IN Ancient Rus' There were three main forms of medicine:
1) folk medicine. The people who practiced it were called sorcerers and healers;
2) monastic medicine (mainly became widespread after the adoption of Christianity in Rus');
3) secular (or it is also called secular) medicine, which appeared during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. She also bore the name of a foreigner.
Doctors-artisans specialized in healing various diseases - skin, internal, there were also chiropractors, "kidney" masters (treatment of hemorrhoids).
ethnoscience is the oldest branch of medicine in the history of Russia. In fact, its roots were paganism, which was practiced by the Slavic tribes before the unification and creation of the state and before the adoption of Christianity. Thus, the moment of the birth of traditional medicine can be attributed to the time from which the historical description of the life of the Russian people begins, that is, to prehistoric times. With the adoption of Christianity, it has not been eradicated, it has survived more than a millennium already. historical life people and even in our time, it continues to develop, is widely used in practice by those people who own this art, and sometimes come into dispute with scientific medicine. With the development and growth of the Russian state, traditional medicine up to the second half of XIX V. remained the only way treatment of diseases and maintenance of health ordinary people because there was no more affordable medical care. The situation changed in the second half of the 19th century, when the first zemstvo institutions and proper zemstvo medicine appeared.
Ancient Rus' knew several forms medical care: private medical practice, medical care and hospital care. In connection with the development of crafts in Kievan Rus (IX - XIII centuries), folk medicine was developed.
Folk medicine has been developing in Rus' for a long time. Folk healers were called healers. They are mentioned in Russkaya Pravda, the oldest code of Russian laws that has come down to us, which was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise (in the first quarter of the 11th century) and subsequently rewritten and supplemented many times. Russkaya Pravda legally established the remuneration of doctors: according to the laws of that time, a person who caused damage to the health of another person had to pay a fine to the state treasury and give the victim money to pay for treatment.
The healers passed on their healing knowledge and secrets from generation to generation, from father to son in the so-called “family schools”. Medicines prepared from plants were very popular: wormwood, nettle, plantain, wild rosemary, “malicious” (bodyagi), linden blossom, birch leaves, ash bark, juniper berries, as well as onions, garlic, horseradish, birch sap, and many others. folk remedies. Among medicines of animal origin, honey, raw cod liver, mare's milk and deer antlers occupied a special place.
Found their place in folk medicine and medicinal products of mineral origin. For pain in the abdomen, chrysolite stone, ground into powder, was taken orally. To facilitate childbirth, women wore jewelry made of yahonta. The healing properties of vinegar and blue vitriol, turpentine and saltpeter, "sulphurous stone" and arsenic, silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals were known. The Russian people have long known about the healing properties of "sour water". Its ancient name narzan, which has survived to this day, means “bogatyr-water” in translation. In feudal Rus' (XI - XVI centuries), the carriers of medical knowledge were folk artisan doctors, healers, as well as healers, for whom the treatment of people was a profession - healers. They passed on their practical experience from generation to generation. In medical practice, various means of plant, animal and mineral origin were widely used.
The main place in ancient Russian medicine was occupied by "potions" of plant origin: cloves were recommended for visual impairment, ginger was given as a cold remedy, pepper was considered a panacea for all diseases, nutmeg was used as a diuretic.
From the means of animal origin, healers used raw cod liver, animal bile, lard, milk. For heart disease, epilepsy, the mentally ill, and hard drinking, the secret of the musk deer gland, musk, was used.
Of the mineral remedies, healers widely used lapis lazuli stone as a laxative, diamond - to lubricate the edges of purulent wounds and ulcers, and to treat gums with scurvy. Agate was used to make vessels for transporting and storing medicines. Amethyst enjoyed special respect, it was revered as an antidote for alcohol poisoning.
For advice and help, both ordinary people and grand dukes turned to folk healers. The experience of folk medicine was summarized in numerous herbalists and medical books. Handwritten medical books can be considered medical encyclopedias, since, in addition to diseases and medicines, they outlined the course of diseases and ways to recognize them.
The services of artisan doctors (medics) and professional doctors were available only to the propertied strata. Subsequently, the experience of traditional medicine was summarized in numerous herbal and medical books, which for the most part were compiled after the adoption of Christianity in Rus' and the spread of literacy. Unfortunately, many handwritten medical books perished during wars and other disasters. A little more than 250 ancient Russian herbalists and healers have survived to this day. They contain descriptions of numerous traditional methods of Russian healing from the time of Christian Rus', 6aavl and Kyiv, and later - in Novgorod, Smolensk, Lvov.
The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon contains the first specific information about medical ethics in ancient Rus': a healer should be a model of philanthropy up to self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient, to identify the disease by the pulse and appearance of the patient and was very popular among the people. And at the princely court in Chernigov in the XII century. the famous healer Peter the Syrian (that is, the Syrian) served. The Lechians widely used the experience of traditional medicine in their practice.
Story
The oldest state of the Eastern Slavs, known in history as Kievan Rus developed in the first half of the ninth century.
By this time, early feudal relations had formed in Rus'. The ancient Slavic cities of Kiev, Smolensk, Polotsk, Chernigov, Pskov, Novgorod (see Fig. 62) became major centers of craft and trade. The most important trade artery of ancient Rus' was the “great route from the Varangians to the Greeks”, which connected Rus' with Scandinavia Byzantium.
An important event in the history of Rus' was the adoption of Christianity as the state religion in 988 by Prince Vladimir (978-1015). This serious political act was not an accidental event: the emergence of social inequality and the formation of classes were objective historical prerequisites for the replacement of pagan polytheism with monotheism. Christianity in Rus' has been known since the 9th century. Many close Prince Igor (912-945) were Christians. His wife Olga (945-969), who reigned after Igor, visited Constantinople and was baptized, becoming the first Christian monarch in Rus'. Of great importance for the spread of the ideas of Christianity in Kievan Rus were its long-standing ties with Bulgaria - an intermediary in the transfer of culture, writing, and religious literature. By the end of the X century. Kievan Rus has already entered into interaction with the Byzantine economy and Christian culture.
The adoption of Christianity by Kievan Rus had important political consequences. It contributed to the strengthening of feudalism, the centralization of the state and its rapprochement with European Christian countries (Byzantium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, France, England, Germany, Georgia, Armenia, etc.), which was also facilitated by dynastic marriages. These ties had a beneficial effect on the development of ancient Russian culture, education, and science.
The origins of the culture of Kievan Rus are associated with the traditional culture of the Slavic tribes, which reached a high level with the development of statehood, and was subsequently enriched by the influence of Byzantine culture. Antique and early medieval manuscripts came to Rus' through Bulgaria and Byzantium. They were translated into Slavic by monks - the most educated people of that time. (The chroniclers Nikon, Nestor, Sylvester were monks.) Written on parchment in the era of Kievan Rus, these books have survived to this day.
The first library in the Old Russian state was assembled in 1037 by Prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054), the third oldest son of Prince Vladimir. It was placed in the St. Sophia Cathedral, erected in Kyiv in 1036 at the behest of Yaroslav the Wise to commemorate the victory over the Pechenegs at the site of the victorious battle. Yaroslav in every possible way contributed to the spread of literacy in Rus', the rewriting of books and their translation into Russian. Slavic. He himself knew 5 foreign languages \u200b\u200band "applying to books and honoring (them) often both in the night and in the day." His granddaughter Yanka Vsevolodovna in 1086 organized the first women's school at the Andreevsky Monastery. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the Kievan state achieved wide international recognition. Metropolitan Hilarion wrote at that time about the princes of Kyiv: "They were not rulers in a bad country, but in Russia, which is known and heard in all parts of the earth."
The Old Russian state existed for three centuries. After the death of the last Kyiv prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (1125-1132) - the son of Vladimir Monomakh, it broke up into several feudal estates. A period of feudal fragmentation began, which contributed to the loss of political independence of the Russian lands as a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar hordes led by Batu Khan (1208-1255), the grandson of Genghis Khan.
The development of medicine
Folk medicine has been developing in Rus' for a long time. Folk healers were called healers. They are mentioned in Russkaya Pravda, the oldest code of Russian laws that has come down to us, which was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise (in the first quarter of the 11th century) and subsequently rewritten and supplemented many times. Russkaya Pravda legally established the remuneration of doctors: according to the laws of that time, a person who caused damage to the health of another person had to pay a fine to the state treasury and give the victim money to pay for treatment.
The healers passed on their healing knowledge and secrets from generation to generation, from father to son in the so-called “family schools”.
Medicines prepared from plants were very popular: wormwood, nettle, plantain, wild rosemary, "evil-hater" (bodyagi), linden blossom, birch leaves, ash bark, juniper berries, as well as onions, garlic, horseradish, birch sap, and many other folk remedies.
Among medicines of animal origin, honey, raw cod liver, mare's milk and deer antlers occupied a special place.
Found their place in folk medicine and medicinal products of mineral origin. For pain in the abdomen, chrysolite stone, ground into powder, was taken orally. To facilitate childbirth, women wore jewelry made of yahonta. The healing properties of vinegar and blue vitriol, turpentine and saltpeter, "sulphurous stone" and arsenic, silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals were known. The Russian people have long known about the healing properties of "sour water". Its ancient name narzan, which has survived to this day, means “bogatyr-water” in translation.
Subsequently, the experience of traditional medicine was summarized in numerous herbal and medical books (Fig. 66), which for the most part were compiled after the adoption of Christianity in Rus' and the spread of literacy. Unfortunately, many handwritten medical books perished during wars and other disasters. A little more than 250 ancient Russian herbalists and healers have survived to this day. They contain descriptions of numerous traditional methods of Russian healing from the time of Christian Rus', 6aavl and Kyiv, and later - in Novgorod, Smolensk, Lvov. The monastery hospital of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the first Russian monastery founded in the first half of the 11th century, was widely known. in the vicinity of Kyiv and got its name from the caves (pechers), in which the monks originally settled.
From all over Rus', the wounded and sick with various ailments went to the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, and many found healing there. For seriously ill patients at the monastery there were special rooms (hospitals), where the monks who cared for the sick were on duty. The monastic chronicles (“Kiev-Pechersky Paterikon”, XII century) report several ascetic monks who became famous for their medical skills. Among them is the “wonderful doctor” Anthony (XI century), who came from Athos, who personally cared for the sick, giving them his healing “potion”; the Monk Alimpiy ^\ v. 4), who daubed the irszhi-zhennyh, and the Monk Agapit (died in 1095) - the closest disciple of the Monk Anthony.
Agapit healed and inhabited the most nefarious works for free, to be tolerant and cordial towards him, to do everything in his power to heal the patient and not to care about personal enrichment or professional vanity.
At the same time, healing in ancient Rus' was not a church monopoly: along with monastic medicine, there was also more ancient folk (worldly) medicine. However, at this stage of history, pagan healers (magicians, magicians, sorcerers and witches) were declared servants of the devil and, as a rule, were persecuted.
Ylp-a courts of princes. ". boyars (in all likelihood, the 12th century) served secular doctors, both Russian and foreign. Thus, an Armenian healer served at the court of Vladimir Monomakh, named after them and was very popular among the people. Upon recovery, the prince wished to generously reward his healer, but Agapit asked to pass on the dear
princely polarki to poor people.
“And they heard about him in the city that there was a healer in the monastery, and many sick people came to him and recovered.”
Thus, the "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" contains the first concrete information about medical ethics in ancient Rus': a healer should be a model of philanthropy up to self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient, to identify the disease by the pulse and appearance of the patient and was very popular among the people. And at the princely court in Chernigov in the XII century. the famous healer Peter the Syrian (that is, the Syrian) served. The Lechians widely used the experience of traditional medicine in their practice.
Some ancient Russian monastic hospitals were also centers of education: they taught medicine, collected Greek and Byzantine manuscripts. In the process of translating manuscripts from Greek and Latin: the monks supplemented them with their knowledge based on the experience of Russian folk medicine.
One of the most popular books of the 11th century. was "Izbornik Svyatoslav". Translated from Greek in Bulgaria, it was copied twice in Rus' (1073, 1076) for the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Prince Svyatoslav, from which he got his name. "Izbornik" in its content went beyond the original task - to connect social relations in Rus' with the norms of the new Christian mora-p "- and acquired the features of an encyclopedia. Some diseases are also described in it, ideas about their causes, treatment and prevention corresponding to that time, tips are given about living (for example, “vegetable strength is great”, or “drinking immeasurably” in itself “there is rabies”) and recommendations to contain. the body is clean, systematically wash, conduct ablutions.
The "Izbornik" speaks of healers-cutters (surgeons) who are able to "cut tissues", amputate limbs, other sick or dead parts of the body, make therapeutic cauterizations with a red-hot iron, treat the damaged area with herbs and ointments. Described. disgusting knives for dissection and medical sharpeners. At the same time, the Izbornik lists incurable ailments, before which the medicine of that time was powerless.
In ancient Russian literature of the XII century. there is information about female doctors, chiropractors who skillfully performed massage, about attracting women to care for the sick.
In terms of the level of development of sanitary affairs, the Old Russian state in the 10th-14th centuries was ahead of the countries of Western Europe. During the archaeological excavations of ancient Novgorod, documents dating back to 1346 were found, which report the existence of hospitals for the civilian population in Novgorod and about the socialists Alchemists who made medicines.
On the territory of ancient Novgorod, multi-tiered (up to 30 floorings) wooden pavements were discovered and studied, created in the 10th-11th centuries, more than 2100 buildings with hygienic items in them, pottery and wooden water collectors and drainage systems were discovered - one of the oldest in Northern Europe ( Fig. 68). It should be noted that in Germany the water supply system was built in the 15th century, and the first pavements were laid in the 14th century.
An integral part of the medical and sanitary life of ancient Rus' was the Russian steam bath (Fig. 69), which has long been considered a wonderful means of healing. The bathhouse was the cleanest room on the estate. That is why, along with its direct purpose, the bathhouse was also used as a place where childbirth was carried out, the first care of a newborn was carried out, dislocations were set and bloodletting was performed, massages were performed and pots were applied, colds and joint diseases were treated, rubbed with medicinal ointments for skin diseases.
The first description of the Russian steam bath is contained in the chronicle of Nestor (XI century). Centuries later, the famous Russian obstetrician N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik (1744-1812) wrote: “The Russian bath is still considered an indispensable remedy for many diseases. In medical science, there is no such medicine that would be equal to the power of ... a bath" (1783).
In the Middle Ages, Europe was the scene of devastating epidemics. In Russian chronicles, along with numerous descriptions of illnesses of princes and individual representatives of the upper class (boyars, clergy), terrifying pictures of large epidemics of plague and other contagious diseases are given, which in Rus' were called "pestilence", "pestilence" or "epidemic diseases". So, in 1092 in Kyiv, "many people died of various ailments." In the central part of Rus', “in the summer in 6738 (1230) ... there was a pestilence in Smolensk, stvo, risha 4 skudelnitsy in two you put 16000, and in the third 7000, and in the fourth 9000. This evil was two years each. The same summer, there was a pestilence in Novgorod: from famine (hunger). And other people cut their brother's hu and poison. Doom! thousands of residents of Smolensk testifies that the disease was extremely contagious and accompanied by a ~ high mortality. Annals soo< щает также о «великом море» на I си в 1417 г.: «..мор бысть страшен ЗГ ло на люди в Великом Новгороде и э Пскове, и в Ладозе, и в Руси».
There was an opinion among the people that wild weathers arise from the spring of natural forces, changes in the position of the stars, the wrath of the gods, changes -: - years. In Russian folk tales t * -ma was portrayed as a woman of great stature with loose hair? in white clothes, cholera - in the form of an evil old woman with a distorted face. Misunderstanding that filth and poverty are a social danger, led to non-observance of the rules of hygiene, intensified epidemics: following them famine. In an effort to stop epidemic diseases, the people went to the most desperate measures. For example, when in Novgorod in the XIV century. the plague broke out, the go-eojans built the church of St. Andrew Stratilates within 24 hours, which has survived to this day. However, neither the construction of churches nor prayers saved the people from disasters - epidemics in Europe at that time claimed tens of thousands of human lives.
The largest number of epidemics in Rus' falls on the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke (1240-1480).
The Mongol-Tatar yoke ruined and devastated Russian lands, as well as states Central Asia and the Caucasus. The incessant struggle of the Russian people forced the conquerors to abandon the idea of creating their own governing bodies in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood, but the long-term oppression and ruin of the country by the Golden Horde led to the subsequent lag of the Russian lands in their development from the countries Western Europe.
One of the centers of Russian medicine of that time was the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, founded in 1397 and not subjected to enemy invasion. Within the walls of the monastery at the beginning of the 15th century. Monk Kirill Belozersky (1337-1427) translated from Greek "Galinovo to Hippocrates" (Galen's comments on the "Hippocratic Collection"). The monastery had several hospitals. One of them is currently restored and protected by the state as an architectural monument.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. new cities strengthened in the Russian lands: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, etc. Moscow stood at the head of the unification of the Russian lands.
Rus
MEDICINE IN MEDIEVAL Rus'. MEDICINE IN THE OLD RUSSIAN STATE (IX-XIV centuries) Kievan Rus, Caliphates.
The development of medicine
Healing existed in 3 forms: 1 - folk healing (witchcraft and quackery), 2 - monastic medicine (it developed after the adoption of Christianity) and 3 - secular medicine.
Ethnoscience. Developed for a long time and was an integral part of pagan culture. Until the 19th century, it was the only available means of maintaining health. Combined real knowledge of the healing powers of nature and faith in miraculous secrets. The pagan priestly class (sorcerers, witches, etc.) was engaged in healing; their sphere of activity included: public magical actions, quackery, divination, etc. Later, folk healers were called healers. They are mentioned in ʼʼRussian Pravdaʼʼ - the oldest code of Russian laws that has come down to us, which was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise. ʼʼRusskaya Pravdaʼʼ legally established the remuneration of doctors: according to the laws of that time, a person who caused damage to the health of another person had to pay a fine to the state treasury and give the victim money to pay for treatment. The doctors passed their healing knowledge and secrets from generation to generation. Medicines made from plants were very popular. Among medicines of animal origin, honey, raw cod liver, mare's milk and deer antlers occupied a special place.
Means of mineral origin were used. To facilitate childbirth, women wore jewelry made of yahonta. The healing properties of vinegar and blue vitriol, silver, mercury, antimony and other minerals were known. The Russian people have long known about the healing properties of ʼʼ sour water. Subsequently, the experience of traditional medicine was summarized in numerous herbalists and healers. A little more than 250 ancient Russian herbalists and healers have survived to this day.
Monastery medicine began to develop after the adoption of Christianity. Illness was perceived as a punishment or possession of demons, and recovery is a spiritual forgiveness. The monastery hospital of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the first Russian monastery, was widely known. From all over Rus', the wounded and sick with various ailments went to the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, and many found healing there. For seriously ill patients at the monastery there were special rooms (hospitals), where the monks who cared for the sick were on duty. Among them, the most famous are Anthony, Alympius, who cured lepers and Agapit. Agapit treated the inhabitants of the monastery for free, he prepared medicines and looked after the sick, healed Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich (sent him a potion) om of philanthropy up to self-sacrifice, for the sake of the patient to perform even the most menial work, to be tolerant, etc.
Some ancient Russian monastic hospitals were also centers of education: they taught medicine, collected Greek and Byzantine manuscripts
One of the most popular books of the 11th century. was ʼʼIzbornikʼʼ. Its purpose is to connect public relations in Rus' with the norms Christian morality.
The ʼʼIzbornikʼʼ speaks of healers-cutters (surgeons) who knew how to ʼʼcut tissueʼʼ, amputate limbs, other diseased or dead parts of the body, make therapeutic cauterizations with a red-hot iron, treat the damaged area with herbs and ointments. Dissecting knives and medical sharpeners are described. At the same time, the ʼʼIzbornikʼʼ lists incurable ailments, before which the medicine of that time was powerless.
In ancient Russian literature of the XII century. there is information about female doctors, chiropractors who skillfully performed massage, about attracting women to care for the sick.
secular medicine The princes and boyars served secular villagers, both Russian and foreign. Thus, an Armenian doctor served in the court of Vladimir Monomakh. He knew how to determine diseases by pulse and appearance sick.
Between various directions healing was a stubborn struggle.
sanitary business
According to the level of development, sanitary business was ahead of the countries of Western Europe. On the territory of ancient Novgorod, multi-tiered (up to 30 floorings) wooden pavements were discovered and studied, created in the 10th-11th centuries, more than 2100 buildings with hygienic items located in them, pottery and wooden water collectors and drainage systems were discovered - one of the oldest in Northern Europe. an integral part of the medical and sanitary life of ancient Russia was the Russian steam bath, which has long been considered a wonderful means of healing. The bathhouse was the cleanest room on the estate. That is why, along with its direct purpose, the bath was also used as a place where childbirth was carried out, the first care of a newborn was carried out, dislocations were set and bloodletting was performed, massages were performed and pots were applied, colds and joint diseases were treated, rubbed with medicinal ointments for skin diseases.
The Russian chronicles give terrifying pictures of large epidemics of plague and other contagious diseases, which in Rus' were called ʼʼmorʼʼ. The population resorted to measures to limit infected places - outposts were set up on the roads to cities captured by diseases, and notches were set up in forests. At the same time, the dead were buried at churches, which contributed to the spread of infection. It was believed that the cause of pestilence are supernatural causes. The misunderstanding that poverty and filth were the cause of disease increased epidemics.
Arabic culture and medicine
Translation activities The Arabs played an invaluable role in preserving the legacy of those who preceded them. civilizations.
In the field of the theory of disease, the Arabs adopted the ancient Greek teachings about the four elements and the four bodily juices. According to the ideas of the Arabs, each of the elements and liquids is involved in the creation of four qualities: heat, cold, dryness and humidity, which determine the temperament of each person. It should be normal, in case of balance of all components, or ʼʼunbalanced. When the balance is disturbed, the doctor's task is to restore the original state.
In the treatment of internal diseases, the first attention was paid to establishing the correct regimen, and only then medicines were applied.
Having borrowed from the Syrians the idea of using alchemy in the field of medicine, the Arabs played important role in the formation and development of pharmacy and the creation of a pharmacopoeia. In the cities, pharmacies began to open for preparation and sale. Alchemists of the medieval Arabic-speaking East invented a water bath and an alembic, applied filtration, received nitrogen and hydrochloric acid, bleach and alcohol. Ar-Razi was an outstanding philosopher, physician and chemist of the early Middle Ages. Ar-Razi compiled the first encyclopedic work on medicine in Arabic literature, ʼʼComprehensive book on medicineeʼʼ, in 25 volumes. Describing each disease, he analyzed it from the standpoint of Greek, Syrian, Indian, Persian and Arabic authors, after which he presented his observations and conclusions. Another encyclopedic work by Ar-Razi "Medical Book" in 10 volumes summarized the knowledge of that time in the field of theory of medicine, pathology, medicinal medicine, dietetics, hygiene and cosmetics, surgery, toxicology and infectious diseases.
Among the numerous works of Ar-Razi, a small treatise ʼʼOn smallpox and measlesʼʼ is of particular value. In it, Ar-Razi clearly formulated the idea of the contagiousness of these diseases and described their differential diagnosis, treatment, nutrition of the patient, measures to protect against infection, and skin care for the sick.
Islamic traditions do not allow the opening of the human body, but have made a significant contribution to the development of certain areas of anatomy and surgery. This is especially evident in ophthalmology. Studying the structure of the eye of animals, the famous Egyptian astronomer and physician Ibn al-Khaytham was the first to explain the refraction of rays in the media of the eye and gave names to its parts, put forward the idea of vision correction using biconvex lenses.
Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili also belongs to the galaxy of remarkable Arab oculists. The cataract removal operation developed by him by suction of the lens with the help of a hollow needle invented by him was a great success and was called the ʼʼAmmar operationʼʼ.
Ali ibn Isa made a great contribution to the development of the doctrine of eye diseases. He wrote the book ʼʼMemorandum for Ophthalmologistsʼʼ. The first part of the book is devoted to the description of the eye and its structure, the second - to diseases of the eye that are felt by the senses, the third - to diseases of the eye that are invisible to the patient.
The treatment of eye diseases was an area of medicine in which the influence of the Arab school was felt in Western Europe until the 17th century.
TO outstanding achievements Arabs in the field of anatomy include a description of the pulmonary circulation.
Surgery in the medieval Arabic-speaking world was more of a trade because Islam forbade autopsies.
Al-Zahrawi is considered the most outstanding surgeon of the medieval Arabic-speaking world. Al-Zahrawi operated brilliantly. His priorities include: the use of catgut in abdominal surgery and for subcutaneous sutures, a suture with a cast and two needles, the first use of the supine position in operations on the small pelvis; he described what is now called tuberculosis of the bones and introduced cataract surgery into Western eye surgery.
Organization of hospital business received considerable development in the caliphates. Initially, the establishment of hospitals was a secular affair. The hospitals founded by the Muslims were of three kinds.
The first type included hospitals established by caliphs or prominent Muslim figures and designed for the general population. Οʜᴎ were financed by the state, had a staff of doctors and attendants. Libraries and medical schools were created at hospitals. The training was theoretical and practical: the students accompanied the teacher during his rounds in the hospital and visited patients at home with him.
The second type of hospitals were funded by famous doctors and religious figures and were small.
The third type of hospitals were military medical institutions. Οʜᴎ moved along with the army and were placed in tents, castles, citadels. During military campaigns, along with male doctors, the soldiers were accompanied by female doctors who cared for the wounded.
High level The organization of medical affairs in the medieval East is closely connected with the development of hygiene and disease prevention. The ban on autopsies, on the one hand, limited the study of the structure of the body and its functions, and on the other hand, directed the efforts of doctors to find other ways: to maintain health and led to the development of rational hygienic measures. Many of them are enshrined in the ʼʼQuranʼʼ.
Medical education was carried out:
1 - self-education, 2 - studying with their parents who are doctors, 3 - studying with famous doctors, 4 - studying in medical schools.
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
Chelyabinsk State Medical Academy
Department of Social and Humanitarian Sciences
In Istria Russia
On the topic: "Medicine and quackery of Ancient Rus'."
Completed: student of group 191
Vederkina Arina Sergeevna
Checked by: Senior Lecturer
Kokunin Evgeny Valerievich
Chelyabinsk 2009
1. Introduction._____________________________________________________________3
2. Main part.______________________________________________________________4-10
The main forms of healing in Ancient Rus'.____________________________4-9
Sanitation.____________________________________________________________10
3. Conclusion.______________________________________________________________11
4. List of used literature._______________________________________12
Introduction.
Ancient Rus' (or, in other words, medieval Russia) was one of the significant states during the Middle Ages. Having arisen in the 9th century on the site of small principalities, it quickly became a powerful state, possessing, in particular, a rather high culture, including medicine. The culture of the Old Russian state was enriched by contacts both with the West and with the East. Very fruitful ties with Byzantium, the custodian of achievements, were especially important. ancient civilization. These ties significantly expanded and strengthened after the adoption of Christianity by Ancient Russia (X century), although close ties with Greece, accompanied by the penetration of the achievements of ancient Greek culture, began in pre-Christian times. This also applies to medicine, which at that time was not at all limited to quackery or the use of folk remedies: being an integral part of culture, feeding on its achievements, medicine corresponded to its general level. "Greek Christianity," says famous historian B.A. Rybakov, - found in the 980s in Rus' not a simple village witchcraft, but a significantly developed pagan culture .... The paganism of ancient Rus' in the 9th-13th centuries. - an important section of Russian medieval culture".
The Magi, who, according to B.A. Rybakov, constituted the main part of the priestly class of pre-Christian Russia, were engaged, among other things, in medicinal medicine - in this they were helped by women ("witches", from the word "to know - to know), who later, in XII century., Called "blameless women". Magi should, in particular, know the healing properties of herbs - this knowledge was the result of observations that were conducted, probably starting from primitive society. It is legitimate to assume that the Magi were healers who treated people rational means of folk medicine using some of the achievements of the ancient Greeks.This is also confirmed by the notes of travelers who visited our country in those distant times (Arab traveler Ahmed Ibn-Fadlan, 20s of the 10th century, Arab writer Ahmed Ibn-Dasta, about 30s years of the tenth century),
In ancient Rus' there were three main forms of medicine:
1) folk medicine. The people who practiced it were called sorcerers and healers;
2) monastic medicine (mainly became widespread after the adoption of Christianity in Rus');
3) secular (or it is also called secular) medicine, which appeared during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. She also bore the name of a foreigner.
Doctors-artisans specialized in healing various diseases - skin, internal, there were also chiropractors, "kidney" masters (treatment of hemorrhoids).
Ethnoscience.
Traditional medicine is the oldest branch of medicine in the history of Russia. In fact, its roots were paganism, which was practiced by the Slavic tribes before the unification and creation of the state and before the adoption of Christianity. Thus, the moment of the birth of traditional medicine can be attributed to the time from which the historical description of the life of the Russian people begins, that is, to prehistoric times. With the adoption of Christianity, it has not been eradicated, it has survived more than a millennium of the already historical life of the people, and even in our time it continues to develop, is widely used in practice by those people who master this art, and sometimes come into dispute with scientific medicine.
In our time, a fair number of cases are known when scientific medicine turned out to be powerless in the face of some case of a disease, even though it has reached the highest theoretical and practical development and technical equipment. And there were cases when a person was literally “pulled out of the coffin” and restored to his health by people who knew the skills of traditional medicine. With the development and growth of the Russian state, traditional medicine until the second half of the 19th century. remained the only way to treat diseases and
maintaining the health of ordinary people, since there was no more accessible medical care. The situation changed in the second half of the 19th century, when the first zemstvo institutions and proper zemstvo medicine appeared.
No one can explain why, but the concern for the health of the entire Russian people was of little interest to the rulers of the Russian land for a very long time. existed until the end of the 17th century. Only "sovereign doctors" who treated the sovereign, his family and those close to him. Peter I tried to change the situation, but did not achieve radical changes, making medicine accessible to the privileged segments of the population. I must say that at that time he did not even think that the help of a doctor is needed by all sectors of society.
Only Alexander II, who abolished serfdom in 1861 and carried out a large number of transformations in all spheres of Russian life, became the author of the first steps towards the availability of medical care, carried out the zemstvo reform and introduced zemstvo medicine.
Since its inception, healing has differed from other types of medicine in that it combines knowledge of the healing properties of natural remedies and faith in miraculous powers.
Healers and soothsayers, witches, sorcerers, witches, enchantresses, magicians were engaged in healing in Rus', they were afraid of them, since they were elevated to the rank of intermediaries between the healing forces of nature and man.
They were afraid of them because they believed that they could turn the mysteries of nature both for the good and for the harm of man. They were engaged in performing various magical love spells, lapels, medicine, divination, casting and removing damage, etc. They were so trusted that not only common people, but also princes and members of princely families turned to them for help.
Folk healers knew how to do bloodletting, trepanation of the skull, as well as treat injuries (apply splints), wounds with the help of various ointments, cauterization.
As time passed, healers acquired a new name - healers. They became the organizers of family schools, in which the knowledge of medicine passed from father to son.
Lechs widely used in their work not only herbal remedies (such as birch leaves, garlic, wormwood, horseradish, plantain, onion, hellebore, blueberries, etc.) and various magical conspiracies, but also products of animal and mineral origin, for example, chrysolite, ground into powder, was used for severe pain in the abdomen, and women were recommended to wear a ruby to facilitate childbirth. The most famous healing remedy from the time of the healers, which has come down to our days, has become the so-called sour water or narzan. The name is originally Russian and in translation means "bogatyr-water".
The first mention of lechtsy was found in Russkaya Pravda, the oldest code of laws. This code was compiled under Yaroslav the Wise in the 11th century, and Vladimir Monomakh supplemented it with his "Charter" (1113-1125). It was there that for the first time they found a law on the right to demand compensation for moral damage from a person who caused injury not only to the person who was harmed, but also to the state treasury, as well as the right of a doctor (healer) to take remuneration for the assistance provided, the so-called bribe.
Folk healers compiled treatises on the use healing powers nature - herbalists and healers. This became especially widespread after the adoption of Christianity and the appearance of writing. Unfortunately, we inherited only a small fraction of those sources, since most of them died or were stolen during the wars. It is interesting that in the books that have come down to us there are means that were used not only after the adoption of Christianity, but also long before it.
Monastery medicine.
The emergence of monastic hospitals can be attributed to the time of the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. Monks who believed that God knows everything on earth,
they perceived illness as a punishment for human sins, and sometimes as the infusion of demons into the human soul and body. Therefore, healing from illness was seen as God's forgiveness and remission of sins.
The monastic hospitals were called "hospital" and "hospital". The first mention of them dates back to the 11th century. The most famous of them were the hospital in Pereslavl, founded in 1091 by Metropolitan Ephraim of Kyiv, and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, founded in 1051 by monks Anthony and Theodosius on the outskirts of Kiev. She got her name from the word "pechery", that is, the caves in which the monks lived and did their noble work. Kiev-Pechersk Lavra left its traces in the development of medicine and culture in Rus'. Many chronicles were written there: from Nestor, Nikon, Sylvester.
From there came the hagiographic literature. In the XIII century. there was created the "Kyiv-Pechersky Paterikon" - a collection of stories and stories about this famous monastery. Many famous architects and painters took part in creating the interior of the Lavra. About them, the life and activities of the monks, the ways and customs of Kyiv were told in the patericon. In 1661, it was first printed and published in the printing house of the same Kiev-Pechersk Lavra.
People who entered the history of Russia are buried in the caves of the monastery: the founder of the Lavra Anthony, the chronicler Nestor, the healers Damian and Agapius, and even the founder of Moscow, Yuri Dolgoruky.
Oddly enough, in the Lavra they found ways to treat a wide variety of diseases - from infectious diseases to mental ones. Within the walls of the monastery there was even something like isolation wards, where the seriously ill were placed, they were provided with individual care. People who no longer had hope of recovery were often healed by monks, after which they believed in God and prayers and were tonsured monks.
Among the most famous healers who practiced in the Lavra were such people as the Monk Alympius, who became famous for treating people with severe
cases of leprosy. For the treatment of skin diseases, he used icon paints, which apparently contained various medicinal substances. Likewise, the holy and blessed Agapios was a monk of the Lavra. He is known for curing the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, who later became the prince of Rus', and went down in history as Vladimir Monomakh.
The healers of the monastery treated for free, the patients were treated with tolerance, with love up to self-sacrifice. This attitude is the basics of medical ethics, which in our time, when studying at universities, is given great importance.
The monastic hospitals were also centers of learning and enlightenment: the monks collected Byzantine and Greek manuscripts, translated from Latin and Greek, combined information into collections, supplemented their knowledge and knowledge of their ancestors, and taught medicine from these sources. Such writings as "Christian topography" by Kosma Indikoplova (circa 1549), "Shestodnev" by John the Exarch of Bulgaria, and also translated from the Bulgarian original in 1073 "Izbornik", which consisted of excerpts from the works of the greatest Byzantine theologians and preachers. In 1076, another Izbornik was compiled. It has become a kind of source of knowledge in all areas - from home life and the basics and norms of Christian morality to guidelines and advice on the treatment of various diseases, management healthy lifestyle life, proper nutrition, etc.
secular medicine.
Secular medicine appeared in Rus' since the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. The representatives of this branch of medicine were doctors of free practice, who did not consider themselves either folk healers or monastic doctors. These were people, often of foreign origin (an Armenian doctor, whose name is unknown, who was very popular even at the princely court; the healer Peter, a Syrian who lived at the court of Nikolai Davydovich (prince of the 12th century) in Chernigov) and they took money for helping the sick , without being embarrassed, which caused indignation among representatives of other branches of medicine. especially struggled with
secular and folk medicine, monastic medicine was gaining momentum.
She erected the actions of magicians and sorcerers, as well as foreigners, into the framework of demonic deeds. There was an active persecution of sages, sorcerers, etc., caught even burned at the stake. These actions were akin to the European Inquisition. However, despite the stubborn struggle, healing in Rus' did not become a purely ecclesiastical privilege. This is evident from sources dating back to the period of the classical Middle Ages, which continue to mention both folk healing and secular medicine. With the passage of time, these two branches of medicine have acquired more and more differences and become isolated from each other.
Sanitary business. Baths. epidemics.
Unlike Western Europe, sanitary business in Rus' in the X-XIV centuries. was quite well developed. This is evidenced by the excavations of ancient Novgorod, on the territory of which about 50 estates were found, equipped with baths, water pipes and drains. Entire areas were covered with wooden pavements dating back to the 10th-11th centuries, in contrast to Western Europe, in which the first pavements were built only in the 14th century, and the water supply system - in the 15th century. These "innovations" were found in Germany.
A special place in ancient Rus' was occupied by a bath. Folk healers already then understood what benefits are brought to the body when harmful substances are removed from it along with sweat. A bathhouse in a house or estate was the cleanest place: they not only washed there, but also took birth, looked after newborns, and doctors and chiropractors were invited there. The first mention of the Russian bath refers to 1113 (chronicle from Nestor). A special misfortune of the Old Russian state was the epidemic of infectious diseases or "pestilence". Generalized diseases were written in chronicles, and only for the period from the 11th to the 17th centuries. you can find information about 47 epidemics. They fell ill with plague, cholera, leprosy and other diseases. The centers of the emergence of epidemics were the border cities through which foreign caravans passed - Novgorod, Smolensk. So, for example, in 1230 in Smolensk, an epidemic claimed tens of thousands of lives, which indicates the extreme contagiousness of the disease. People understood that the disease passes from person to person, so they delimited the infected places where the sick were. If the epidemic spread to the whole city, the inhabitants went into the forests, leaving their houses, belongings and sick relatives, and sat out until the pestilence passed. However, the moment when the last patient died and there seemed to be no one to get infected was taken as getting rid of the disease. Knowing nothing about pathogens, people returned to the cities, and the epidemic sometimes returned with them. Considering the place cursed, people went so far as to burn entire settlements. Their mistake was also the fact that before the XV century. people who died from epidemics were buried according to religious laws in church cemeteries.
Conclusion.
The first domestic state body in charge of public health issues was the Pharmaceutical Order, founded in the second half of the 16th century. We can say that this was the first serious attempt to assign to the state a certain part of the concern for people's health. However, significant changes in this system began only in the era of Peter I (1672-1725) and were partly explained by the special interest of the emperor in medicine, anatomy and natural science. It was under Peter that the first Russian medical school was opened, later, in 1755, the medical faculty of Moscow University, which began to train professional domestic doctors.
Thanks to the Order, the number of Russian doctors who received such a title after working as an assistant doctor with doctors and foreign specialists increased significantly, although the common population preferred to turn to folk healers - they were trusted more, and their services cost much less. But it was from the era of Peter I that a gradual transition began from traditional medicine to medicine "according to science" - which first affected the first persons of the state and their entourage, then, as the number of trained doctors increased, and lower classes.
However, the centuries-old domination of traditional medicine could not pass without a trace - and to this day, many in our country prefer to improve their health exclusively with folk remedies. True, sometimes, especially when it comes to serious illnesses, this leads to sad consequences - nevertheless, treating oncological diseases with hemlock infusion in the 21st century is a dubious occupation.
There is no person who has never been ill with something. But sometimes it is enough to spend a minimum of effort to feel invincible against any disease, because nature has taken care of our perfection, endowing the human body with the ability at the right time to connect those internal reserves that are inherent in everyone. You just need to know how it is done, and then you can escape from almost any disease.
Bibliography:
The role of religion in human history
Abstract >> Religion and mythologyMythological naturalism of religions ancient Aryans and autochthonous ... feudal fragmentation Rus', was wide ... the beginnings of psychotherapy. Developed quackery, shamanism, arose ... mystical, magical forms healing, used rational medical ...
Phytoprophylaxis during periods of rising incidence of SARS and influenza
Abstract >> PedagogyIn this way experience has been gained healing. Recipes passed down from ... treated herbal medicine as quackery, now the ratio is in... in the ratio 1:5 Powders - ancient and the simplest dosage form, ... This method on Rus' has long been revered as...
healing"; at ancient Aztecs in the pantheon was Ishtlilon, ... all this is just a reincarnation ancient Mothers of the world. In pagan Rus' the word "Mother Earth...
1. The development of healing in Ancient Rus' (folk and monastic) (IX-XVI centuries) 2. The formation of secular (“court”) medicine in Russia (XVI-XVII centuries) 3. Reforms in the field medical education at the end (XVII- early 18th centuries)
Issues 1. The ratio of the state of medicine in Rus' and in the countries of Western Europe (synchronously by periods) 2. The problem of the continuity of the healing traditions of Byzantium and medieval Rus': independence or tracing paper? 3. The question of the formation of healing in a socio-historical context and the role of the state in this 4. The problem of periodization (“the long Middle Ages”)
Three directions of healing in Ancient Rus': 1. Folk medicine (since pagan times). 2. Monastic medicine (with the adoption of Christianity). 3. Secular (worldly) medicine (was formed in parallel with the monastic, in the "world").
CARRIERS OF FOLK MEDICINE ü Sorcerer ü Vedun ü Magician ü Witch doctor ü Transitional Kalika Doctor "lie" - to speak, to speak
MONASTERY MEDICINE The first hospital in Rus' was established by Theodosius of the Caves in the mid-1070s. near Kiev. Pechersk Lavra.
The MONASTERY MEDICINES called the healer in Rus': In the monasteries it was customary to help the sick, and in some of them entire hospitals were set up. ü Lichec ü Healer ü Lichec-cutter The monastic healers were engaged in caring for the sick, watched their diet and treated with folk remedies that they knew, praying to God for the patients.
OLD RUSSIAN HEALERS ANTONY (XI century) - the first to organize the care of the sick in the monastery. ALIMPIUS (XI century) - AGAPIT (died in 1095) a gratuitous doctor, was famous for the treatment of the icon painter and Vladimir Monomakh at the same time. cured lepers. The names of the monks-lechtsov are also known: Ephraim, Cyril, Damian and Pimen Postnik.
Medical works of the XV-XVI centuries. "GALINOVO ON IPOCRATES" - a small translated treatise commentary, which briefly outlined the theories of medicine of ancient authors.
Medical works of the XV-XVI centuries. "ARISTOTLE'S GATES" or "SECRET OF THE SECRET" The ethical image of the doctor is outlined. The principles of building medical care in the state are stated. Methods for examining the eyes, ear, palate, skin, chest, limbs are outlined.
"HEALTH VERTOGRAD" 1534 Prescriptions for the treatment of all diseases known then. Contained the chapters "Teachings", "Discourses on the Pulse", "On Fever". The rules of "entry balnago". Tips on how to behave healthy during pestilence.
Healers in Rus' were called SECULAR ("COURT") DOCTORS: Secular foreign doctors are mentioned in chronicles dating back to the reign of Ivan III - two doctors "Masters of Jews LEON and Nemchins ANTON" - unsuccessfully treated his children, for which they paid with their lives. Foreign doctors were attracted to Moscow by the complete absence of competitors and the generous rewards handed out by the Russian prince in case of success. The doctor is "wise" "cunning", "filoz".
Elyseus BOMELIUS (Elyseus Bomelius). At the end of the summer of 1570 he moved to Russia and quickly gained great influence on Ivan the Terrible, later becoming his favorite. Officially listed as a court physician. Studied astrology and magic. In the annals it is mentioned as a "fierce sorcerer" and "evil heretic", "mad Bomelius". Sometimes he performed the duties of an executioner. Malyuta Skuratov himself was afraid of him. The boyars trembled, wondering who would be served a bowl of poison at the royal feast. Ivan the Terrible ordered to fry him alive. After being tortured, he was thrown into prison, where he died.
Under Boris Godunov, doctors were invited from Europe, and at the court there was a whole staff of five people. They were all Germans, and since then Russian medicine has long remained in the hands of people from German states. They tried to keep "outsiders" out of this fertile field. The services of doctors were expensive - to have a learned foreign doctor with you was an unimaginable luxury. Only kings could afford this. Only courtiers close to the throne had the right to use the services of the royal doctors. The only exceptions were the richest merchants, the Stroganovs, who hired a doctor who lived at their "distant factories".
1. CONSTRUCTION OF PHARMACIES 1672 - the second pharmacy in Rus'. 1706 - Decree on the opening of free pharmacies. 1581 - the first Tsar's pharmacy
2. CREATION OF THE STATE BODY OF MEDICINE MANAGEMENT 1620 - PHARMACY ORDER REORGANIZATION: 1716 - PHARMACY OFFICE 1721 - MEDICAL OFFICE 1763 - MEDICAL BOARD 1803 - MINISTRY OF THE INTERIOR
3. ORGANIZATION OF HOSPITALS AND HOSPITALS The first TEMPORARY MILITARY HOSPITAL was created on the territory of Troitsko. Sergius Lavra during the Polish-Lithuanian intervention of 1611-1612.
Fyodor Mikhailovich RTISCHEV (1626 -1673) Opened a number of hospitals, almshouses, and a school in the Andreevsky Monastery at his own expense. 1650 - a shelter for the poor sick, beggars and drunks. 1656 - Ambulatory asylum.
1682 - HOSPITALS HOUSEHOLDS ("hospital houses") 1707 - the first MILITARY HOSPITAL 1670 - Order for the BUILDING OF HOUSEHOLDS 1712 - Decree on the construction of "SPITALET" for the most crippled 1715 - Decree on the mandatory construction of HOSPITALS
1715 - EDUCATIONAL HOUSES were created, in which women were supposed to serve as nurses. 1721 - a decree was issued "On the construction of hospitals in Moscow for the placement of illegitimate babies and on giving them and their breadwinners a monetary salary." 1728 - The Medical College introduced staff units for women to care for the sick. Since 1775, "ORDERS OF PUBLIC CHARITY" began to be created.
OFFICIAL NAMES OF DISEASES Fever - Fever Fever and chills - FEVER Epilepsy - FELLULAR Myocardial infarction - HEART RUPTURE Typhus - ROTTEN FEVER Hepatitis - BILE FEVER Stroke - APOPLEXIC HIT and in case of death - KONDRASHKA Pulmonary tuberculosis - CONSUMPTION Scar Latina – RUBELLA Diphtheria and croup – GLOTOSH Gangrene - ANTONOV FIRE Angina - angina pectoris
TRAINING OF DOCTORS 1654 - the first SCHOOL OF RUSSIAN DOCTORS. In 1702, Nikolai Lambertovich Bidloo was invited to Russia, who became the life physician of Peter I. In 1707, at the first military hospital in Moscow, he opened a HOSPITAL SCHOOL. Compiled a handwritten manual "Manual for students of surgery in the anatomical theater", which was used by the first Russian doctors.
1727 - A MEDICAL AND SURGICAL SCHOOL was established at the Big Sea and Land Hospital. 1754 - the organization of SCHOOLS of midwives ("woman's business"). Since 1786, all hospital schools have been transformed into MEDICAL-SURGICAL SCHOOLS.
INVITATION OF FOREIGN DOCTORS OF MEDICINE In 1668, at the invitation of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the German doctor Lavrenty BLUMENTROST came to Moscow, who became his life physician. The sons continued the work of their father: already in 1687 Lavrenty the Christian was recorded as "Dr. Lavrenty Lavrentiev Blumentrost, the lesser". His brothers - Ivan and the second Lavrenty, became "envoys from Russia" in European universities. Ivan BLUMENTROST returned to Moscow in 1702 with the rank of doctor of medicine, becoming a regimental surgeon. in 1722 he became president of the Medical Office. Lavrenty BLUMENTROST treated Peter I. In 1725 he was appointed president of the Academy of Sciences.
THE FIRST RUSSIAN DOCTORS OF MEDICINE educated abroad Yuri DROGOBYCHSKY He was educated in Poland (Krakow), worked abroad for a long time. Francis Georgy SKORINA He was educated in Poland (Krakow) and in Padua. Ivan ALMANZENOV - studied medicine at Cambridge
Petr Vasilyevich POSNIKOV In 1692 he went to study abroad. In 1701 he returned with a diploma from the University of Padua with the title of Doctor of Philosophy and Medical Science.
PETERSBURG ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1724 Lomonosov considered medicine to be the most useful science for the human race, which through knowledge of the properties of the body. . . reaches the cause. He closely connected medicine with natural science, in particular with physics and chemistry.
MOSCOW UNIVERSITY On January 25, 1755, the project of the university was approved. Since 1758, students were supposed to be divided into three faculties (philosophical, legal and medical). Faculty of Medicine began operations in 1764 1755
MEDICAL AND SURGICAL ACADEMY In 1798, the medical and surgical schools were reorganized into the Medical and Surgical Academy of 1798. Since 1881, the MCA became known as the IMPERIAL MILITARY SURGICAL ACADEMY. physiologist I. M. SECHENOV, therapist S. P. BOTKIN, surgeon L. A. BEKKERS, ophthalmologist E. A. YUNGE, chemist A. P. BORODIN, psychiatrist I. N. BALINSKY, etc.
