers to an object is secondary: we consider the numerical values on the scale of the device not as indicators of the device, but as quantitative characteristics of the state of the object. Specialists in measurement theory have always paid more attention to the second procedure - interpretation of indicators, and not the first - a description of the interaction between the device and the object. Ideally, the interpretation operation should accurately describe the process of interaction between the object and the device, namely, the influence of the characteristics of the object on its readings.

So, measurement can be defined as an empirical method for identifying the properties or states of an object by organizing the interaction of an object with a measuring device, the state changes of which depend on the change in the state of the object . The device can be not only an object external to the researcher. For example, a ruler is a device for measuring length. The researcher himself can be a measuring instrument: "man is the measure of all things." Indeed, the foot, finger, forearm served as primary measures of length (foot, inch, elbow, etc.). It is the same with the "measurement" of human behavior: the behavior of another researcher can be assessed directly - then he turns into an expert. This kind of measurement is similar to observation. But there is an instrumental measurement, when a psychologist uses some kind of measuring technique, such as an intelligence test. Features of the measurement method in psychology will be considered later. Here we only note that in psychology, measurement is understood as two completely different processes.

1. A psychological measurement is an assessment of the magnitude of certain parameters of reality or an assessment of the similarities and differences of objects of reality, which is produced by the subject. Based on these assessments, the researcher "measures" the features of the subjective reality of the subject. In this sense, the "psychological dimension" is the task given to the subject.

2. Psychological measurement in the second meaning, which we will talk about in the future, is carried out by the researcher to assess the characteristics of the behavior of the subject. This is the task of the psychologist, not the subject.

Observation can conditionally be attributed to "passive" research methods. Indeed, by observing people's behavior or measuring the parameters of behavior, we are dealing with what nature provides us with "here-and-now". We cannot repeat the observation at a convenient time for us and reproduce the process at will. When measuring, we register only "external" properties;

often, in order to reveal "hidden" properties, it is necessary to "provoke" a change in an object or its behavior by constructing other external conditions.

3. To establish cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena and processes, experiment. The researcher tries to change the external conditions in such a way as to influence the object under study. Wherein external influence on an object is considered a cause, and a change in the state (behavior) of an object is considered a consequence.

Experiment is an "active" method of studying reality. The researcher not only asks questions to nature, but also "forces" her to answer them. Observation and measurement allow answering the questions: "How? When? How?", and the experiment answers the question "Why?".

The experiment is called conducting research in specially created, controlled conditions in order to test the experimental hypothesis of a causal relationship. During the experiment, the researcher always observes the behavior of the object and measures its state. Observation and measurement procedures are part of the experiment process. In addition, the researcher influences the object in a planned and purposeful manner in order to measure its state. This operation is called experimental impact. The experiment is the main method of modern natural science and natural science-oriented psychology. In the scientific literature, the term "experiment" is used both for a holistic experimental study - a series of experimental samples carried out according to a single plan, and for a single experimental sample - experience.

Summing up, we note that observation is a direct, "passive" method of research. Measurement is a passive but indirect method. An experiment is an active and indirect method of studying reality.

Experiment is one of the main methods scientific research. In general scientific terms experiment is defined as a special research method aimed at testing scientific and applied hypotheses, requiring strict logic of proof and based on reliable facts. In an experiment, some artificial (experimental) situation is always created, the causes of the phenomena being studied are singled out, the consequences of the actions of these causes are strictly controlled and evaluated, and the connections between the phenomena under study are clarified.

An experiment as a method of psychological research corresponds to the above definition, but has some specifics. Many authors, as V.N. Druzhinin, as key feature psychological experiment allocate the "subjectivity of the object" of the study. A person as an object of cognition has activity, consciousness, and thus can influence both the process of his study and its result. Therefore, special ethical requirements are imposed on the situation of an experiment in psychology, and the experiment itself can be considered as a process of communication between the experimenter and the subject.

The task of a psychological experiment is to make an internal mental phenomenon accessible to objective observation. At the same time, the phenomenon under study should be adequately and unambiguously manifested in external behavior, which is achieved through purposeful control of the conditions for its occurrence and course. S.L. Rubinstein wrote:

“The main task of a psychological experiment is to make available to objective external observation the essential features of the internal mental process. To do this, it is necessary, by varying the conditions for the flow of external activity, to find a situation in which the external flow of the act would adequately reflect its internal mental content. The task of experimental variation of conditions in a psychological experiment is, first of all, to reveal the correctness of a single psychological interpretation of an action or deed, excluding the possibility of all the others.

V.V. Nikandrov points out that the achievement of the main goal of the experiment - the maximum possible unambiguity in understanding the connections between the phenomena of internal mental life and their external manifestations - is achieved due to the following main characteristics of the experiment:

1) the initiative of the experimenter in the manifestation of psychological facts of interest to him;

2) the possibility of varying the conditions for the emergence and development of mental phenomena;

3) strict control and fixation of the conditions and the process of their occurrence;

4) isolation of some and emphasis on other factors that determine the studied phenomena, which makes it possible to identify the patterns of their existence;

5) the possibility of repeating the conditions of the experiment for multiple verification of the obtained scientific data and their accumulation;

6) varying conditions for quantitative assessments revealed patterns.

Thus, psychological experiment can be defined as a method in which the researcher himself causes the phenomena of interest to him and changes the conditions for their occurrence in order to establish the causes of the occurrence of these phenomena and the patterns of their development. In addition, the obtained scientific facts can be repeatedly reproduced due to the controllability and strict control of conditions, which makes it possible to verify them, as well as to accumulate quantitative data, on the basis of which it is possible to judge the typicality or randomness of the studied phenomena.

Modern natural science is characterized by the strengthening of the role of observation in it. The main reasons for this phenomenon are:

1) the development of the observation method itself: the equipment created for observation can long time work in automatic mode, be controlled from a distance; its connection to a computer makes it possible to quickly and reliably process observational data;

2) the realization by the scientific community that experiments on objects that are vital for humanity cannot be carried out. This is, first of all, the ocean and the earth's atmosphere. They can only be studied by observation;

3) the emergence of new possibilities for observing the Earth with the development of space technology. Observations of the Earth from space make it possible to obtain information about integral terrestrial formations in an integrative form, which cannot be obtained in the conditions of being the subject of observation on the Earth. They make it possible to observe integral pictures of the interactions of several subsystems of the Earth at once, to observe the dynamics of a number of processes on the Earth;

4) the removal of observation equipment beyond the Earth's atmosphere and even beyond its gravitational field expanded the possibility of astronomical observations. So, with the help of machines, we managed to see reverse side Moon, survey the surface and surroundings of other planets solar system. The point is that outside earth's atmosphere there is no absorption of electromagnetic cosmic radiation in a wide frequency range by the atmosphere. After the removal of instruments from the earth's atmosphere, X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy arose and began to develop rapidly.

What is scientific observation?

Observation- this is a deliberate, systematic perception of a phenomenon, carried out in order to identify its essential properties and relationships.

Observation is an active form scientific activity subject. It requires the formulation of the task of observation, the development of a methodology for its implementation, the development of methods for fixing the results of observation and their processing.

The emerging tasks of observation are caused by the internal logic of the development of natural science and the demands of practice.

Scientific observation is always associated with theoretical knowledge. It shows what to observe and how to observe. It also specifies the degree of observation accuracy.

Observations can be:

-immediate - the properties and aspects of the object are perceived by the human senses;

-mediated- performed with the help of technical means (microscope, telescope);

- indirect- in which not objects are observed, but the results of their impact on some other objects (electron flow, which is fixed by the glow of a screen with a special coating).

Observation conditions should provide:

a) the unambiguity of the intention of the observation;

b) the possibility of control either by repeated observation, or by applying new, different methods of observation. Observation results must be reproducible. Of course, there is no absolute reproducibility of the results of observations. The results of observations are recorded only within the framework of certain scientific knowledge.

In the process of observation, the subject does not interfere with the nature of the observed phenomenon. It breeds shortcomings of observation as a scientific method of cognition:

1. It is impossible to isolate the observed phenomenon from the influence of factors obscuring its essence. The concept of the obscuring factor is easy to understand on the example of the free fall of bodies. Indeed, the free fall of bodies shows that air resistance clearly affects the nature of the movement of the body, but it does not have any effect on the dependence of this movement on gravity. Thus, a darkening factor is a factor on which the phenomenon under study does not depend, but which modifies the form of manifestation of the phenomenon under study.

2. You can not reproduce the phenomenon as many times as required for this study; you have to wait for it to repeat itself.

3. It is impossible to study the behavior of a phenomenon under different conditions, i.e. it is impossible to study it comprehensively.

It is these shortcomings of observation that force the researcher to proceed to the experiment. To conclude this question, we note that in modern natural science observation is increasingly taking the form of measuring the quantitative value of the properties of the system. The results of the observation are recorded in the protocols. They are tables, graphs, verbal descriptions, etc. Having received observation protocols, the researcher tries to establish dependencies between certain properties: quantitative, following in time, concomitance, mutual exclusion, etc.

10. Method of experiment

Experiment- this is a method of cognition based on controlling the behavior of an object with the help of a number of factors, the control over the action of which is in the hands of the researcher.

The experiment did not completely replace observation. Observation under experimental conditions fixes the impact on the object and the reaction of the object. Without this, the experiment goes to waste. For example, Ohm's law for a section of a circuit says: for metals and electrolytes, the current in the circuit is proportional to the applied voltage. In order to verify this pattern experimentally, it is necessary to change the voltage in the circuit and observe (fix) how the current strength changes in this case.

The main difference between the experiment from observation lies in the fact that even in the simplest experiment an artificial system of elements is created that has not previously been encountered in human practice. This artificial system will be an experimental facility.

The main requirement for the experiment- reproducibility of its results. This means that an experiment conducted at different points in time, other things being equal, should give the same result. Nevertheless, not every biological experiment, for example, can be repeated as many times as desired (heart transplantation, etc.). Such repetition is possible in principle. But there is also the question of the expediency of repetition.

Depending on the subject of research experiment subdivide on natural science, technical and social. The choice of one or another type of experiment, as well as the plan for its implementation, depends on the research task. In this regard, experiments are divided into: search, measurement, control, verification.

search engines experiments are set up to discover unknown objects or properties. Measuring- to establish the quantitative parameters of the subject or process being studied.

Control– to check the results obtained earlier. Testing- to confirm or refute a certain hypothesis or some theoretical statement.

A modern experiment is theoretically loaded. Really:

Instruments are used in the experiment, and they are the materialized result of previous theoretical activity;

Any experiment is built on the basis of some theory, and if the theory is well developed, then it is known in advance what result the experiment will lead to;

An experiment, as a rule, does not give a continuous picture of the process, but only its nodal points. Only theoretical thinking is capable of restoring the whole process from them;

When processing experimental data, it is necessary to carry out averaging and apply the theory of errors.

The theoretical loading of the experiment increases. The reason for this is the occurrence mathematical theory of experiment, the use of which reduces the number of samples in the experiment, increases its accuracy.

In order to have a good understanding of the possibilities and limits of applicability of the theory of experiment planning, the creation of automated experiment control systems, it is necessary to take into account that all decisions and actions of the experimenter can be conditionally divided into two types:

1) based on a detailed and scrupulous study of a particular phenomenon;

2) based on more general properties characteristic of many phenomena and objects.

We call the first decisions and actions heuristic, and the second - formalizable. If we are talking about the heuristic part, then here success is determined by the level of training of the experimenter in a particular field of knowledge, as well as his intuition. The mathematical theory of experiment deals with the study of only the formalized part experimental activities. Success here is entirely determined by the development of the theory and the level of training of the experimenter in the framework of this theory.

The most important concept of the theory of planning an experiment is the concept of a factor. factor called a controlled independent variable corresponding to one of the possible ways of influencing the object of study. Often such variables are called adjustable factors. Temperature, pressure, composition of the reaction mixture, concentration, etc. can act as controlled factors. In each particular case, the number of these factors and their numerical values are clearly defined. When choosing factors, it is desirable to take into account as many of them as possible. They are established based on the results of a literature review, a study of the physical essence of the process, logical reasoning and a survey of specialists.

The quantitative and qualitative states of the factors chosen for the experiment are called factor levels. As factors, it is advisable to choose such independent variables that correspond to one of the reasonable effects on the object of study and can be measured by the available means with a sufficiently high accuracy.

The main requirements for factors, such:

a) manageability, i.e. the ability to set and maintain the selected desired level of the factor constant during the entire experience and its changes according to a given program. The controllability requirement is associated with the need to change the factors during the experiment at several levels, and in each individual experiment, the level of variation must be maintained fairly accurately.

b) compatibility, i.e. the feasibility of any combination of factors. Compatibility of factors means that all their combinations can be implemented in practice. This requirement is serious, since in some cases the incompatibility of factors can lead to the destruction of the installation (for example, as a result of the formation of a mixture of gases prone to self-explosion) or measuring instruments.

c) independence, i.e. the possibility of establishing factors at any level, regardless of the level of other factors. The concept of independence implies that a factor is not a function of other factors. In particular, such a factor as room temperature is a function of other factors: the number of heat emitters and their location, etc.

d) the accuracy of measurement and control must be known and sufficiently high (at least an order of magnitude higher than the accuracy of measuring the output parameter). The low accuracy of measuring factors reduces the possibility of reproducing the experiment;

e) there must be a one-to-one correspondence between the factors and the output parameter, i.e. a change in factors will entail a change in the output parameter;

f) the areas of definition of the factors should be such that at the limiting values of the factors, the output parameter remains within its boundaries.

Uncontrolled factors also affect the experiment - these are uncontrolled conditions for conducting experiments. In principle, it is impossible to describe them all, and it is not necessary.

The next important concept of the mathematical theory of experiment is concept of “response function”. What is behind these concepts?

The course of the process is quantitatively characterized by one or more quantities. Such quantities in the theory of experiment planning are called response functions. They depend on influencing factors.

Under the mathematical description of the process, we mean a system of equations relating the response functions to the influencing factors. In the simplest case, this can be a single equation. Often such a mathematical description is called a mathematical model of the process under study. The value of the mathematical description of the phenomenon under study lies in the fact that it provides information about the influence of factors, allows you to quantify the value of the response function for a given process mode, and can serve as the basis for optimizing the process under study.

When choosing an output parameter, the following requirements must be taken into account:

a) the output parameter must have quantitative characteristic, i.e. must be measured;

b) he must unambiguously evaluate (measure) the performance of the research object;

c) it must be such that it is possible to clearly distinguish between experiments;

d) it should reflect as fully as possible the essence of the phenomenon under study;

e) it must have a sufficiently clear physical meaning.

The successful choice of the output parameter is largely determined by the level of knowledge of the phenomenon under study.

You can use two or more output parameters, but then the task becomes much more complicated. Note that the factors are selected only after the output parameter (or parameters) is selected.

The process is controlled by instruments that measure input and output parameters. For short-term studies, it is recommended to use indicating means of control, and for long-term studies, recording ones.

The space whose coordinates are factors is called the factor space, or the space of independent variables. Mathematical analysis The planning of the experiment is reduced to the choice of the optimal arrangement of points in the factor space, providing the best results of the study in a certain sense.

Modern experimental studies have the following features:

1. The impossibility of observing the phenomena under study using only the sense organs of the subject-experimenter (low or high temperatures, pressure, vacuum, etc.);

2. Natural science of the 19th century tried to deal experimentally with well-organized systems, i.e. study systems that depend on a small number of variables. The ideal, for example, of an experimental physicist was single-factor experiment. Its essence is as follows: it was assumed that the researcher could stabilize all the independent variables of the system under study with any degree of accuracy. Then, changing some of them one by one, he installed the dependencies he was interested in. Here is an example of a one-way experiment. Consider a gas that is at a certain temperature, pressure, volume. Each of the named parameters of the system (temperature, pressure, volume) can be made constant. So it is possible, say, to study the change in the volume of a gas with a change in pressure, if the temperature is constant, i.e. conduct an isothermal process. Similarly, isobaric and isochoric processes are carried out.

In the second half of the 20th century, it became necessary to conduct experiments with diffuse, i.e. poorly organized systems. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that in such systems several processes of different nature take place simultaneously. Moreover, they are so closely related to each other that, in principle, they cannot be considered in isolation from each other. For example, these are the physical processes that occur between the cathode and the anode in a lamp, this is an emission spectral analysis, etc.;

H. Use of filtering devices. The bottom line: not all signals given out experimentally have the same value. It is often difficult to identify from a large amount of information the one that is significant. In such situations, filter devices are used. These are automata capable of selecting incoming signals and giving the researcher the information that is needed to solve the problem.

Example. In the physics of the microworld, it is known that the same particle can decay through several channels. The decay probabilities for different channels are different. Some of them are negligible. For example, the K + -meson decays through seven channels. The decay of the K + - meson, which takes place with a low probability, is very difficult to fix if the results of the experiment are processed manually. This is where filters come into play. They automate the search desired type decay elementary particle;

4. Modern experiments are characterized by the use of sophisticated equipment, a large amount of measured and recorded parameters, and the complexity of algorithms for processing the information received.

All experiments are set with the following goals:

1) to obtain new empirical data subject to further generalization;

2) in order to confirm or refute already existing ideas and theories, and it is necessary to understand what the experiment in theory confirms and what does not.

The experiment does not test the theory as a whole, but its observable consequences. By means of measurements, two groups of facts are compared: those predicted by the theory and those found as a result of the measurement. If there is not at least an approximate coincidence between them, the theory, even if it is logically coherent, cannot be considered satisfactory. At the same time, the experiment does not allow making an absolute conclusion about the correctness of the theory. Having received experimental confirmation of a theoretical position, it is far from always possible to guarantee that the experiment confirmed only it. The researcher does not always know how many other valid assumptions the result satisfies. This, in particular, is connected with the impossibility of the “decisive experiment”. An experiment with absoluteness confirms not itself theoretical construction, but its specific interpretation.

In a number of cases, observation and in all cases experiment are associated with the measurement of certain characteristics of the system under study.

What is a dimension?

The procedure for establishing one quantity with the help of another, taken as a standard, is called measurement. Measurement links observation to mathematics and allows the creation of quantitative theories.

The measurement method includes three main points:

a) choosing a unit of measurement and obtaining an appropriate set of measures;

b) establishment of the rule for comparing the measured quantity with the measure and the rule for adding measures;

c) description of the measurement procedure.

So, the measurement involves the implementation of one or another physical procedure, but is not reduced to it. Measurement, in order to fulfill its purpose, must also involve a certain theory. It is also necessary to know the theory of the device, since without such knowledge its readings will remain incomprehensible to us.

The purpose of observations and experiments is to give facts to science. What is meant by fact?

There are different definitions of fact in the literature. We assume fact empirical knowledge, which either performs the function of a starting point in the construction of a scientific theory, or plays the role of verifying its truth. By the way, theoretical knowledge can also perform these two named functions. And then it will act as a fact.

Since fact is an element of knowledge, it often merges with its explanation. It is very important to always clear the facts from their explanation as much as possible. Why? If we pass off a fact that has already been explained as a real fact, then we will unreasonably impose a ban on other possible explanations. this fact. However, it must be borne in mind that the facts in their pure form do not exist. Every fact bears the seal of existing knowledge. As a form of knowledge for natural science, a fact is valuable in that it has a certain invariance in various systems of knowledge.

What is the difference between experiment and observation? and got the best answer

Answer from Denis Odessa[active]
It differs from observation by active interaction with the object under study. Usually, an experiment is carried out as part of a scientific study and serves to test a hypothesis, establish causal relationships between phenomena.

Answer from Vasily Khaminov[guru]
when experimenting, you subject an object to some kind of test)) And observations are just observing it in natural conditions))

Answer from Daria Shevchuk[active]
observation is a passive way of knowing, and experience is an active way.

Answer from Vinera Ovechkin[newbie]
Observation is the perception of natural objects, and experiment is observation in specially created and controlled conditions. That is, the difference is that Observation all depends on nature, while Experiment there everything needs to be done by yourself

Answer from Dima Kuznetsov[guru]
you can watch the experiment O_O

Answer from _BE`Z analoga_ I`[newbie]
Scientific observation (N.) is the perception of objects and phenomena of reality, carried out with the aim of their knowledge. In N.'s act, one can single out:
1) object;
2) subject;
3) funds;
4) conditions;
5) a system of knowledge, on the basis of which the goal of N. is set and its results are interpreted.
All these components should be taken into account when reporting N.'s results so that any other observer can repeat it. The most important requirement for scientific N. is the observance of intersubjectivity. It implies that N. can be repeated by each observer with the same result. Only in this case the result of N. will be included in science. Therefore, eg. , observations of UFOs or various parapsychic phenomena that do not satisfy the requirement of intersubjectivity still remain outside of science.
N. are subdivided into direct and indirect. With direct N., the scientist observes the chosen object itself. However, this is not always possible. Eg. , objects quantum mechanics or many objects of astronomy cannot be observed directly. We can judge the properties of such objects only on the basis of their interaction with other objects. This kind of N. is called indirect, it is based on the assumption of a certain regular connection between the properties of directly unobservable objects and the observed manifestations of these properties and contains a logical conclusion about the properties of an unobservable object based on the observed effect of its action. It should be noted that a sharp boundary cannot be drawn between direct and indirect N.. IN modern science indirect N. are becoming more widespread as the number and perfection of the instruments used in N. increases, and the scope of scientific research expands. The observed object affects the device, and the scientist directly observes only the result of the interaction of the object with the device.
Experiment (E.) is a direct material impact on a real object or the conditions surrounding it, produced with the aim of knowing this object.
The following elements are usually distinguished in E.:
1) purpose;
2) the object of experimentation;
3) the conditions in which the object is located or in which it is placed;
4) E. means;
5) material impact on the object.
Each of these elements can be used as the basis for the classification of electrons; they can be divided into physical, chemical, biological, etc., depending on the differences in the objects of experimentation. One of the simplest classifications is based on differences in the goals of E.: for example. , establishment of k.-l. patterns or discovery of facts. E., conducted for this purpose, are called "search". The result of search E. is new information about the area under study. However, most often the experiment is carried out in order to test some hypothesis or theory. Such E. is called "verification". It is clear that it is impossible to draw a sharp line between these two types of E. The same E. can be used to test a hypothesis and at the same time provide unexpected information about the objects under study. In the same way, the result of search E. can force us to abandon the accepted hypothesis or, on the contrary, give an empirical justification to our theoretical reasoning. In modern science, the same E. more and more often serves different purposes.
E. is always called upon to answer a particular question. But for a question to be meaningful and allow a definite answer, it must be based on prior knowledge of the area under study. It is theory that provides this knowledge, and it is the theory that raises the question for the sake of answering which E. is posed. Therefore, E. cannot bring the correct result without theory. Initially, the question is formulated in the language of theory, that is, in theoretical terms denoting abstract, idealized objects. In order for E. to answer the question of theory, this question must be reformulated in empirical terms, the meanings of which are sensually perceived objects. It should, however, be emphasized that, by implementing N. and E., we go beyond purely

Answer from Vladimir Sudin[guru]
Well, you know, HELLO!
Experiment - when you yourself participate, and observation - NOTHING depends on you ....

Answer from hungry ghost[guru]
experiment - they make experiments, observation - they just observe, look (for example, how quickly a plant grows under the influence of some kind of fertilizer) ... experiment - practice, observation - theory

Review of methods in personality psychology. Methods of observation and experiment.

The main methods of research in psychology, as in a number of other sciences, are empirical methods, which allow obtaining specific data concerning the nature of mental phenomena, the main of which are observation and experiment.
Observation- This scientific method research that is not limited to simple registration of facts, but scientifically explains the reasons for this or that psychological phenomenon. It is divided into everyday observations, which are limited to the registration of facts that are random and unorganized, and the scientific method of observation - the transition from a description of a fact to an explanation of its inner essence.
Experiment- this is the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which a psychological fact is revealed. The laboratory experiment takes place under special conditions using special equipment. The natural experiment takes place in normal conditions and is used in the study of cognitive abilities at different age stages. A formative experiment (teaching and educating), models some aspects of human activity.
Auxiliary methods of psychology include: analysis of products of activity, biographical method, twin method, sociometry, modeling, questioning, predictive and diagnostic tests.

Even more new information - on the site psychoanalysis.rf

According to B.G. Ananiev in psychology, four groups of methods are distinguished:
I group- organizational methods. They include the comparative method (comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.); longitudinal method (multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time); complex method (representatives of different sciences; in this case, as a rule, one object is studied by different means. Studies of this kind make it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various types, for example, between physiological, psychological and social development personality).
Group II - empirical methods, including: observation and self-observation; experimental methods, psychodiagnostic methods (tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews, conversations), analysis of activity products, biographical methods.
Group III - data processing methods, including: quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (differentiation of material by groups, analysis) methods.
Group IV - interpretative methods, including genetic (analysis of the material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, critical moments, etc.) and structural (establishes structural relationships between all personality characteristics) methods.
Let us dwell on a more detailed consideration of the most significant methods of psychology.
Observation method- This purposeful process perception of certain events and their registration. Observation in psychology appears in two main forms - as self-observation, or introspection, and as external, or so-called objective, observation.
Through self-observation, we reveal the content of our mental processes. Genuine awareness of one's own experience is accomplished through an act directed not directly at him, but at one or another task, which is carried out by the action emanating from him. By resolving it, the subject reveals himself in the corresponding action - external or internal. If by self-observation we understand the observation of oneself, one's own psyche, then it itself includes the unity and interconnection of internal and external observation, internal and external data. Self-observation can only be a phase, a moment, a side of research, which, when one attempts to verify its data, inevitably passes into objective observation.
Objective, i.e. external observation is the simplest and most common of all objective methods of research, through which we cognize the phenomena of objective reality that are reflected in our mental processes. The description of phenomena on the basis of observation is correct if the psychological understanding contained in it of the inner psychological side of an external act gives a natural explanation of its external course in various conditions.
The main advantage of the method of objective observation is that it makes it possible to study mental processes in natural conditions; in particular, the child can be observed in the conditions of learning at school. However, in the study of phenomena in which the relation between the external side of behavior and its internal psychological content is more or less complex, objective observation, while retaining its value, must for the most part be supplemented by other methods of investigation.
Using the method of observation through the Gezzela glass (a translucent mirror behind which the researcher and equipment are located), Kurt Lewin- American psychologist introduced the concept of field behavior. Alone with himself, a person carries out field behavior, which is determined by the multidirectional action of objects. After the appearance of another person, he begins to behave, obeying the norms social situation, behavior becomes volitional.

Experiment Method is one of the main methods of psychology. The main task of a psychological experiment, like observation, is to make available to objective external perception the essential features of the internal mental process. But experiment differs from observation in a number of ways.

The main features of the experiment, which determine its strength, are as follows. First, in an experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying, in contrast to observation, in which the observer cannot actively intervene in the situation. Secondly, the experimenter can vary, change the conditions for the flow and manifestation of the process under study. Thirdly, in the experiment, it is possible to alternately exclude individual conditions (variables) in order to establish regular relationships that determine the process under study. Fourthly, the experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions, allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study.

A laboratory psychological experiment takes place under specially created and controlled conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment and instruments. The initial object of a laboratory experiment in psychology was elementary mental processes: sensations, perceptions, reaction speed. A distinctive feature of the experiment in the laboratory is the strict observance of the conditions of the study and the accuracy of the data obtained. Achieved great perfection in the use of laboratory experiment cognitive psychology that studies human cognitive processes. cognitive processes constituted the main field of laboratory research in human psychology.

The scientific objectivity and practical significance of the data obtained in a laboratory experiment is reduced by the artificiality of the conditions created. This is due both to the remoteness of the tasks solved in the experiment from the real life conditions of the subject, and to the inability to fix the nature of the influence of the experimenter on the subject during the study. Therefore, there is a problem of transferring the data obtained in the laboratory to the real conditions of human life.

A natural psychological experiment, a kind of experiment, representing, as it were, an intermediate form between observation and experiment, proposed by A.F. Lazursky, removes the noted limitations of the laboratory experiment. Its main difference lies in the combination of the experimental nature of the study with the naturalness of the conditions. Subjects participating in a natural experiment are unaware that they are acting as subjects.

An example of an experimental method is a study in which the same situations or events are called up and two variables controlled by the experimenter are introduced - independent (x) - the circumstance that the researcher himself changes, and dependent (y) - the answers that the subject gives when changing circumstances, variables. The meaning of the experiment is to establish a relationship between x and y in the form y=f(x). Built on this hick method- study of reaction time to various situations. With an increase in the number of choice alternatives (n), the reaction time (Tr) grows linearly - Tr=f(n), with n<=7, так как законы в психологии носят ограниченный характер.

Looking after my little son, I constantly see how he makes new discoveries for himself, observing the world and conducting small experiments. Now he himself does not know what these concepts mean, and how they differ. But when he's a little older, that's what I'll tell him.

My observations and experiences

It's best explained with an example.

I have always loved to observe the objects of the world around me. So, it is very interesting to see how ants behave depending on the weather and time of day.

But more than that, I love experimenting.

I had an amazing experience once when I was a child. From the children's encyclopedia, I learned that the abdomen of ants is transparent. This assumption became my hypothesis, which had to be confirmed or refuted. I prepared sweet syrups of different colors and placed small drops near the anthill. It's funny, but when the ants drank, their tummies turned the color of a drop of syrup. This confirmed my hypothesis.

Have you guessed how my simple observations of the life of an anthill differed from the experiment?

In the first case, I just watched (observed) the behavior of insects. While conducting the experiment, I myself had to interact with the subjects by placing colored drops near the anthill.
While conducting the experiment, I had a hypothesis (from the children's encyclopedia) and a plan of action.
Observations did not require any equipment (although this is not always true, for example, to observe space objects, you will need a telescope). For the experiment, I needed sugar, water, dyes and other means for making syrup.