Knowledge of history and current state

Section 4. Content of training

Let us first of all try to briefly characterize the knowledge and skills that make up the main content of education. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that there is a close relationship between them and many skills can only be created on the basis of relevant knowledge. In the course of training, the future translator should acquire, in general, the following knowledge:

Get an idea about the basic stages of the history of translation and the features of translation activity in modern world;

Get an idea about the concept of translatability, non-identity of the content of the original and translation, the principle of ensuring minimal losses;

Get an idea about the concepts of interlingual communication, equivalence and adequacy of translation; - get an idea of ​​the pragmatic aspects of translation and the basic ways of pragmatic translation adaptation;

Get an idea about the classification of translations and different types of translation strategy;

To study the main models of translation and translation transformations and how to use them in the analysis of the translation process and its results;

To study the main types of translation correspondences and methods of translation of non-equivalent language units;

Get an idea of ​​the basic principles of translating a connected text;

Get an idea of ​​the grammatical and stylistic aspects of translation.

All this knowledge is communicated to students both at special lectures and seminars, and during practical classes. At the same time, it is very important that students clearly see the connection between the knowledge they gain and translation practice, their extreme importance for solving specific problems of translation.

It is extremely important for a professional translator to have an idea of ​​the socio-historical role of translation and the basic stages in the development of translation activity. He must be aware of the enormous contribution of translators to the formation of the national language, literature and culture.

tours of peoples, about the role of translation in international contacts in the field of diplomacy, politics, trade, science and technology. The training program includes information about the origin of translation in ancient times, its historical evolution, about the periods and reasons for the predominance of literal, free and ʼʼʼʼʼʼ translation, about the peculiarities of the history of translation activity in Russia and outstanding Russian translators. A special place in the course is occupied by familiarization with the main features of translation activity in the modern world: the predominance of informative translations, increased requirements for translation accuracy, a large thematic and stylistic variety of materials that a professional translator has to deal with, specialization and technicalization of translated texts, widespread use of technical means in the process of translation, etc. All this knowledge allows future translators to realize the complexity and importance of their profession, to get acquainted with the material and organizational aspects of the work of a translator.

Translation activity - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Translation activities" 2017, 2018.

- The main stages of the history of translation activity

SECTION 1. HISTORY OF TRANSLATION ACTIVITY Section 4. PROBLEMS OF PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION Section 3. Special theory of translation REFERENCES 1. M. Waite, S. Right, D. Martin. SI language. - M.: "Mir", 1988. 2. Kernigan B., Ritchie D. Language ... .

- A brief outline of the history of translation activities

The concept of translation competence The goal of teaching translation is to develop students' translation competence, which is understood as a certain set of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a translator to perform his professional ... .

- Variety of translation activities

Peculiarities of bilingual communication In the process of interlingual communication, the main patterns of using language as a means of communication are preserved. However, its bilingual nature predetermines the existence of a number of distinctive features.... .

Introduction

The essence of translation is one of the central issues of translation studies. The fundamental solution of such important problems for the theory of translation as translatability, equivalence, adequacy, etc. depends on how the essence of translation is understood. After all, in order to solve these problems, it is necessary to answer the questions about what translation is, what are its the most characteristic and essential features, where is the line between translation and related types of speech activity, what are its linguistic and non-linguistic aspects, what place does it occupy among other types of interlingual communication.

playing important role in the life of society, translation has long attracted the attention of literary critics, psychologists, ethnographers and linguists. Different, sometimes mutually exclusive, views on the essence of translation and its principles, translatability can be traced at different stages of the development of human thought. At the same time, attempts to create a scientific discipline aimed at describing and analyzing this complex and controversial phenomenon have a relatively short history.

More than 30 years have passed since the publication of the works of the linguist Reformatsky about the "impossibility" of creating a separate section of linguistics - the science of translation, and the theory of translation has firmly established itself as a scientific discipline. This was facilitated by the perceived social need for the scientific generalization of translation activities, the development of linguistics, communication theory and other branches of knowledge that provided the scientific basis for the study of translation, and, finally, the emergence of serious translation research that convincingly proved the possibility and prospects of creating a scientific direction to identify the essence of translation as the process of interlingual and intercultural communication.

At all times, people with knowledge of the language - translators - were engaged in translation. The profession of a translator has long been recognized as one of the most prestigious and in demand. The first translators appeared in Ancient Egypt and already in those distant times were among its honorary inhabitants. Experts in foreign languages ​​played a special role in Ancient Greece in close contact with the states of the East. Without them, many of the books of the Bible would not be in our cultural arsenal. (As you know, a significant part Old Testament only survived in Greek translation.) Ancient Rus' interpreter monks were considered very educated people, and Napoleon Bonaparte said that a soldier who speaks two languages ​​is worth two. Today, the demand for translators has increased to the maximum. As in any other industry, in the field of translation, there are various associations and unions dealing with translation issues.

Subjectof our study - the activities of professional associations of translators.

The topic is currently relevant, since the theory of translation as a science is still young and requires improvements and new scientific confirmations, which are being developed by professional translators. The need to unite talented people in the field of translation with versatile abilities (in essence, a translator must be a linguist, a psycholinguist, a writer, and a creative person) is confirmed by the demands of society.

Targetwork - to reveal the history of the emergence of the science of translation and the need for the emergence of unions of translators.

Tasksresearch:

.Consider the history of translation activities;

2.To reveal the history of the emergence of translation organizations in various countries;

.Consider the activities, goals and objectives of International and Russian associations of professional translators.

1. The history of the emergence of professional associations of translators

1.1 The emergence of translation and translation activities

The multinationality and densely populated world necessitates constant and productive communication between different countries and peoples. Translation is one of the oldest human activities. The history of translation dates back to the time when God was on earth. According to the Bible, God was angry with self-confident people and the world became multilingual. The division into communities nevertheless happened, but representatives of different language groups still continued to contact. Most likely, salvation was also sent to the earth with a curse - translators. Their purpose was to help communicate with people who could not understand each other on their own.

Ever since the time of the Tower of Babel, when people began to speak different languages The man needed an interpreter. For a long time, the emerging profession did not have a name, but then translators began to be called interpreters in Rus'.

And before the Russian name, for the first time the word interpres was used in the meaning of "translator", "interpreter" by Cicero, who worked on the translation of the works of Demosthenes and Plato. And after him, Horace in his work "The Science of Poetry" used the same term that they began to use in the meaning of "interpreter", or in a more familiar version for our ears - "translator".

In the fourth century AD, Saint Jerome translated the Bible and also used the word invented by Cicero. And in the Middle Ages, when translators were exclusively monks who spent their time not only in prayer, but also in the study of languages, they were called only interpres or hermeneuma. However, already at the end of that era, this terminology becomes of little use.

According to professor-philologist Vinogradov: “In the emerging Romance languages, the concept of “writing in the vernacular”, i.e. in folk Latin, was conveyed by the same verbs as the concept of “translate from Latin into vernacular»: enromacier (French), romancar (Spanish), romanzare and vulgarizzare (It.). After the 12th century the translator in France was called droguement (drugement) and trucheman (truchement), and in Italy - drogomanno (and trucimanno), borrowed from Syrian targmana and Byzantine dragoumanos (compare in Russian "interpreter" from Turkic sources).

Around the 13th-14th centuries, words appear in France that have Latin roots and convey the meaning of “translation”. The Latin words translatio (meaning transfer, metaphor) and traslator (transmitting something to someone) give rise to the French words translateur (translator) and translation (translation). These words are gradually introduced into other Romance languages ​​over time. A new surge in translation activity is given by the invention of printing and the era of the Reformation, after which texts sacred to Christians begin to be translated from Latin into national languages.

The advent of printing stimulated translation activity. It was then that modern terms appeared. The appearance of the verb traduire is attributed to 1539, and in 1540 the French humanist and translator E. Dole includes traduction and traducteur in one of his treatises. In Spain, neologisms traducir and traduccion appear, and in Italy - tradurre and traduzione. In school practice, the term version continues to be used, denoting "translation into native language from Greek and Latin.

IN modern science There are different approaches to the periodization of translation experience. P.I. Kopanev in his work “Issues of the History and Theory of Literary Translation” (Minsk, 1978) draws a parallel between the chronological stages of the development of civilization and the stages of the formation of translation activity:

) the ancient period (slavery and feudalism, translators - slaves, etc.);

) second or middle period(from the primary accumulation of capital to the scientific and technological revolution);

) third / new period (late 18th - late 19th centuries);

) recent period ( late XIX-XX centuries).

Many authors believe that this is not enough to represent the specifics of the development of translation activities. J. Steiner (Apr è s Babel, Paris, 1978) distinguishes 4 periods:

1)from Cicero to early XIX centuries (18 centuries!) - the empirical period;

2)philosophical and poetic period: from the appearance of Tytler's works "Essay on the principles of translation" (London, 1792) and F. Schleiermacher "On various methods of translation" (1813) to the publication of V. Larbo's work "Under the patronage of St. Jerome" (1946);

)40s - the emergence of the theory of machine translation, when the structural transformational model of translation dominated, and then the transformational model until the early 60s;

)hermeneutic period (from the 60s of the last century to the present) - the loss of special interest in automatic translation as not justifying expectations, the transformation of translation studies into an interdisciplinary science.

The most striking events in the development of translation: the collective translation of the Bible (Septuagint), the first discussions about various types of translation (Cicero and Horace), the first discussions about the benefits of translation as a rhetorical exercise (Cicero, Quintilian ), the first treatise on translation (Dole ), the first justifications and justifications for the expediency of free translation (Jerome), the first machine translation.

The history of translation shows that translation has been developed in all civilizations of the East and West. The profession of translator dates back to the Sumerian civilization of the late 4th millennium BC. and to the early stages of the existence of the Egyptian civilization, namely to the era of the Old Kingdom and the period of the 28th century. BC. In the Sumerian and Old Babylonian texts there are references to translators - "dragomans". Translators stood out in a separate caste, their distinguishing mark was shaved heads and a tattoo in the form of a parrot (a parrot with folded wings is a translator from one language, a parrot with outstretched wings is a translator from several languages).

At the end of the 3rd millennium BC. in the Sumerian civilization, the creation of a school of scribes was noted, who were preparing to translate from Sumerian into Akkadian and vice versa. With the advent of literary works, literary translation arose.

In the era of the pharaohs, there were intermediary languages ​​into which government papers were translated. The international languages ​​in Ancient Mesopotamia alternately were Babylonian, Assyrian, Akkadian, Aramaic, and Median. In the period of the New Kingdom in Egypt, schools of scribes-translators who speak several languages ​​are already mentioned.

Translation dictionaries and translations made in antiquity have survived to this day. In the 5th century BC. mention is made of the public reading of a sight translation of a holy book, as well as the reading in a quiet voice of the holy scriptures in the original with simultaneous loud reading of the translation.

In the III century BC. The first translation of the Bible from Hebrew into Greek was made in Egypt. The story tells that 72 scholar-translators from Jerusalem arrived on the island of Foros, where they performed translation in complete isolation from the rest of the world and without communicating with each other. The first translation of the Old Testament was called the Septuagint (Interpreter of the Seventy). Egyptian literary texts written on papyri were also translated into Greek. A large role was assigned to translation in the Roman armies during the numerous wars of that time. Greco-Roman antiquity left numerous evidence of translation activity in the field of literature. Literary translation reached a special flowering in Rome (Lucius Andronicus, Quintus Ennius, and others). Literary critical analysis of literary translations originates from the time of Roman statehood. The first to raise theoretical issues in understanding translation was Cicero, who spoke out against literal translation. The first interpreter mentioned in the history of Rome was the Roman senator Gaius Acilius. In 155 BC, he acted as an interpreter in the Senate at the reception of the ambassador of Greece.

The beginning of the theory of translation is associated with the name of Mark Thulius Cicero (106-43 BC), who outlined the basic principles of literal and free translation in the preface to his own translations into Latin of the Greeks by Aeschines and Demosthenes. He pointed out that it is not necessary to distinguish between the actual translation and literary creativity, put forward the thesis “not words are translated, but thoughts” and postulated the inevitability of losses.

E. Dole (1509-1546) wrote a treatise on the rules of good translation, introduced the word traducteur as a designation of professional activity, and pointed out the priority of the target language. E. Dole himself was burned on Place Maubert in Paris for an allegedly incorrect translation (the addition of the adverb “absolutely” to the phrase “you will no longer be” was regarded by the clergy as a departure from church canons).

The ideas of scientists of the ancient world and the Middle Ages in modern times took shape in two opposite trends in the approach to the criteria of translation activity: 1) translation based on a literal reproduction of the original language; 2) translation based on the desire to preserve the "spirit" of the original. As examples of translations of the first type, translations of the Bible are usually given, as well as translations philosophical treatises Aristotle. The literalism of these translations stemmed from the "sacred" awe of the biblical texts and led to numerous distortions of the norms of the target language. These violations caused criticism and rebuff from the adherents of the opposite way of translation. Translating the speeches of Aeschines and Demosthenes, Cicero wrote: “... I retained both thoughts and their construction (...), but in the choice of words I was guided by the conditions of our language” (Cicero M. Tullius. Complete. Collection of speeches in Russian translation. V.1. St. Petersburg, 1901). Later translations of the Hebrew text of the Bible into Greek also applied this principle (“not from word to word, but from meaning to meaning”).

In modern times (starting from the 16th-18th centuries), translation problems were mainly analyzed from literary positions in relation to the translation of literary sources. This is natural if we take into account the complexity of this type of translation activity and the important role of translation in the evolution of literature and culture in general. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in Western Europe discussions about translation trends (literal and free translation) and the problem of translatability, i.e. the possibility of a full-fledged translation of a literary text, the preservation of elements of figurativeness, national coloring and features of the author's individual style. In the 16th century, the famous English poet and translator J. Dryden proposed to distinguish between three types of translation: 1) "metaphrase" - a literal translation; 2) "paraphrase" - a free translation (a translation that does not reproduce the formal features of the original, based primarily on the transfer of the "spirit" of the original); 3) "imitation" - a translation created by imitating the form of the original, various variations on the theme of the original.

The 16th century in the history of translation is also associated with the name of Jacques Amiot, who performed a large number of translations from Greek. The translation “decoration” (the trend of “beautiful traitors”) is not quite rightly associated with his name. “Beautiful, but unfaithful” (“traitors - transcribers”, the expression of Du Bellay) is the principle of translation that dominated the 17th century and is rather associated with the name of d Ablancourt, who cared first of all about the elegance of expression in translation, ignoring the features of the original.

This approach to translation was shared by the famous Russian poet and translator V.A. Zhukovsky, who spoke in favor of "improving" the original, and other Russian poets-translators of the 19th century. Translating Don Quixote, Zhukovsky wrote: “There are surpluses - why not throw them away. When translating a novel, the most pleasant translation is the most faithful one. And further: "Servantes did not always have good taste, some stories are too long, some jokes are often repeated."

The views of leading translators have influenced the nature of translation in Russia as a whole. In corrective translation, I. Vvedensky, who was the most famous Russian translator of the 19th century, surpassed everyone. When translating Ch. Dickens, he allowed great "translation liberties", for example: He kissed her- He planted a passionate kiss on her cherry lips.; My home… - An orphanage where I enjoyed the happiness of my youth; She began to cry- Tears appeared in the lovely little eyes of the dear little one.It was said that Dickens himself in one conversation called Vvedensky Vredinsky (Badynsky).

Thus, the very principles of translation art are historical in nature. They have changed according to reader and publisher tastes over the centuries.

Since the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the principles of translation art have become more rigorous. With the expansion of international contacts in various areas ah activities and the emergence of the need for rapid exchange of information has increased interest in translation as a means of ensuring effective communication between speakers of different languages ​​and cultures. In the twentieth century, when the importance of international relations increased, the profession of translator received a new, more important place in the lives of people in various fields of activity. And in the journal Babel in 1955 it was noted that the twentieth century is the century of translations, since cultural exchange between peoples would be impossible without translators.

In the second half of the 20th century, the International Federation of Translators (FIT) was created. In 1963, at the 4th FIT Congress, the Charter of the Translator was adopted, which officially consolidated the “rights and obligations” of the translator and the foundations of translation ethics developed by the practice of translation. The Translator's Charter formulated the main requirement for translation: "Every translation must accurately convey the thought and form of the original, the observance of such fidelity is the legal and moral duty of the translator." At the same time, the Charter points out the inadmissibility of a literal translation and postulates the need for changes aimed at adapting the original to the new linguistic and ethnic conditions of perception. The translator's charter was intended to promote the status of translation as an independent profession.

Today's realities confirm the relevance of the translator's profession, since we began to exchange not only cultural traditions, where a special place was occupied by translation classic literature and art, but also to conduct international trade, therefore, it took technical translations instructions, annotations, memos for users.

The trend towards globalization is prepared by the selfless activity of translators, and globalization itself is possible only if the translation process is well organized. The work of translators contributes to the openness of society.

1.2 The emergence of professional associations of translators in various countries

translator international federation association

In this paragraph, we will consider some of the countries in which there are professional associations of translators. Professional associations of translators exist in almost all countries of the world. The emergence of associations of translators dates back to the middle of the twentieth century, when translation began to be regarded as a science. There are both international translation unions and organizations within countries.

International Association of Simultaneous Interpreters (AIIC). These associations pursued the goal of improving the working and living conditions of translators on the basis of rules developed by professionals, raising the prestige of the profession in the eyes of the public, requiring that all members of organizations observe a moral and ethical code of honor, developed a unified pricing policy, formed a market for translation services and rules of conduct in this market, engaged in scientific work, i.e. performed the functions of the trade union and the chamber.

The market of translation services in Russia began to develop actively from the beginning of the 90s, when commercial translation agencies began to appear. However, the history of Russian translation agencies can be dated back to an earlier period.

"Intourist" is the oldest Russian brand, which is associated with high standards of services and great opportunities for organizing tourism. And tourism cannot exist without translators, and therefore this agency can be considered the first "forge of oral language professionals" in our country. This company has always had its own translation departments and provided training for translator guides. Founded on April 12, 1929, VAO Intourist is now a member of leading international organizations: WTO, PATA, ASTA, JATA, IATA, and Russian organizations: PCT, RGA, CCI.

VAO Intourist annually serves more than 400 thousand foreign and Russian tourists, has 46 subsidiaries in the Russian regions, 7 subsidiaries in London, Milan, Stockholm, Warsaw, Helsinki, Canada and Japan and, of course, its own guide-interpreters accompanying foreign clients.

The Progress publishing house can be attributed to the first written translation agency of the last century.

It was the central publishing house in the system of the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for publishing, printing and book trade, engaged not only in publishing, but also in translating humanitarian literature into Russian and foreign languages.

It was founded in 1931 under the name of the Publishing Association of Foreign Workers in the USSR. One of its first directors was P.P. Petrov, who back in 1935 after graduating from the Japanese sector of the Institute of Oriental Studies. N. Narimanov started working there, and went a long way from an intern to a director. He became the first person who tried to collect together unsystematized materials about the history and activities of the publishing house in his book "On the history of the Progress publishing house."

In 1939 it was renamed the Publishing House of Literature in Foreign Languages.

In 1963, after the reorganization of this publishing house and the Foreign Literature Publishing House, it received its current name "Progress".

Today the central office of the publishing house is located in Moscow.

In 1932, on the basis of the North-Western Regional Chamber of Commerce (Petrograd) and the Russian-Eastern (Moscow), the All-Union Chamber of Commerce was formed, which was transformed in 1972 into the USSR Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The Chamber had a translation department, which was responsible for providing translators to various plants, factories and during chief engineering work.

With the beginning of the implementation of economic reforms in Russia, a new stage in the formation and development of chambers of commerce and industry has begun. On October 19, 1991, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry was established by Russian business circles Russian Federation(CCI of the Russian Federation), whose main tasks were to represent the interests of Russian entrepreneurs in relations with the state, create the conditions necessary for the formation of a socially oriented market economy, and assist in the formation of a legal environment and business infrastructure.

To date, there are about 160 chambers in the Russian Federation, of which 80 are chambers of subjects of the Federation. Each chamber has translators on staff. However, the main legal successor of the translation service of the USSR Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and later the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation, is TIS International. Established 25 years ago, the company provides written, consecutive and simultaneous translation services from any and into any languages ​​of the world, on any subject.

Another oldest specialized translation organization is the All-Russian Center for Translation of Scientific and Technical Literature and Documentation of the Federal Agency for Science and Innovation of the Russian Science and Science Agency.

The beginning of its existence dates back to the 60s.

In 1960, the translation agency VINITI (All-Union Institute of Scientific and Technical Information) began its existence as a separate self-supporting legal entity.

Prior to that, it was a structural subdivision of this institute and did not have an independent status. There is no exact data on the date of creation of the translation structural unit of the institute, but, according to its old employees, it was created by order of the director of VINITI A.I. Mikhailov 50s. the last century.

On the basis of the translation agency VINITI, in April 1972, the All-Union Center for Translations of Scientific and Technical Literature and Documentation (VTsP) was established on the basis of a joint resolution of the State Committee of the Council of Ministers for Science and Technology and the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Ilya Borisovich Pochkai became the first director of the VCP. The center was engaged in scientific work, coordination of translation activities in the country and acquisition of libraries of unpublished translations.

Thanks to the activities of the center in the field of translations, doctors and candidates of sciences began to appear, and in various cities union republics, branches of the VCP were created.

The translation center received its current name in March 1992 by order of the Government of the Russian Federation, and at the same time a new Charter of the VCP was approved on the basis of the Law of the RSFSR "On Enterprises and Entrepreneurial Activities".

Currently, the center is engaged in the translation of scientific and technical literature.

Despite the existence of the center and its numerous branches, there were difficulties in translation activities due to the bureaucratic management system, when graduates of translation faculties occupied completely different positions and collaborated with the center only freelance.

In the mid-1980s, the law "On individual labor activity" was adopted, which contributed to the growth economic activity, and thanks to which it became possible to create commercial organizations. However, in the resolution of the Central Committee and the Council of Ministers on cooperatives, there was no such type of activity as translation, and therefore the first private translation institution in the USSR appeared only in 1988, because. enthusiasts who wanted to create one had to go through more than one instance to convince the bureaucracy to make an exception for them. The cooperative translation agency "Inlingua" was created under the guidance of an orientalist Vladimir Nikolayevich Grabovsky. The bureau was engaged in the translation of technical and business documentation. Subsequently, the cooperative was renamed, and to this day it is engaged in professional translation activities under the name of the Phonetics translation agency.

The beginning of the 1990s is characterized by the growth of the commercial market for translation services. New translation agencies appear, but, of course, translation activities were not carried out enough high level, because companies did not have sufficient information and technological resources. The clients did not know the performers, the performers did not know each other. And in general, this industry was characterized by low competition. But Russia made the first attempts - somewhere successful, and somewhere not entirely successful - to enter the world translation market.

The 2000s saw a change in trends. Large companies have formed with sufficient financial and technological resources to provide services to all companies operating in a particular industry.

A milestone was the creation of the National Association of Translation Companies. In 2004, it was founded by 13 leading Russian companies, such as GLAGOL, MARK BUSINESS TRANSFERS, ROYD, TRANSLINK, EGO TRANSLATING, FASTFORWARD, NEOTECH, TECHINPUT. Unfortunately, now some translation agencies (the founders of the association) have ceased to exist, the website of the National Association of Translation Companies has turned into a reference portal, and the association itself has stopped its activities due to corporate contradictions of its organizers.

But the Union of Translators of Russia, created in 1991, exists to this day. Some translation companies are corporate or associated members of the SPR, but not only agencies, but also any person or organization professionally and regularly engaged in interpreting and writing, specialists in the field of lexicography, theory and history of translation, teachers of translation can join the union. The Association conducts various seminars, trainings and other events in the field of translations and language.

In 2004, the National League of Translators appeared - a professional association founded and registered in Moscow by experienced practicing translators who consider it necessary to coordinate their efforts in order to work more successfully in the Russian translation market.

Since 2004, information industry publications began to appear. Translators began to gradually approach the development of the media, publishing corporate newspapers and magazines, aimed at attracting the attention of not only internal, professional, but also external audiences - potential clients, young professionals, state organizations. Among the publications of this kind are: the reference book "Who is who in the world of translations" (Guild), the newspaper "PereVesti" (TransLink), the magazine "Egoist" (EgoTranslating) and "Profperevod" (Logrus), "Handmade" (Neotech). It should be noted that the first translation media appeared in the field of scientific and literary translation, perhaps because this industry in Russia is more developed than business translation. The first translation journals include Bridges (published by R. Valent), the journal World of Translation (SPR); there are also younger ones - the journal of non-literal translations "Shop of Languages", the scientific and artistic journal "Translator".

Australia has the Australian Institute of Translators (AUSIT), which is the national association for the translation and interpretation profession. It was founded in 1987, bringing together existing local associations and professional groups, and now has branches in every state and province. It is a fully independent association, registered in Australia with a wide membership that continues to grow steadily. AUSIT members are mostly practicing translators.

To encourage high standards in the profession, AUSIT serves as a meeting place for all those who understand the importance of translation and interpretation for the economy and society, especially in the context of the globalization of the economy and the growth of world communications.

The AUSIT Code of Ethics is the standard for the work of translators. The Code has been approved by the National Accreditation Body for Translators (NAATI) and other organizations (TIS Government, Attorney General of the Department, Refugee Court, Institute Modern Languages at the University of Queensland). is a member of the International Federation of Translators (FIT), where he represents the interests of its members and takes part in the development of international politics.

)Represent the interests of the profession at all times and in all Australian and international contexts;

)Promote the importance of the translation profession for governments around the world;

)Assistance and organization professional growth translator (including conferences, courses and seminars);

)Creating a better public understanding of the translation profession, thereby helping to build public confidence in it.

The Association of Professional Translators in Germany was founded in 1991. The globalization of markets, the integration of Europe and the strengthening of the integration of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe has become unthinkable without qualified translation and interpretation. As a result, ATICOM was created in Germany, where high demands are made on the profession of translator and members of the organization.

The Association represents the interests of its members through the constant promotion of high quality translations. The association has links with other professional associations outside of Germany and is a member of the International Federation of Translators (FIT).

Association tasks:

Professionalization of the translation profession.

Further development of civil law.

Implementation of advanced training, vocational training and continuing education.

Improving the quality of awareness.

Insurance and pension advice for ATICOM members

Collaboration with schools for interpreters and translators in the area scientific research and teaching.

Promoting international and intercultural understanding through verbal communication.

Promoting international and intercultural understanding and knowledge through collaboration in multilingual terminology projects.

Thus, the number of all kinds of translation and near-translation unions and associations (national, regional and international) is quite large. People tend to unite according to interests, including professional ones. And there is nothing wrong with that.

The tasks that such unions usually set for themselves are:

1)

2)

)

)

Specific forms of activity for the implementation of statutory tasks:

)holding meetings and meetings for its members;

2)holding conferences and seminars on topical issues of theory and practice of translation;

)informing its members about scientific conferences, seminars and other events, as well as incoming translation orders;

)issue of its printed publications (in paper or electronic form);

)placement of information sites on the Internet;

)regular distribution within the organization of lists of members with contact details;

)mailing once a year to the largest employers (for example, chambers of commerce) lists of members of the organization with an indication of specialization;

)development and publication of recommendations on tariffs for translation services;

)agreeing for its members preferential conditions for participation in scientific conferences, discounts for the purchase of dictionaries and computer programs.

2. Activities of international and all-Russian organizations of translators

2.1 Union of Translators of Russia

The Union of Translators of Russia (UTR) is an all-Russian public organization, a professional union uniting specialists in the field of translation of literature of all genres, official and business documentation, court and simultaneous interpreters, media translators, as well as experts in the field of lexicography, theory and history of translation, translation teachers.

The main goals of the SPR are to form the translation community in the country, create regional branches in the largest cultural, industrial, scientific centers of the country, protect the creative and professional interests of translators, develop draft regulations and legislative acts that contribute to the development of translation in the country, as well as promote best achievements Russian and world civilization.

Among the full and associated members of the SPR are citizens of Russia and a number of foreign countries: France, Germany, England, Holland, Italy, the USA, Canada, Slovakia, etc. Already now the "geography" of the SPR is quite wide. Its employees live and work in Moscow and the Moscow region, St. Petersburg and Kaliningrad, Smolensk, Kaluga, Volgograd, Kazan, Yaroslavl, Saratov, Yekaterinburg, Orenburg, Chita, Ufa, Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Novosibirsk, Ivanovo, Voronezh and Nizhny Tagil and many others. . other cities of Russia. Members of the SPR gather in various associations of translators, teams of universities, faculties, departments, translation firms and centers.

The main goals of the SPR are to form the translation community in the country, create regional branches in the largest cultural, industrial, scientific centers of the country, protect the creative and professional interests of translators, develop draft regulations and legislative acts that contribute to the development of translation in the country, as well as promote the best achievements Russian and world civilization. According to the Charter of the UPR, the Union has thematic or genre sections:

Translation studies and staff training;

literary translation;

translation of humanitarian literature and mass media;

scientific and technical translation and special dictionaries;

Simultaneous translation;

translation of official and business documents, legal translation.

The Scientific Council and the Council of Elders include outstanding masters of translation, authoritative theorists and teachers: professors M.Ya. Zwilling, V.N. Komissarov, V.G. Gak and others.

An increasingly important role in the information of the translation community, promotion of our creativity, in the discussion of theoretical and practical problems of translation is played by the SPR journal "World of Translation", its literary and artistic supplement "Pandemonium". Professional and creative publications began to appear in the regions (Chita, Magadan). On the Internet, you can get acquainted with the sites that form the SPR network.

Poetry evenings are held dedicated to the work of SPR poets-translators. IN Linguistic University(Moscow) translators fiction The SRPs meet once a month for their traditional "Wednesdays". Fedorov Readings have become traditional in St. Petersburg. SPR actively cooperates with educational institutions, libraries and other cultural centers. An increasingly prominent place in the SPR is occupied by specialists in scientific and technical translation. They will have to analyze the issues of modern technical support for the translation process, the creation of new book and electronic dictionaries, databases, terminology standardization.

New perspectives are also opening up for those who want to devote themselves to legal translation. Here our state must eliminate the serious backlog from many countries of the world.

The SPR insists on the need for a nationwide policy in the field of translation, the development of the main directions for the development of translation business in Russia, it is necessary to study issues related to the availability of translation personnel in the regions, the prospects and methods for their training, the improvement of professional skills and professional certification, the state of the translation services market, translation book publishing, development of professional criticism of translations, copyright protection. Conscious of the need to unite the efforts of all creative unions, the SPR actively participated in the creation and implementation in the State Duma of the Russian Federation of the Federal Law “On Creative Workers of Literature and Art and on Their Creative Unions”, proposals were made regarding changes to the law on notaries, in other legislative acts. This work allowed SPR to establish cooperation with colleagues from other creative unions. Outstanding masters of translation from Russia and a number of foreign countries were awarded the Golden Pushkin medals. Among them, A. Garcia and L. Gurevich (Russia), Madan Lal Mahdu (India), M. Hobson (England), A. Moravkova (Czech Republic).

On May 25, 2001, the next, 4th congress of the UPR summed up the results of the first decade of the activity of the UPR. Having entered the world community of translators, SPR took part in a number of world and international forums: Brighton (England), Mons (Belgium), Vancouver (Canada), Budmeritsy (Slovakia), Prague (Czech Republic), Krakow (Poland), Arles (France) )… The International Federation of Translators (FIT), foreign colleagues respect the activities of the ITP. International activity The RTP allows us to expand our professional and social ties, keep track of the most important trends in the development of translation in the world, and the state of the European translation market, where competition is intensifying. In this regard, the President of the UPR suggested that his colleagues work out a kind of charter that would establish fair rules of the game for translators of all countries. Of particular concern to the SPR is the loss by the Russian language of its international positions.

The SPR intends to actively cooperate with national organizations of foreign countries, diplomatic representatives of these countries in Russia in order to promote the achievements of the Russian translation school in the world, enrich Russian culture, science and technology with the advanced achievements of world civilization.

2.2 International Federation of Translators

The International Federation of Translators (Federation internationale des traducteurs - FIT) was founded in 1953 in Paris by Pierre-Francois Caille and unites translators from more than fifty countries. FIT is a professional, non-political, non-commercial international organization. FIT is a worldwide organization of national translation organizations from 60 countries. FIT has the status of an advisory agency to UNESCO.

The supreme body of the FIT is the World Congress, which meets every three years. The FIT Council, elected at the congress, forms the Bureau to manage the day-to-day activities of the FIT. The headquarters of FIT is located in Paris. Following their election to Congress, the Council and the Executive Committee have a three-year mandate to direct the day-to-day operations of the Organization. They are supported by about twenty commissions and committees that regularly report on their work and the achievements of the Council and Congress.

At the 2nd FIT Congress (Rome, 1956) the intellectual property of translators was discussed for the first time. At the IV Congress (Dubrovnik, 1963), Recommendations were developed on the training of translators and criteria for the professional certification of translators, and a Charter on the rights and duties of an interpreter was adopted.

At the XIII Congress (Brighton, 1993) FIT accepted the Russian Union into its ranks as its full member. This event was preceded by a meeting of the Bureau of the FIT Council in Moscow (1992), at which the President of the UTP reported on preparations for joining the international organization. The FIT World Congress was held in early August 1999 in Mons (Belgium), a delegation of the Russian Union of Translators headed by the President of the SPR. Within the framework of the congress in Mons, sections worked: literary translation; scientific, technical and commercial translation; oral translation; the professional status of the translator and the future of the profession; Translation Studies. FIT Congress worked in Vancouver (Canada). prof. E.V. Terekhova, head of the Primorsky regional branch of the SPR. Congress elected a new FIT Council for 2002-2005. Betty Cohen (Canada) is elected President of FIT. The XVII FIT Congress was held on August 2-10, 2005 in Tampere (Finland).

a) assemble associations of translators to stimulate interaction and cooperation between such associations;

b) sponsoring and facilitating the establishment of such associations in countries where they do not yet exist;

c) establishing links with other organizations involved in translation or other aspects of interlingual and intercultural communication;

d) to develop among all the member countries of the organization a harmony and understanding which will promote the interests of translators, and to render good offices, when desired or necessary, in resolving any differences that may arise between the various organizations;

e) provide members of the organization with information and advice that may be useful to them;

(e) to promote training and scientific research;

g) promote the harmonization of professional standards;

h) defend the moral and material interests of translators around the world, promote the recognition of their profession, promote their status in society, develop their further knowledge and understanding of translation as a science and art.

Through its dedicated committees, FIT strives to meet the needs of members worldwide by addressing issues such as training, working conditions and job recognition. UNESCO recommendations for the protection and improvement of the legal and social status of Translations and Translators, adopted in Nairobi in 1976, is an important milestone in the history of FIT.

FIT is proud of its achievements and names in the translation profession. At the same time, it is well known that work remains to be done in order to meet the growing demand for international communications and cooperation. FIT thus continues to play its vital role in overcoming language barriers and in promoting peace.

FIT creates regional centers when deemed necessary to further its goals and enhance its general activities. The Executive Committee of the Regional Center organizes meetings in their region to promote dialogue between local member associations, further study of specific problems and inform the FIT governing bodies of such problems. Since 1986, FIT has established the Regional Center for North America (RCNA), the Regional Center for Europe (RCE), the Virtual Regional Center for Asia (VARC) and the Regional Center Latin America(RCLA) has circulated the following list of occupations for discussion among its member organizations:

1. Scientific or technical translators (traducteurs scientifiques ou techniqeus, scintifis or technical translator).

Translators for the media (traducteurs pour les medias, media translators).

Terminologists (terminologues, terminologists).

Simultaneous interpreters, conference interpreters (interpretes de conference, conference interpreters).

Community interpreters (interpretes sociaux, dits aussi interpretes communautaires, community interpreters).

Court interpreters (interpretes judiciaires, legal interpreters).

Sign language interpreters (interpretes gestu els, sign-language interpreters).

Translation theorists or "translatologists" (theoriciens de la traduction ou traductologues, traslation theorists, or "translatologists").

Translation teachers (professeurs de traduction, teachers of translation).

Conclusion

In this paper, we have considered the issues of translation activities of organizations.

In the first chapter, we examined the history of the formation of translation activities, as well as the history of the emergence of translation associations, both in Russia and abroad. We found that the first translation organizations appeared in the middle of the 20th century in connection with the expansion of economic ties between countries and the development of translation science.

A translator is a specialist in the field of information and documentation, a specialist in creating different types text: summaries, protocols, editing, text preparation for machine translation, post-machine translation (MT) editing, PC software localization, text layout.

In the course of studying this issue, it was found that today there are both international translations, as well as national and regional ones. The most important international translation organization is the International Federation of Professional Translators, founded in 1953.

The main objectives of these organizations are the following:

1)a general rise in the prestige of the translation profession;

2)protecting the interests of translators in relations with employers and the state;

)creation of favorable working conditions for translators;

)advanced training and certification of translators.

In order to achieve the goals set, the associations carry out various activities.

Thus, associations of translators are necessary organizations not only from a linguistic point of view, but also from the point of view of the national and international economies of countries.

Bibliography

1.Alekseeva I.S. Introduction to translation studies: textbook. allowance for students. Phil. and lingu. fak. higher educational institutions. St. Petersburg: philol. Faculty of St. Petersburg State University; M .: "Academy", 2004 - p. 350

2.Garbovsky N.K. Translation theory. M.: Publishing house. Moscow State University, 2007 - p. 543.

.Kopanev P.I. Questions of the history and theory of literary translation. - Minsk, 1972. - 296 p.

.Makarova L.S., Doludenko E.N. Materials for the course of theory and practice of translation (Professional educational program additional qualification "Translator in English in the field of professional communication). - Maykop: Publishing House of AGU, 2008. - 205 p.

.Fedorov A.V. Fundamentals of the general theory of translation. - M., 1983. - p. 3 - 342

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The beginning of the development of general theoretical problems of translation was laid by books on the theory of translation of fiction, the most "ancient" of the theories of translation. The diversity of the translation process gives rise not only to different theories of translation, but also types of translation that do not match in their characteristics, the selection of which must be scientifically substantiated. Every scientific classification has its basis of division.

For a long time, the axiom that interlingual transformations are carried out by a person, which was not in doubt, received a significant refinement in the 20th century: interlanguage transformations can be carried out by a person or a machine. The first basis for the classification of translation appeared - the mechanisms of interlingual transformations. This foundation laid the foundation for the theory of machine translation. In the short century of its existence, it has contributed to general theory translation is no less a contribution than the existing theories of human translation, although we should not forget that machine translation has absorbed all the achievements in the theory of translation of the "pre-machine" period. The theory of machine translation still exists as a whole, which is associated with the stability of the conditions of the machine translation process and the low competence of the machine (it is useless to let it translate fiction).

Thus, one of the bases of the division is the category of the actor in the translation, which makes it possible to distinguish between machine translation and human translation. A person has to work in various conditions and, depending on the situation, translate in writing or orally, perceive the original visually or by ear. There is a significant difference between written translation, which is not limited in time, which allows you to resort to the help of dictionaries and various reference books, and oral translation, which is carried out under extreme conditions for the functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator. This difference stems from the conditions of functioning of mental mechanisms, which are the basis for the classification of translation carried out by a person.

Therefore, for the classification of human translation, various bases of division are used (classification by type):

• 1. taking into account the ratio in time of the two main translation operations: the perception of the source text and the design of the translation. On this basis, J. Erber proposed his classification in 1952, distinguishing between two types of oral translation: simultaneous and consecutive. Moreover, he also included visual-oral translation from a sheet of paper to simultaneous translation, and subdivided consecutive translation into consecutive translation with and without the use of technical means.
• 2. taking into account the conditions for the perception of the message and the execution of the translation. You can perceive the message either visually or by ear, which already makes it possible to distinguish between visual and auditory translation. Translation can be done in writing or orally, providing for written and oral translations. But since each translation process includes both the perception of the message and the design of the translation, it becomes possible to speak of four types of translation: visual-written translation, visual-oral translation, written translation by ear and oral translation. The same classification was later proposed by L. S. Barkhudarov, but on a linguistic basis. He proposes to distinguish four main types of translation depending on the form of speech in which the source and target languages ​​are used, calling them, respectively, written-written, oral-oral, written-oral and oral-written translation.

The types of interpretation are:

• 1. Consecutive one-way translation by ear.
• 2. Consecutive unilateral translation from a sheet.
• 3. Two-way translation of the conversation.
• 4. Simultaneous translation.
• 5. Selective advisory translation.

Types of written translation are:

• 1. Full written translation.
• 2. Abstract translation.
• 3. Translation type "express information".
• 4. Abstract translation.

However, this classification could not satisfy the majority of researchers. Indeed, visual-written translation, for example, cannot be put on a par with written translation by ear. Visual-written translation covers a huge area practical work with fiction and scientific and technical literature, as well as with information and propaganda texts, while translation by ear is reduced to one or more types academic work(translation-dictation, written translation of audio recordings).

Oral translation, in turn, includes two widely known independent types of translation: consecutive and simultaneous. Visual-oral translation occurs in practice rather as an auxiliary type of translation, when sight translation precedes visual-written translation of the same text or is used for dictation into a typewriter with subsequent editing.

Singling out only the conditions of perception of the text and the design of the translation as the basis for the classification of translation turns out to be insufficient. During the translation process, it functions significantly large quantity mental mechanisms, and the conditions of their work in different types of translation are by no means identical.

That is why it is necessary to single out the mental mechanisms that function in translation and take the conditions of their work as the basis for classification. At the same time, it is necessary to study the features of the work of mental mechanisms in each of the types of translation tested in practice. If two or three types of translation are characterized by the same features of the functioning of mental mechanisms, then this means that we are talking about one type of translation. Otherwise, we are dealing with different types of translation, since each independent type of translation activity is characterized only by its inherent set of conditions for the functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator.

The most important mental mechanisms that carry out translation activities are:

• - mechanisms of perception of the source text;
• - memorization mechanisms;
• - mechanisms of transition from one language to another;
• - mechanisms of registration of translation;
• - mechanisms for synchronization of translation operations.

These mechanisms can operate under a variety of conditions. In general, the complex of these conditions can be represented as follows:

• 1. Conditions for the perception of the text of the message, both from the point of view of the leading analyzers (auditory or visual perception), and from the point of view of its repetition (single or multiple).
• 2. Conditions of memorization in connection with the size of the perceived segments of speech (significant or insignificant load on memory).
• 3. Conditions for switching from one language to another in time (limited or unlimited).
• 4. Conditions for processing the translation, both in terms of the form of speech (oral or written), and in terms of the possibilities of correcting speech (single or multiple).
• 5. Conditions for the timing of the main operations in the translation process (simultaneity or sequence of operations).

Comparative analysis of various types of translation activity in terms of the oppositions just listed (auditory - visual perception, significant - insignificant load on memory, etc.) should show the legitimacy of their selection in cases where they have their own combination of features.

For the analysis, the types of translation that have found wide ethical application were selected:

• - written translation;
• - Simultaneous translation;
• - translation from a sheet;
• - consecutive translation;
• - paragraph-phrase translation;
• - two-way translation;

From the point of view of the functioning of the mental mechanisms of an interpreter, one should distinguish between written translation, simultaneous translation, sight translation and consecutive translation. The complexity of this or that type of translation activity is determined not only by the conditions of functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator, but also by the nature of the source texts typical for this type of translation, and the requirements for translated texts, i.e. to the result of the translator's work.

The conditions for the functioning of the mental mechanisms of the translator is not the only basis for the classification of translation. The work of a translator also depends on the characteristics of the material with which he has to deal. Thus, according to this principle, two main types of translation are distinguished: artistic and informative.

In literary translation, it is important not only to convey the content, but also to express this content as equivalent to the original. artistic means so that the translation has the same charge of emotional and aesthetic impact on the reader as the original. In literary translation, one can single out the translation of prose, poetry and dramatic works, because each of these genres differs from the others quite significantly.

In informative translation, the main thing is to transfer all the information in another language without any distortion. This type of translation includes the translation of newspaper publications, scientific articles, technical descriptions, patent literature, materials on economics and commercial activities, as well as the translation of branded materials.

The work of a translator also depends on the language means that make up the material being translated.

We have already talked about units of speech that require a separate solution for translation. In all cases, such a decision was determined by the specifics of the semasiological connections of these speech units. Moreover, the specificity of semasiological connections is not only a feature of a particular unit of text that has to be taken into account, but it also implies professional orientation, special training of a translator who is going to carry out translation operations with these units of speech. In order to translate speech units with erased semasiological connections, it is necessary to know foreign language equivalents; with fixed semasiological connections - to study terminology from a particular branch of science; in order to translate speech units with temporary semasiological connections, it is necessary to be able to recreate images in the translated text.

Of course, most of the materials that a translator has to work with include units of speech with various semasiological connections. And, nevertheless, the genre character of materials depends precisely on their saturation with linguistic means with the corresponding semasiological connections. So, in the texts of fiction, linguistic means with temporary semasiological connections predominate, i.e. figurative expressions that are necessary to provide an emotional impact on the reader. Figurative expressions, tropes are a form of artistic knowledge of reality. They are usually conditional, individual and constitute main feature artistic texts.

Forms of scientific knowledge of reality, i.e. scientific and technical descriptions require linguistic means with a fixed semasiological connection, which were created for this purpose in the form of terms. It is the terms that determine the genre nature of scientific and technical texts.

Finally, the language of mass communication, which is presented in information and propaganda materials, is saturated with easily accessible to the general reader or auditor, and therefore often repeated expressions. It is in these materials that linguistic means with an erased semasiological connection predominate.

The work of a translator with texts that differ in the nature of the language means, mainly contained in them, also requires different professional knowledge and skills and even abilities. If such types of translation as written, simultaneous, consecutive, sight translation were distinguished depending on the conditions of the translator’s work, which form the basis of the classification, then it is possible to single out other types of translation, if we take the form of semasiological connections of language means as the basis for the classification, determining the nature of the source texts. In this case, the translation classification can be inserted as follows:

• 1. The translation of texts saturated with figurative expressions, tropes (language means with temporary semasiological connections) is called literary translation.
• 2. Translation of texts saturated with terminology (language means with fixed semasiological connections) is a scientific and technical translation.
• 3. The translation of texts saturated with clichés and clichés (language means with erased semasiological connections), the number of which is especially large in newspaper materials, is a socio-political translation.

The specialization of translators in the field of literary, scientific, technical or socio-political translation is directly related to the specifics of the language means that determine this type of translation. To work in the field of literary translation, a translator must have literary talent, or at least develop the ability to clothe his written language into a literary form corresponding to the style of a particular author. This is required by the temporary semasiological connections of the linguistic means with which he has to work. Temporary semasiological connections of language means exclude oral types of translation, since temporary semasiological connections are created as a result of creativity, which is impossible under time constraints. That is why literary translation is always written translation.

To work in the field of scientific and technical translation, a translator needs special knowledge in the field of science or technology from which the text is taken.

Since it is impossible to know all branches of science and technology, they usually specialize in a particular branch, which led to the division of scientific and technical translation into military translation, economic translation, medical translation, radio engineering translation, etc. Special knowledge is needed not only in order to understand the source texts, but also in order to correctly use terms in speech, i.e. linguistic means with a fixed semasiological connection.

The fixedness of semasiological connections allows establishing direct sign connections between the linguistic means of two languages ​​in translation, and hence the use of a sign method of translation - a necessary condition for oral types of translation.

A special place is occupied by socio-political translation, in which information and propaganda texts are interspersed with scientific ones, and therefore linguistic means with an erased semasiological connection coexist with linguistic means with a fixed semasiological connection. This means that in order to work in the field of socio-political translation, one needs, firstly, relevant political knowledge, and secondly, the ability to quickly find interlingual equivalents. A set of language tools with erased and fixed semasiological connections makes it possible to carry out oral translations especially successfully, although it does not exclude the possibility of written translation.

As can be seen from the above, the types of translation received as an answer to the question "How to translate?" (based on the classification - the conditions of the translator's work), do not coincide with the types of translation of the classification, which is based on the genre nature of texts, i.e. answering the question "What to translate?".

In addition, there is a classification of the translation by quality (the degree of adequacy of the original is taken into account):

• 1. Literal translation (possible only if the expressive means of the two languages ​​coincide, i.e. the scope of the concept and grammatical categories(meanings of words and grammatical structures).
• 2. Literal translation (the expressive means of the two languages ​​do not match, but the translator does not know this: "to be born with a silver spoon in one "s mouth" - "to be born in a shirt" - literally translates "to be born with a silver spoon in your mouth." Literalism very often does not allow us to understand the true meaning of the statement).
• 3. Free or authorized translation - approximately correct translation, because the translator allows himself to express a little more or a little less than what the author expressed, and sometimes allows significant deviations from the content of the original. I don "t know what is in store for me. Yet I do know I" ll do it when two Sundays come together, "when two Sundays come together" translates "I will never do this", conveying only the meaning, the adequate is not used expression "when the cancer hangs"
• 4. Adequate (equivalent) translation - expresses everything that the original does, and produces the same emotional impact.

In translation, as in any activity, the translator has to adapt to the working conditions. Adaptation to working conditions practically results in the following types of translation:

written, simultaneous, consecutive translations and translation from a sheet.

Modifications of consecutive translation are also possible in the form of one-way and two-way translation, paragraph-phrase translation and translation with notes.

Adaptation to the object of application of the translator's forces or to what can be expressed by the formula "What to translate?" gives rise to other types of translation: artistic, socio-political and scientific-technical.

Although the conditions for the functioning of mental mechanisms ("How to translate?") and the semasiological connections of linguistic means ("What to translate?") appear in any translation process independently of each other, nevertheless, their compatibility must be taken into account, otherwise the translator will not be able to fulfill his task, for example, a work of art cannot be translated simultaneously or from a sheet).

Translation activity in the historical aspect

Reasons for the emergence of translation studies as a theoretical discipline

The subject and tasks of translation studies

Lecture plan

Lecture #1

Topic: The subject of translation studies as a branch of knowledge and its main sections

Translation is a complex and multifaceted type of human activity, although people usually talk about translation “from one language to another”, but in reality, the process of translation does not just replace one language with another. In translation, different cultures, different personalities, ways of thinking, literature, eras, levels of development, traditions and attitudes collide.

Culturologists, ethnographers, psychologists, historians, literary critics are interested in translation, therefore, different aspects of translation activity can be the object of study within the framework of the relevant sciences. At the same time, culturological cognitive, psychological, literary and other aspects can stand out in the science of translation - translation studies.

However, the traditional notion that the main role of translation is played by languages ​​has received a serious scientific justification, and in modern translation studies the leading place belongs to linguistic theories of translation. The inclusion of translation in the sphere of interests of linguistics occurred relatively recently and overcame significant difficulties. Until now, in most fundamental works on linguistics, there is not even a mention of translation as a possible object of linguistic research, although R. Jacobson already emphasized that “the practice of interlingual communication is widespread, especially translation activities should be under the constant supervision of linguistic science.”

The lack of interests of many linguists in translation problems in the first half of the 20th century contributed to the predominance of the ideas of structuralism in linguistic science. In an effort to provide an objective description of the language, to bring linguistics closer to the "exact" sciences, linguists readily accepted Saussure's call to study the language "in oneself and for oneself", confining oneself to the area of ​​"internal linguistics", or "microlinguistics". Achieving scientific accuracy and objectivity, linguists have focused their attention on those aspects of the linguistic structure that can be directly observed, measured, counted, demonstratively describe and classify the sound, morphemic and lexical composition of the language, its syntactic structure, syntagmatic And paradigmatic connections of its units, their compatibility, distribution in texts, partial use.

Syntagma- syntagma [syntagma] f., a phrase, which is an integral syntactic intonation-semantic construction, in which words - the main and the dependent - are combined according to certain rules.

Paradigm- in grammar: a system of forms, changing words, constructions. As a result, linguistics has made significant progress in scientific analysis, structural organization many languages.

However, from the structuralist approach to the study of language, it logically followed the need to abandon the study of the content side of the language. Therefore, any judgments about meanings were obviously considered unscientific and semantics had no place in the science of language.

For the same reason, the maximum unit of the language that was analyzed was the sentence, since larger (speech) units, texts, could not be objectively analyzed without referring to their semantic structure. It is clear that such linguistics was not able to deal with the problems of translation, the essence of which is to convey the content of a foreign text by means of another language.

For their part, the translators themselves were very skeptical about the role of the science of language in the study of the peculiarities of translation activity.

But linguists not only ignored translation issues, they also provided additional grounds for the emergence of the so-called the theory of untranslatability, according to which translation is generally impossible.

However, the meeting of linguistics with translation took place only at the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. This was facilitated by several objective and subjective factors. After the end of World War II, there was an information explosion, a sharp increase in the exchange of information between people and nations, which was accompanied by a "translation explosion" - a corresponding increase in the scale of translation activities throughout the world. New types of translations have appeared: simultaneous translation, translation (duplication) of films, radio programs, TV programs. In addition to a large number of translated books, a huge amount of materials is translated orally and in writing within the framework of the activities of various organizations, institutions and enterprises. Not only professional translators, but also many specialists who speak foreign languages ​​began to deal with translations: engineers, librarians, diplomats, referents, teachers, employees of information centers, etc. There was a need to train a large army of translators. Now it was no longer enough to train professional translators by the method of "individual apprenticeship", when some experienced translator took care of several students, acquainting them with the secrets of translation skills, and translation schools, faculties, university departments and similar educational institutions were opened in all countries. It was necessary to develop appropriate educational plans and programs. The unprecedented early scale of translation activity and the task of mass training of professional translators made it necessary to study the phenomenon of translation comprehensively.

A major role in attracting the attention of linguists to the problems of translation was also played by a qualitative change in translation activity. And the very development of linguistics made it possible to include translation in the sphere of his interests. By the second half of the 20th century, linguistics had significantly changed its scientific orientation.

Linguists have significantly expanded the scope of their research considering the relationship of language with society, thinking and reality, linguistic and extralinguistic aspects of verbal communication, ways of organizing and transmitting information in human society.

An important place in the science of language was occupied by studies of the content structure of speech utterances and texts, the contextual meanings of language units, and ways of describing the situation. A number of new linguistic disciplines emerged: psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, pragmalinguistics, text linguistics, speech act theory, cognitive linguistics. Linguists have at their disposal methods for studying how information is actually exchanged with the help of language units in specific acts of speech, in specific situations of communication.

It is clear that the possibilities of such linguistics, in the study of translation, have increased immeasurably, now many of the most important aspects of this exchange can be described in linguistic terms.

Having embarked on the study of translation, linguists quickly discovered that not only linguistics can make a great contribution to the theory of translation, but translation can also give a lot to linguistics itself. The translations have proven to be a valuable source of information about the languages ​​involved in the translation process.

In the course of translation activity, which is carried out on such a huge scale in the modern world, a kind of linguistic experiment takes place in the communicative equalization of statements and texts in two languages. At the same time, similarities and differences in the use of units and structures of each of these languages ​​to express the same functions and describe the same situations are revealed. Thanks to this, it is possible to discover some features of the structure and functioning of the language that escaped attention when using other research methods.

An additional stimulus for the development of the linguistic theory of translation was the attempts to create various machine translation systems. The advent of high-speed electronic computers gave rise to hopes that the functions of an interpreter could be performed much faster and cheaper by an ever-improving computer. Computers were successfully used to decode encrypted messages, and translation could be thought of as decoding text in the target language encrypted using the original language. The first attempts at machine translation gave unsatisfactory results, but there were hopes that a new generation of computers with more memory would be more successful at this task. However, it soon became clear that the main problems of machine translation are not related to insufficient computer memory, but to the inability to create a program that would allow the machine to overcome numerous translation difficulties as successfully as a person does. And then it turned out that no one can explain how a person translates, since this type of human activity has remained insufficiently studied. Therefore, many linguists involved in machine translation have turned their attention to the study of human translation, trying to find ways to overcome difficulties there.

Currently, modern machine translation programs cannot provide high quality translation of texts of any complexity and do not claim to completely replace a human translator. However, machine translation is successfully used in three main cases:

1) the program is compiled to translate narrowly special texts, standard in form, with limited vocabulary and grammar;

2) the machine makes it possible to quickly obtain a large volume of low-quality translations, which allow one to judge the general content of the originals and decide what it is advisable to give them to the translator for more accurate reproduction;

3) an editor is included in the work, who either prepares the text for translation (pre-editing), eliminating or clarifying places for the machine, or editing the already translated text (post-editing), eliminating errors and inaccuracies.

The subjective factor also played a certain role. Translation departments were created at universities and institutes foreign languages, and the preparation of future translators was carried out by teachers of foreign languages, philologists and linguists. It was they who realized the need for a theoretical understanding of translation activities and tried to solve this problem using the methods of their science.

It was obvious that the most important aspects of translation are related to language. The features of the existence and use of the language determine the very need for translation and the main difficulties faced by the translator and the possibilities of overcoming these difficulties.

1. Translation is necessary because people speak not one but many languages. Linguists have traditionally studied language situations, both in individual situations and around the world. Now it was necessary to consider the diversity of languages ​​as the reason for the existence of translation. Translation is a rather complicated means of overcoming language barriers. Linguistics and translation studies cannot but be interested in the questions of how these problems arose, how long they will exist and whether it is possible to get rid of them.

The diversity of languages ​​has no biological basis. All humans belong to the same species. Everyone has the same structure of the brain, the same number of teeth and vertebrae, the same structure of the digestive tract, circulatory system and other internal organs. They all breathe oxygen and die in its absence. Given such anatomical and physiological unity of the human race, it would be natural if all people spoke the same language.

True, people are divided into several groups based on race, skin color, size and shape of bones, blood composition, and some other features. On this basis, there could be another natural situation when there would be 5-6 languages ​​in the world, perhaps with a certain number of intermediate dialects.

In reality, the situation is different. According to various estimates, there are 3-4 thousand languages ​​in the modern world. If you do not take seriously the biblical legend of the Tower of Babel and the confusion of languages, or the possibility of alien influence, then you have to admit that multilingualism could have arisen naturally in the course of historical development of mankind, when separate groups of people left their tribe in search of food and settled away from it, losing all contact with it, their language began to develop independently, in different conditions, regardless of the development of the language of the tribe. As a result, discrepancies arose, which led to significant differences, to the formation of a new language.

At present, the diversity of languages ​​is considered as a negative phenomenon that impedes mutual understanding between people and nations, and contributes to the emergence of conflicts and wars. Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to eliminate it or at least reduce its pernicious influence.

One of these ways is the creation of a single artificial language. The first ideas about this appeared in antiquity. In the 17th-20th centuries, about a thousand such projects were created, but only a few were implemented ( basic English, espiranto). Espiranto is the most common, books are written in it, symposiums and conferences are held, literary works from different languages ​​are translated into it. However, he is unlikely to succeed in filling the role of a single language that replaces all others. People show no desire to give up their language, culture and literature, history. Any artificial language can, apparently, play only an auxiliary role.

The assumption that humanity will come to a single language in a natural way in the course of its historical development is not confirmed either. At present, one can observe the use of world languages ​​in international contacts, which are owned by many representatives of other language communities. Today this role is played by English, French, Spanish, Russian.

2. The main difficulties faced by the translator are also related to the peculiarities of languages ​​and the ways in which it is used to name objects and describe situations. Three types of difficulties can be distinguished here: the specificity of the semantics of linguistic units, the discrepancy between the “pictures of the world” created by languages ​​to reflect extralinguistic reality, and the differences in this reality itself, described in translated texts.

Language units are not just labels used to refer to the corresponding objects. Each linguistic sign has a stable, inherent meaning to it alone, and these meanings for units of different languages, as a rule, do not coincide. Therefore, translation is never reduced to a simple substitution of one form for another, and the translator has to constantly decide which units of the target language are most relevant to the content of the original.

The second linguistic obstacle that the translator has to overcome is the fact that each language divides reality in its own way, creating a kind of "linguistic picture of the world". It is enough to compare the Russian "hand" with the English "arm, hand"; Russian "finger" - from English. - “finger, toe”, “dog, dog” - from English. - "dog". It is clear that different divisions pose special problems for the translator when choosing a translation.

Difficulties in translation can also arise due to the fact that in the original there are some phenomena that are absent in the receiving culture and unknown to translation receptors. What is the Russian "steppe"? How should an Englishman understand the question “will you be the third?” What is the English "Aunt Sally?" What do "marshers" look like? What does "brown betty" taste like? In all these cases, the translator must not only be familiar with the facts of a foreign culture and be able to produce them, but also take care to make them understandable to the readers of the translation.

3. But language factors not only create difficulties for translation, but also create conditions for overcoming them. Although each language is unique, the structure and use of all languages ​​is based on the same principle, which makes it possible to correlate in the process of translation. All languages ​​are made up of bilateral units that have sound and meaning. All of them have a vocabulary and grammatical structure, serve as a means of forming thoughts and transmitting them in the process of communicating with other people.

The situation of various linguistic disciplines not only sheds light on many important aspects of translation activity, but also puts at the disposal of translation researchers whole line methods of analysis that allow obtaining objective data on this complex phenomenon. Modern translation studies make extensive use of linguistic methods of research, borrowing them entirely or making the necessary changes to them.

Since the translation process establishes a certain relationship between texts in different languages, the study of translation involves the use of a comparative analysis procedure. Text matching is a source of very important information about translation.

In modern translation studies, 4 procedures for such an analysis are used:

1) the texts of the translation are compared with their originals. This comparison provides valuable data on the degree of similarity between the content and structure of the original and the translation, ways to achieve equivalence, standard translation techniques, and many other essential characteristics of the translation process;

2) several translations of the same original made by different translators are compared. This makes it possible to detect general patterns that do not depend on the level of qualification and individual characteristics each individual translator;

3) translations are compared with original texts in the target language. Thus, it is found that the target language is a special subsystem of the corresponding national language. The point is not that, under the influence of a foreign-language original, a translator may sometimes violate the norm or usus translation language. Such violations are found quite often in a comparative analysis and are considered as translation errors. In theoretical terms, there are numerous cases when the translator consciously or unconsciously expands the communicative possibilities of the target language, using such standard translation techniques as borrowing, tracing paper, literal translation, changing the particular use of individual forms, etc. Such deviations, due to the desire to reproduce the content of the original as fully as possible, constitute a kind of translation norm and are fully justified;

4) the type of comparison is comparative analysis// texts of IL and TL, i.e. similar texts belonging to a similar functional style and genre. In this way, differences in the use of linguistic means in the corresponding texts in the two languages ​​are revealed, which causes the need for stylistic adaptation in translation.

A comparative analysis of multilingual texts involves identifying differences and relationships not only in the structure and content of texts as integral entities, but also comparing individual elements of these texts. At the same time, the theory of translation (TP) uses such linguistic research methods as component analysis, methods of transformational analysis and statistical calculations.

The use of component analysis to identify elementary meanings (sems) in the meanings of linguistic units makes it possible to compare the seme composition of translation units and to identify the degree of correspondence of arcs to each other. So, when comparing English word"student" for translation into Russian "student" the semes "trained", and "sing. number", but the semes "student high school' and 'husband. genus". For example, in the Russian phrase "a good student will not skip lectures" seme "husband. gender" is neutralized, and the seme "high school student" is also implied in the meaning of the word "lecture", therefore, when translating this into English. language the word "student" will be quite enough "a good student would not stay away from his lecture".

Transformational analysis of translation singles out nuclear structures and their derived transforms.

The method of statistical calculations compares the frequency of individual parts of speech with syntactic structures, lexical units, types of transformations, etc.

An important place in translation activity is occupied by the method of linguistic modeling: construction of theoretical models of translation.

Since this process is carried out through a series of mental operations in the head of the translator, it is not available for direct observation, it is a black box. The linguistic model of the translation process (TP) represents it as a series of successive transformations of the original text into the target text, with the help of which the desired result can theoretically be achieved.

In modern translation studies, there are several models of translation, which implies the possibility of carrying out the translation process in different ways.

Summing up all that has been said, we can say that the study of translation by linguistic methods is quite justified and productive.

Translation specialties

The FIT has circulated the following list of occupations for discussion among its member organizations:

1. scientific or technical translators (traducteurs scientifiques ou techniqeus, scintifis or technical translator)

2. translators for the media (traducteurs pour les medias, media translators)

3. terminologists (terminologues, terminologists)

4. simultaneous interpreters, conference interpreters (interpretes de conference, conference interpreters)

5. communal interpreters (interpretes sociaux, dits aussi interpretes communautaires, community interpreters)

6. court interpreters (interpretes judiciaires, legal interpreters)

7. sign language interpreters (interpretes gestu els, sign-language interpreters)

8. translation theorists or "translators" (theoriciens de la traduction

ou traductologues, traslation theorists, or "translatologists")

9. teachers of translation (professeurs de traduction, teachers of translation)

Leonid Osherovich Gurevich, President of the Russian Union of Translators identifies three main types of translation activities - written, oral, its theoretical and applied support. Representatives of the following professions work in these areas:

WRITTEN TRANSLATION

1. Written translators of literary, scientific, technical and other genres.

The most common forms of use are: books and periodicals of all genres, translations for the media (news agencies, press, radio, television) and for audiovisual media (film, video, etc.), translations for musical and theatrical productions.

2. Translators-stylists. Highly qualified specialists (most often native speakers of the target language or bilinguals) who, along with their own translation work, carry out stylistic editing of translations. Stylists work, as a rule, on the basis of contracts that take into account (unfortunately, not always!) the specifics of their status (citizenship, a special system of remuneration, relations with Russian legislation, etc.). Most often they are full-time literary employees of publishing houses, payment is piecework or at rates corresponding to the highest category of translators.

3. Translators of service, official, regulatory and judicial documentation, including documents published in service (departmental) publications, texts of contracts, charters, patents, etc. Subjects of copyright. Except in cases where the translation is recognized by the state (the relevant governing body) as official. It is desirable, although not necessary, to have a higher translation education or other documents confirming the level of qualification.

A special position in this group should belong to sworn translators of legal and judicial documentation (they can also act as consecutive or simultaneous interpreters in the framework of a judicial procedure). The institution of court interpreters (the corresponding draft resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation on the introduction of such an institution was developed by us and submitted to the government) is designed to really guarantee the rights granted to citizens of Russia by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the current legislation. A special procedure for the preparation and certification of such translators, the issuance of special certificates and personal seals are envisaged. They take an oath and bear responsibility in the manner prescribed by law. Activities: translation of legal texts and documents that have legal force, special legal literature, notarized documentation, translation (and participation) in business and legal proceedings.

4. Interpreters with or without diplomatic status, working on the basis of official instructions, participants in the development of international and interstate documents. The types of their activities (including interpretation - consecutive or simultaneous) are determined by the specifics of their official duties.

5. Referent translators. Employed in enterprises, institutions and organizations of any legal form. They translate commercial, business, official and other documentation, as well as correspondence, participate in the preparation of business agreements and contracts, and perform consecutive translation at negotiations within these organizations.

Let us note some points common to all groups of translators. They can be regular or non-standard employees of institutions of any legal form, or create their own translation agencies, firms, etc., or work individually under agreements and contracts. They should normally be subject to copyright provisions; in addition to the social guarantees provided for by the current legislation, employers must provide them with the necessary conditions for professional activities.

ORAL TRANSLATION

6. Simultaneous translation specialists(conference interpreters). A special, most qualified type of interpreting that places high demands on the level of professional skills, psychological and physical condition translator. As a rule, the training and activities of such interpreters are carried out on the basis of the rules and principles developed and applied by international professional organizations: FIT and AIIC (International Association of Conference Interpreters).

7. Specialists in simultaneous translation of lectures, radio and television programs, films and videos.

8. Consecutive interpreters. When working at conferences, negotiations, on radio and television, many of the rules provided for simultaneous interpreters should be applied to them.

9. Line (accompanying) translators. Perform consecutive interpreting under specific conditions of customer service (accompaniment). Duties, working conditions, its duration and other issues related to their work are stipulated in agreements (contracts).

10. Interpreters-guides. Serve excursions directly in the working language, and also act as an accompanying interpreter. They work in the state, under a contract or individually.

11. Sign language interpreters. A relatively new specialization in simultaneous translation on television for people with hearing impairments. It needs a special analysis, the development of specific conditions for training, work and pay.

12. Translation theorists. Specialists working in the field of theory and history of translation, having independent works of a theoretical and applied nature. The status is determined by their position as staff scientists or members of creative (scientific) associations. Subjects of copyright.

13. Teachers of the theory, history and practice of translation. As a rule, full-time or non-staff employees of scientific or educational institutions. Their admission to the SPR is due, in addition to the main work, direct translation practice. As authors of scientific monographs, textbooks or teaching aids, curricula are subject to copyright. They are involved in the development of special programs for the training of translators, their professional development and certification within the framework of the SWP.

14. Lexicographs-dictionaries. Authors, compilers, translators of dictionaries, encyclopedias, glossaries, specialized reference books necessary for the work of translators and other specialists. Subjects of copyright. Regular and non-staff employees of publishing houses and other institutions. Work is carried out under contracts or in the order of service assignments. Special attention should be given to technical equipment and improvement of technical (computer) literacy of these specialists. In this area, cooperation with foreign colleagues is especially important.

15. Translators-programmers develop specialized programs and software for use directly in creative work translators, as well as for the accumulation, systematization, storage and transmission of various kinds of information. The novelty of this activity and subject matter, the need for translators to quickly master computer literacy, create various systems for accumulating and using data, electronic dictionaries and manuals require a prompt study of problems and prospects in this area.

16. Expert translators. This qualification will be awarded by the Republican Commission for the Professional Certification of Translators (another project presented to the government) to highly qualified specialists in various fields of knowledge and creativity. They are involved in conducting legal, professional, linguistic, regional and other expertise on a contractual basis. Their activities should be determined by a special code developed jointly by the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation and the SPR on the basis of existing legal norms, as well as norms of professional ethics.

§ 2. Interpretation as a kind of activity. Basic specific skills and abilities required in a particular type of interpreting

1 hour - $25. follow. $400-500; written - 1800 characters (1 standard page) - $ 8-10 (250-300 rubles)

In interpreting, the following activities are distinguished: an interpreter is proficient in paragraph-phrase, two-way translation, translation from a sheet, and a higher level of professionalism involves skills in the field of consecutive with notes and simultaneous translation.

As we have already noted, the profession of an interpreter has slightly different requirements for a person. Let's complete the picture by listing

Rules of situational behavior also included in ethics.

· Always be inconspicuous as a person, do not divert attention to yourself, because that translation is good when the interlocutors do not feel the presence of an intermediary. Good interpreters effect themselves - crazy. press. The voice is always neutral, it is believed that the recipient reads the emotions from the speaker. (Go away, I don't love you anymore).

· In behind-the-scenes conversations, if you are still translating, you cannot enter into the conversation as an equal interlocutor.

· Control your reactions: don't have fun hearing a primitive (compared to yours) English speech, funny speech defects. You can’t laugh at jokes before they are translated, and then smile decently politely, and not “roll with laughter.” Do not express surprise on your face when the speaker says complete nonsense.

· In unpleasant situations, when you misunderstood something, it is better to ask again, if not in sync, of course, but do not lie and do not just omit the misunderstood.

Monitor the amount of work, do not grab everything, protect your reputation

· When translating at dinner parties, at the table, you must pretend to eat.

In a situation of non-constructive communication - do not get involved, but do not translate swearing, but be sure to comment (he is very unhappy, he uses strong expressions against you), in order to distance himself from the conflict, you can switch to a third person.

What abilities and skills do you need to have in order to successfully cope with the duties of an interpreter in each type of translation?

§ 2. Sight translation

/sight translation/ – a kind of oral, approaching the written one, because information is perceived not by ear, but visually in the form of a letter, article, fax, but it is voiced by the translator. At the same time, perception, analysis and synthesis occur simultaneously, as in oral translation. Despite the apparent comparative simplicity - there are no problems of perception and listening - PSL requires special training to develop the ability to see everything at once and in its entirety in the process. visual perception a certain segment. It is necessary to cover as much of the information as possible with a glance, to start translating without hesitation and "mooing", long pauses, not allowing the original text to prevail over the translation, to avoid literalism and tracing. Sometimes it is necessary to convey only the main content of the text, which is relatively easy to do, given the verbal redundancy of business papers. With PSL, it is possible to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context. The main difficulties of PS are the lack of knowledge of any of the languages ​​- compatibility, the ability to resort to L-G transformations, to observe the functional style. Psychologically, the work is complicated by the need to switch from verbal to digital coding.

§ 3. Paragraph-phrase translation (consecutive without recording)

– the translator works at the level short phrase or sentences, and the amount of information that needs to be remembered is relatively small, as is the load on short-term memory. AFP does not provide for records (claim. Precision information on a napkin). AFP requires a flexible memory, speed of reaction, the ability to navigate well in an environment, know clichés, speech etiquette, have general erudition, tk. frequent allusions.

The qualification of a line interpreter (paragraph-phrase translation), which is what most freelance translators start with, involves by and large the work of a nanny - the care of one or more customers who have fallen into a foreign language environment. He fulfills the diverse and unpredictable desires of his boss in the face of a language barrier - maintains his relationship with hotel staff, orders him lunch, accompanies him in all movements around the city and between cities, finds out all possible misunderstandings, provides business conversation with foreign partners, takes him to the theater, cinema, to concerts, helps him shop in stores, gets train tickets, finds the right doctor and medicine for him, explains all the sights and so on. Thus, in addition to purely linguistic and translation skills, he needs to be a good organizer, be able to communicate and get along with people, have psychological stability and a benevolent disposition. All this, however, goes beyond the scope of translation theory proper.

§ 4. Consecutive translation

is a type of interpreting in which speech is translated sequentially, i.e. when the translator perceives a certain segment of the text and after some maximally short time reproduces it in the translation. It is conducted in fragments, and the translator, as it were, replaces the speaker, speaking for him and becoming the center of attention of the audience. It is distinguished by a huge memory load: continuous segments of speech (from pause to pause) are not limited. André Cominker translated 2.5 hours of a speech by a French diplomat in the early 1920s. Speeches lasting 5 minutes require the use of translation shorthand. In consecutive translation, perception, analysis/synthesis, and even partial translation (to oneself) occur simultaneously with recording, which causes additional difficulties in mastering cursive writing techniques at the initial stage. A significant obstacle for an interpreter is the situation, the situation of communication. The translator needs confidence, the ability to behave on stage, the ability to use the basic skills of oratory to direct the reaction of the audience, as well as the ability to inspire the confidence of both the speaker and the listener. When translating monologue speech (speeches, lectures, statements), the length of the segments is determined, on the one hand, by the nature of the speech (logical coherence, style) and, on the other hand, by the need for understanding by the listeners. The length of the translated segment ranges from 2 to 7 minutes of sound (2-3 pages of typewritten text). Sometimes, to save time, the speech is translated in advance and agreed with the speaker. In the audience, he reads the first paragraph, and the translator translates the entire speech. The speaker remains on the podium and, at the sign of the interpreter, reads out the last paragraph, which is immediately translated. The process of consecutive translation should be built in such a way as to subordinate the interpreter to the needs of communication between the speaker and listeners, and not vice versa. Consecutive interpreting allows for considerable adequacy and accuracy, giving the parties the opportunity to consider their words. It requires the translator to be more professional, in-depth knowledge of the topic, relevant psychological preparation, confidence and peace of mind. The level of adequacy of translation is also increasing - it is necessary to convey not only the content, but also the form.

§ 5. Simultaneous translation

What makes this complex activity possible? Usually they talk about a combination of certain abilities and skills: fluency in languages, erudition, good reaction, the ability to quickly find a more or less acceptable option - all that any interpreter should have. Plus, a mechanism that provides the possibility of simultaneous translation, in cases where the translator does not know how to end the phrase, the beginning of which he translates. He GUESSES (probabilistic forecasting), i.e. voluntarily or involuntarily predicts the direction of the statement. Satisfactory SP is obtained when it is possible to assume with certainty where the speaker is "driving", both at the level of the whole text and at the level of individual sentences. It is better to know the subject of the conversation.

speech compression - simplification of the syntactic structure and the exclusion of words that carry secondary information.

There are two main methods of operation of synchronous commands: the so-called "basic" or without a "pilot", i.e. the speaker's speech is translated directly into the translator's native language (or, as an exception, into another working language), and the so-called "pilot" method, most widely practiced by our simultaneous teams, when the speaker's speech is first translated into Russian (native) language, and then from it to the other working languages ​​of the conference. At the same time, as a rule, translators translate simultaneously into their native and working languages.

There are national or international (mixed) teams. They should include all the working languages ​​of the conference (in cases where the speaker is given the right to speak in a non-working language, interpretation is carried out either sequentially, at the speaker's microphone, or in a special reserve booth into one of the working languages, and then according to the usual scheme. Unfortunately, the number of interpreters in the booth has been constantly decreasing and currently amounts to 2-3 people.The working day, starting from the moment of arrival at the place of work, the stipulated time should not exceed six hours (two three-hour meetings with a lunch break). night work, outside working hours is paid additionally Calculation, including the cost of travel to the place of work, is made by each translator individually, but at the same rate for the team Rare languages, forced cases of work in part-time teams are specially paid. day or hourly.Proper conditions for work and rest must be provided in the booth and outside.The senior team (booths), appointed by the organization that provided the interpreters, or the team, represents its interests in relations with the organizers of the forum. Extraneous interference in the professional activities of translators is not allowed. The moderator (chairperson) is obliged to create conditions conducive to high-quality translation. The presence of strangers in the cabins is not allowed. The organizers must ensure the normal functioning of equipment, the timely supply of interpreters with forum materials. No one has the right to require translators to perform tasks that are not related to their professional duties. This can take place only with the consent of the translator and the senior team and not to the detriment of the main work. When working abroad, payment for work (and daily allowance) must be made in the currency of the host country (unless otherwise provided by the agreement of the parties). Neither the organizers nor the interpreter himself has the right to impose and accept conditions that degrade professional dignity and can cause harm to health.

About the sear and two-stage synchronism through the cockpit.

The main thing is to own your attention (for min. 30 min.)

Quick text reading skills

Ability to speak your native language (do not waste time choosing a word)