Geographical terms and concepts. Geographic definitions. Altitude is the vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points above sea level is considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth- the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; is calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° clockwise.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or sitting aground.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70°S.
Anticyclone- area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere.

area- the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
arctic belt- descends from North Pole up to 70° N
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere – air envelope Earth.
Atoll- coral island in the form of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in the steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- accumulation of loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.
Pool- the area of ​​lowering, which does not have a runoff on the surface.
Shore- a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending to the water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze- local wind on the shores of the seas, lakes and large rivers. Daytime breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special kind of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind- the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is specified in m/s, km/h, knots, or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity- the content of water vapor in it.
Watershed- boundary between watersheds.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves – oscillatory movements aquatic environment seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations in atmospheric pressure (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
highlands- a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems of the planet: Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; V Central Asia, in India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zonality- change natural areas in the mountains from the sole to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates are angular quantities that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.
Geospheres- shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains- vast territories with absolute heights up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.
mountain system- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief form; formed by hills lined up in a row and merged with their foothills.
Delta- the area of ​​​​deposition of river sediments at the mouth of the river when it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographic is the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through given point, and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and measured from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief form.
Dunes- the accumulation of sand on the shores of the seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
gulf- a part of the ocean (sea or lake), which goes quite deep into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The earth's crust is the outer shell of the earth.
Swell- small, with a calm uniform wave, the excitement of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere- high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source- the place where the river begins.
Canyon- a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater margin of the mainland.
Karst- dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomenon associated with it. Climate is the long-term regime of the weather in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or belt)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Spit- a sand or pebble shaft, stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression that arose after the explosion of a volcano.
Ridge- a sharply uplifting large uplift, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche A mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
landscape geographical- type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous section of the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along the slope of a mountain or along a valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– a shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by an oblique or embankment.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle The shell of the earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large part of the land, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia- in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South- in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica- in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa- in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia- in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent of the Earth).
Meridians geographically e - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at a right angle; all their points lie on the same geographic longitude.
World Ocean- all the water space of the Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the season: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
uplands- a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highlands on Earth. Its base rests at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m and more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
lowlands- bottom tier mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland- a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea-Lake and the deepest is Baikal.
oceans- parts of the oceans, separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; Pacific Ocean(Great), greatest and deepest ocean on the ground.
Landslide- displacement down the slope of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographic parallels- imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) - the protective effects of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
trade winds- constant winds in tropical regions blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) a high plain, bounded by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountaintop.
underwater plateau- elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos- a deep (wide) section of the river bed between riffles.
Plateau- a vast piece of land with a height of 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat tops and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim Plateau.
floodplain- part of the river valley, which is flooded in the flood.
semi-desert- transitional landscape, combining the features of the steppe or desert.
hemisphere- half of the earth's sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160 ° E. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or on other grounds.
Geographic poles- points of intersection of the axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface. Magnetic points of the Earth - points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where the magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation to the cardinal points.
arctic circles(North and South) - parallels that are 66 ° 33 ′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold- a shallow area in a riverbed with a large slope and a fast current.
foothills- hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebb and flow- periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the moon and the sun.
desert- vast areas with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert in the world is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains- vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is East European, or Russian, with an area of ​​​​more than 6 million km2 and West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​\u200b\u200babout 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a channel. Amazon - a river in the south. America, the largest in the world in length (from the source of the Ucayali River more than 7000 km), in terms of basin area (7180 m2) and in terms of water content; Mississippi - largest river Sev. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief- a set of various irregularities of the earth's surface of various origins; are formed as a result of a combination of influences on earth's surface endogenous and exogenous processes.
channel- the deepest part of the valley floor, occupied by the river.
Savannah- the landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which grassy vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in the North. hemisphere.
sel- a mud or mud-stone stream, suddenly passing through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American title tornado) - vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Middle mountains- mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. Mountain structures of medium height are the most on Earth. They spread over the vast expanses of the south and northeast of Siberia. Almost all of them are occupied Far East, eastern China and the Indochina peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- a sloping area on land or the bottom of the sea. Windward Slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope - facing away from the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe- treeless spaces with an arid climate, which are characterized by grassy vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, merging in the south with the savannahs of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere- layer of the atmosphere.
subtropical belts(subtropics) - located between the tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts- located between the equatorial belt and tropical belts.
Taiga- zone of coniferous forests of the temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane strength in South-East Asia and in the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements- movements of the earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23 ° 30 ° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
tropical belts- located between the subtropical and subequatorial belts.
Troposphere- the lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra- treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
temperate zones are located in temperate latitudes.
temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N and between 42°S and 58°S
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
mouth A place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
front atmospheric A zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill- small in height and sparing gently sloping hill.
Cyclones- area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami- the Japanese name for the huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world- regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts of them) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths up to 200 m (more in some cases).
Geographic latitude- the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and measured from the equator to the north and south.
Squall- a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- Calm, stillness.
Storm- very strong wind, accompanied by strong sea waves.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe that are equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere- layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion- destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the southern hemisphere.
Earth's core- the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- a part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and not having access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, infrastructural ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (exports of the country) and imported (imports).
population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, which ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographic environment- part of the earth's nature with which society interacts on this stage historical development.
Geopolitics- addiction foreign policy states from geographical location and other physical and economic-geographical factors.
Global population problems- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all mankind, creating a threat to its present and future; joint efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences the natural increase in the population in the desired direction.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about the population, the patterns of its reproduction.
natural population growth- the difference between the birth and death rates per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- Import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization - the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agrarian to an industrial one.
Integration international economic- the process of establishing deep and stable economic relations between countries, based on the implementation of their coordinated interstate policy.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and provision Everyday life population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement, which arose as a result of the merging of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological ties.
Population migration- the movement of the population across the territory, associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total cost of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (NTR)- a fundamental qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- a historical and social community of people, formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of an industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises that produce homogeneous products or provide homogeneous services.
Socio-economic area- the territory of the country, including several administrative divisions, which differs from other features historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning- the division of the territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and the equalization of people's living standards.
Resource availability- the ratio between the value natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a profitable EGP, where, in order to attract foreign capital, a preferential tax and customs regime, special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization- production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, the performance of one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or services
The structure of the national economy- ratio between various areas and industries by the value of products, the number of employees, or by the value of fixed production assets.
suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Human Resources- part of the country's population capable of labor activity and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of settlements.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of an individual consumer.
Economic and geographical position (EGP)- the position of the object in relation to other geographical objects of economic importance to it.
Economically active population- part of the population of the country, a comma in national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to the quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long time.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people, which has a unique internal structure and an original stereotype of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the "native" landscape.

Multi-subject– studies various phenomena (from geology to ideology).

Polyscale- we can talk about phenomena of various scales. Geography is characterized by a "game of scales" - consideration at different levels.

The presence of its own language of geography. Cartographic language - the language of the map has the following advantages:

expressiveness

visibility

Imagery

Large information capacity

Geography cannot exist without a map.

"Any geographical research begins with a map and ends with a map"

(N. N. Baransky)

Three mistakes in the concept of geography:

1. Only a school subject
2. The object of study is nature
3. Is descriptive only

Geography has many components, a branched science. Geography not only describes and establishes patterns, but also seeks to improve people's lives.

Goals and objectives of geography

The purpose of geographical science: the formation of a scientific picture of the world.

1. The study of the structure of the geographic shell. The study of the interaction between its parts.

2. Identification of the features of the propagation of various phenomena on the surface of the Earth.

3. The study of territorial differences in different phenomena.

4. Study of the interaction of territorial objects. Study of the interaction of various objects and phenomena on the surface of the Earth

5. Diagnosing problems. Applied task aimed at improving people's lives

6. Development of proposals for solving these problems

7. Geographic forecasting

8. A private task is the compilation of various maps

Questions of the methodology of geography

Geography object

This is what is being studied, is in the center, some system that can fall apart. The concept is collective. Ecumene or geographic shell, the surface of the Earth. Oikumene is a well-known part of the land. Each separate part of the geographical envelope is also an object. The combination of these objects within one layer is systems.

Geography is the science of territorial complexes and territorial systems.

2.1.1 Two approaches to studying the geographic envelope:

Component or branch. Consideration of a certain layer of the earth's surface (only the lithosphere or hydrosphere, etc.)

Regional. Consideration of a certain part of the earth's surface (for example: Eurasia) and the study of all layers in this area.

*DRAWING*

It follows that there is a component geography and a regional geography.

As part of separate layers, a group of separate objects operates - territorial / geographical systems. System (Greek) / Complex (Latin) - a whole state of parts. The system is the interaction of homogeneous objects. The complex is the interaction of different objects. Objects can vary in size, from very large to very small (levels geographical objects).

This section contains examples of typical plans used by students from grades 6 to 11 when compiling a description of certain geographical objects, not only in geography lessons, but also when doing homework.

Plan for describing the geographical position of the mainland

1. The location of the mainland relative to the equator, the tropics (polar circles) and the prime meridian.
2. The extreme points of the mainland, their coordinates and the length of the mainland in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.
3. In what climatic zones is the mainland located?
4. Oceans and seas washing the mainland.
5. The location of the mainland relative to other continents.

Plan for describing the relief of the territory

1. General character surfaces. How to explain it?

2. The position of different landforms in the study area.

3. Dominant and greatest height.

Climate description plan

1. In what climatic zone and in what area is the territory located?

2. Average temperatures in July and January. Direction and reasons for their change.

3. Prevailing winds (by season).

4. Annual amount of precipitation and their regime. Causes of differences in precipitation across the territory.

Characteristics of the climate chart

1. Description of the annual course of temperatures. Average temperature in January, July, annual amplitude.

2. Annual amount of precipitation, their seasonal regime.

3. Conclusion about the type of climate.

River description plan

1. The geographical position of the river.

2. Where does it originate, where does it flow?

3. River length, basin area, large tributaries.

5. Dependence of the nature of the flow on the relief. Fall, slope of the river.

6. Power sources of the river.

7. River regime, its dependence on climate.

8. Human use of the river.

Natural area description plan

1. Geographical location of the zone.

2. Climatic conditions.

3. Inland waters.

4. Soils.

5. Vegetation.

6. Animal world.

Plan of characteristics of the country (region)

1. EGP of the country (regions).

2. Economic evaluation natural conditions and resources.

3. Population and labor resources. Possibilities for their use.

4. Historical prerequisites for the development of the economy.

5. Specialization of the economy; the main features of its location.

6. The main features of the geography of transport.

7. Relationships between industries and territories within a region, country, city.

8. General conclusion: development prospects.

EGP characterization plan of the country (region)

1. The position of the object on the territory of the mainland (state).

2. Position in relation to neighboring countries, regions.

3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw materials, industrial and agricultural regions.

4. Position in relation to the main transport routes.

5. Position in relation to the main sales areas.

6. EGP change in time.

7. Conclusion about the possibility of EGP influence on the development of the economy of the country (region).

Plan for the characteristics of the country's population

1. Number, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.

2. Age-sex composition, availability of labor resources.

3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.

4. Social and class composition of the population.

5. The main features of the distribution of the population. The impact of migrations on this placement.

6. Level, rates and forms of urbanization. Major cities and urban agglomerations.

7. Rural resettlement.

8. Conclusion: prospects for population and labor growth.

Plan of characteristics of the branch of the World economy

1. The value of the industry, its sectoral composition, the impact of scientific and technological revolution on its development.

2. Raw and fuel resources of the industry, their distribution.

3. Sizes of production with distribution by main geographic regions.

4. Main producing countries.

5. Factors that determined the location of the industry in these areas.

6. Environmental and ecological problems industries.

7. The main countries of export and import of products. The most important cargo flows.

8. Conclusion: prospects for the development and location of the industry. 

A fascinating subject, geography is a scientific discipline that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means "description of the earth." Below is general definition term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and environment including the impact of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialty. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographic research: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps the surrounding area, and also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places on the Earth. Over time rich heritage geography made a fateful journey into the bright Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam witnessed astonishing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first base grid for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography woke up in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era research. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main incentive for travel at that time. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and. The enormous potential of geography for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized, and in the 18th century, it was introduced as a major discipline at the university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop solutions to problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physical geography

Defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to elucidate various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes physical characteristics appearance Earth.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological research.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine life, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition sea ​​waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. It explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
• Soil science: the branch of science that studies the different types of soils in their natural environment on the earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (pedogenesis), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. She also studies the distribution of species during geological periods time. Every geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship with physical and geographical features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (the study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographical features at different points in the earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: Scientific research climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: deals with the study of weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
• Ecological geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial point of view.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. The study also involves understanding the impact of coastal residents on the topography and ecosystem of the coast.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth (geographical history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about the environmental changes that have taken place in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• landscape ecology: science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures of the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

• Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. While this section is seen as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions on the Earth change, and what impact they have on human society.
• Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it is concerned with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, and so on.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of location, distribution and organization economic activity person in geographic space.
• Political geography: considers the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also studies how spatial structures affect political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on the health and well-being of people.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on place and space.
• Geography of settlements: researches urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies animal world Earth and interdependence between humans and animals.

The analysis of topographic maps is carried out in order to study the study area, its features, patterns of placement, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to choose the right map of a certain scale depending on the direction of the intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation in the area , as a basis for compiling hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for scientific analysis natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The choice of maps is accompanied by an assessment of their suitability for specific work in terms of the accuracy and detail of the information that is supposed to be obtained using maps. At the same time, it should be taken into account that enlargement of the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing the visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of information. The time when maps were published determines their compliance with the current state of the territory. The dynamics of geographical phenomena is revealed by comparing maps of different times for the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

visual way based on visual perception images of the terrain, comparing graphically shown elements of the terrain in shape, size, structure, etc. It presupposes mainly qualitative characteristic objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye assessment of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists in the study of constructions made according to the maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using the methods of graphical analysis, regularities in the spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Graphical analysis subdivided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist in measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques allow you to determine the average height, thickness, power of the phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, sinuosity of lines, contours and etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, the relationship between them, the degree of influence of various factors allow us to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis. With the use of mathematical modeling methods, spatial mathematical models of the terrain are created.

Geographic description of the area is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on a comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, a scale of foundations, etc. The basic principle of description is from the general to the particular. The description is structured as follows:

1) card details(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographical and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristic(type of relief, landforms and the area and extent they occupy, marks of absolute and relative heights, main watersheds, the shape and steepness of slopes, the presence of ravines, cliffs, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, mounds, etc.);

4) hydrographic network- names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of the flow of rivers, slope, nature of the banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and the depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

5) vegetation cover and soils– type, composition of rocks, occupied area, nature of location. In the presence of forests - their characteristics, the width of the clearings, the presence of clearings;

6) settlements - name, type, population, administrative significance, structure and layout, prevailing buildings (fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant), industrial facilities;

7) communication routes- railways and highways. For railways- number of tracks, type of traction, name of stations, stations. For highways and other roads - the nature of the surface and the width.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE THEORY OF ERROR

MEASUREMENTS

The concept of measurements

Measurement - This is the process of comparing the measured value with the value taken as the unit of comparison, as a result of which a named number is obtained, called measurement result.

Distinguish: straight, or immediate And indirect measurements.

direct such measurements are called when the quantities being determined are obtained directly from measurements, as a result of their direct comparison with a unit of measurement. Examples of direct measurements are determining distances with a measuring tape, measuring an angle with a theodolite.

indirect are those measurements in which the quantities to be determined are obtained as functions of the directly measured quantities. The indirect method involves calculating the value of the desired value. For example, elevation in trigonometric leveling is a function of distance and slope measured directly on the ground.

The measurement results are divided into equivalent And unequal.

Equivalent name the results of measurement of homogeneous quantities obtained from repeated measurements under similar conditions (by one observer with the same instrument, by one method and under the same environmental conditions).

If even one of the above conditions is violated, the measurement results are classified as unequal.

In the mathematical processing of the results of topographic and geodetic measurements, the concepts of necessary And excess number of measurements. In the general case, to solve any topographic problem, it is necessary to measure a certain minimum number of quantities that provide a solution to the problem. These measurements are called the number of necessary measurements t. Difference k when subtracting the number of required measurements t of all measured values n, called the number of redundant values ​​k = n – t. Redundant measurements of a quantity make it possible to detect errors in the results of measurements and calculations and improve the accuracy of the determined quantities.