Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. The history of the origin of the Russian language

Russian language refers to largest languages of the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. It belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but Belarusian and Ukrainian are closest to the Russian language. Together, these languages form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Name the two most characteristics grammatical structure of the Russian language

The first feature that creates the complexity of Russian morphology is the changeability of the word, that is, the grammatical arrangement of words with endings. The endings express the case and number of nouns, the agreement of adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers in phrases, the person and number of present and future tense verbs, the gender and number of past tense verbs.

The second feature of the Russian language is word order. Unlike other languages, the Russian language allows great freedom in word arrangement. The subject can be either before the predicate or after the predicate. Permutations are also allowed for other members of the sentence. Syntactically related words can be separated by other words. Of course, this or that word order is not at all random, but it is not regulated by purely grammatical rules, as in other European languages, where, for example, such word functions as subject and object are distinguished with its help.

What do you think is the difficulty of the Russian language for an Englishman?

The main difficulty lies in the change of the word. Russian people, of course, do not notice this, because it is natural and easy for us to say either EARTH, then EARTH, then EARTH - depending on the role of the word in the sentence, on its connection with other words, but for speakers of languages of a different system - it is unusual and difficult. The point, however, is not at all that there is something superfluous in the Russian language, but that those meanings that are conveyed in Russian by changing the form of a word are conveyed in other languages in other ways, for example, using prepositions, or word order, or even a change in the intonation of a word.

Does the Russian language need foreign words?

The lexical richness of a language is created not only by its own capabilities, but also by borrowing from other languages, since political, economic and cultural ties have always existed and still exist between peoples. The Russian language is no exception. In different historical periods, words from various languages penetrated into the Russian language. There are very ancient borrowings. Speakers may not even be aware of it. For example, “foreign” words are: sugar (Greek), candy (Lat.), August (Lat.), compote (German), jacket (Swedish), lamp (German) and many other familiar words. Starting from the Petrine era, for obvious reasons (“a window to Europe”), borrowings from European languages: German, French, Polish, Italian, English. At the present time - the end of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century - the dictionary of a Russian person is replenished with Americanisms, that is English words, who came from the American version in English. The flow of borrowing in different historical periods is more or less active, sometimes it becomes stormy, but over time, its activity is lost. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century there were many borrowings from French. Borrowing words from any language, the Russian language adapts them to its system, that is, foreign words are mastered. So, in particular, nouns acquire Russian endings, acquire a sign of gender, some begin to decline.

Why do Russian people so often make mistakes when using numerals?

Extremely complex system represent Russian numerals. This applies not only to their variability. The names of the numbers are different structure and represent different types of declension. Wed one (changes as an adjective), two, three, four (a special type of declension), five (changes as a noun of 3 declensions, but not in numbers), forty, ninety and one hundred have only two forms: in all oblique cases the ending is -a: forty, one hundred. However, if one hundred is part of a compound number, it changes differently, cf. five hundred, five hundred, about five hundred.

At the moment, for example, there is a very noticeable tendency to simplify the declension of numerals: many Russians decline complex numerals only by half: cf. with fifty-three instead of the correct one with fifty-three. The system of declension of numerals is clearly being destroyed, and this is happening before our eyes and with our participation.

6. Name one of the changes in sounds and two changes in morphology known from the history of the Russian language (optional)

The sounding speech of a Russian person in that ancient era, of course, was not recorded by anyone (there were no appropriate technical methods), however, science knows the main processes that have taken place in the Russian language over the centuries, including processes that change the sound structure of the language, his phonetic system. It is known, for example, that in the words forest and day until about the 12th century there were not three sounds, but four, and that different vowels sounded in the first syllable of these two words. None of those who speak Russian today can accurately reproduce them, including phonetic experts. but experts know how they roughly sounded. This is because linguistics has developed methods for the study of ancient languages.

The number of types of declension of nouns has been significantly reduced: now, as you know, there are 3 of them, but there were much more - in different periods different amount. For example, a son and a brother leaned differently for some time. Nouns such as sky and word were declined in a special way (features were preserved in the forms of heaven, words), etc.

Among the cases there was a special case - "vocative". This case form was received by the appeal: father - father, old man - elder, etc. In the prayers in the Church Slavonic language it sounded: “Our Father”, who art in heaven…, glory to you, Lord, the king of heaven…. The vocative case has been preserved in Russian fairy tales and other works of folklore: Kitty! Brother! Help me out! (Cat, rooster and fox).

The Old Russian verb was significantly different from the modern one: there was not one past tense, but four. - each with its own forms and meanings: aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect. Three tenses were lost, one was preserved - the perfect, but it changed its form beyond recognition: in the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" we read: "why do you go to sing, you took all the tribute" (why are you going again? - after all, you have already taken all the tribute) - auxiliary verb (thou) fell away, only the participle form with the suffix L remained (here “caught”, i.e. took), which became for us the only form of the past tense of the verb: walked, wrote, etc.

7. In what area of the Russian language system are the changes most noticeable and understandable: in phonetics, in morphology, or in vocabulary. Why?

Different aspects of the language change with varying degrees of activity: vocabulary changes most actively and most noticeably for speakers. Everyone knows the concepts of archaisms / neologisms. The meanings of words and their compatibility change. The phonetic structure and grammatical structure of the language, including Russian, is much more stable, but changes are taking place here too. They are not immediately noticeable, not like changes in the use of words. But specialists, historians of the Russian language, have established very important, profound changes that have taken place in the Russian language over the past 10 centuries. The changes that have taken place over the past two centuries, since the time of Pushkin, are also known - they are not so profound. For example, a certain type of noun. husband. p changed the form of the plural. numbers: in the time of Zhukovsky, Pushkin they said: houses, teachers, bread with an emphasis on the first syllable. The replacement of the ending Ы by a stressed one at first occurred only in individual words ah, then more and more words began to be pronounced like this: teachers, professors, haystacks, workshops, locksmiths. Characteristically, this process is still ongoing and involves more and more words, i.e. you and I, who speak Russian now, are witnesses and participants in this process.

8. What is the essential difference between changes in language and changes in writing?

As you can see, there is a fundamental, fundamental difference between changes in writing (graphics) and changes in language: no king, no ruler can change the language by his will. It is impossible to order speakers not to pronounce any sounds, not to use any cases. Changes in the language occur under the influence of various factors and reflect the internal properties of the language. They occur against the will of the speakers (although, of course, they are created by the speaking community itself). We are not talking about changes in the style of letters, in the number of letters, in spelling rules. The history of language and the history of writing are different stories. Science (the history of the Russian language) has established how the Russian language has changed over the centuries: what changes have occurred in the sound system, in morphology, in syntax and in vocabulary. Development trends are also studied, new phenomena and processes are noted. New trends are born in live speech - oral and written.

9. Is it possible for a language to exist without writing? Argument your answer

In principle, a language can exist without writing (although its possibilities in this case are limited). At the dawn of mankind, there was at first only oral speech. Until now, there are peoples in the world that do not have a written language, but, of course, they have a language. Other proofs of the possibility of language without writing can be cited. For example: without writing, small children speak the language (before studying at school). So, the language existed and exists, first of all, in oral form. But with the development of civilization, it also acquired another form - written. The written form of speech developed on the basis of the oral one and existed, first of all, as its graphic display. In itself, it is a remarkable achievement of the human mind to establish a correspondence between a speech element and a graphic icon.

10. In what other way, besides writing, is it possible in our time to save speech and transmit it over a distance? (There is no direct answer in the textbook)

Speech in our time can be recorded - stored on various audio and video media - discs, cassettes, etc. And later on such media you can transfer it.

11. Is it possible in principle to reform writing? Argument your answer

Yes, it can be changed and even reformed. The letter is not part of the language, but only corresponds to it, serves as its reflection. It is created by society practical purposes. With the help of a system of graphic icons, people capture speech, save it and can transmit it over a distance. The letter can be changed at the will of the people, reformed if there is a practical need for this. The history of mankind knows many facts of changing types of writing, that is, ways of graphic transmission of speech. There are fundamental changes, for example, the transition from the hieroglyphic system to the alphabetic or within the alphabetic system - replacing the Cyrillic alphabet with the Latin one or vice versa. Smaller changes in writing are also known - changes in the style of letters. Even more frequent changes are the elimination of some individual letters from the practice of writing, and the like. An example of writing changes: for the Chukchi language, writing was created only in 1931 on the basis of the Latin alphabet, but already in 1936 the letter was translated into Russian graphics.

12. With what historical event connected with the emergence of writing in Rus'? When did it happen?

The emergence of writing in Rus' is associated with the official adoption of Christianity in 988.

13. Why is the Slavic alphabet called "Cyrillic"?

Russian alteration of the Greek alfabetos, composed of the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet - alpha and beta - in the Slavic version of az and beeches. It is generally accepted that the names of the Slavic letters were invented by the creator Slavic alphabet Cyril in the ninth century. He wanted the very name of the letter to be not a meaningless complex of sounds, but to have meaning. He called the first letter azъ - in ancient Bulgarian “I”, the second - just “letter” (this is what this word looked like in ancient times - bouks), the third - veda (from the ancient Slavic verb vedi - “to know”). If we translate into modern Russian the name of the first three letters this alphabet, it will turn out "I learned the letter." Slavic alphabet(Cyrillic) was developed by a team of missionary scientists led by the brothers Cyril and Methodius, when the adoption of Christianity by the Slavic peoples required the creation of church texts in their native language. The alphabet quickly spread in the Slavic countries, and in the 10th century it penetrated from Bulgaria to Rus'.

14. Name the most famous monuments of Russian writing

Monuments of ancient Russian literature about ancient Russian writing and literature: The Tale of Bygone Years, Book of Powers, Daniil Zatochnik, Metropolitan Hilarion, Kirill of Turov, Life of Euphrosyne of Suzdal, etc.

15. What is the significance of "birch bark letters" for the history of Russian writing?

Birch bark documents are both material (archaeological) and written sources; their location is just as important a parameter for history as their content. Letters “give names” to the silent finds of archaeologists: instead of the faceless “estate of a noble Novgorodian” or “traces of a wooden canopy”, we can talk about the “estate of the priest-artist Olisey Petrovich, nicknamed Grechin” and about “traces of a canopy over the premises of the local court of the prince and posadnik” . The same name in letters found on neighboring estates, mentions of princes and others statesmen, mentions of significant sums of money, geographical names - all this says a lot about the history of buildings, their owners, about their social status, about their connections with other cities and regions.

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

federal state autonomous educational institution higher education

«CRIMEAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER V.I. Vernadsky" (FGAOU VO "KFU named after V.I. Vernadsky")

TAVRICHESKA ACADEMY

Faculty of Slavic Philology and Journalism

on the topic: Modern Slavic languages

discipline: "Introduction to Slavic Philology"

Completed by: Bobrova Marina Sergeevna

Scientific adviser: Malyarchuk-Proshina Ulyana Olegovna

Simferopol - 2015

Introduction

1. Modern Slavic languages. General information

1.1 West Slavic group

1.2 South Slavic group

1.3 East Slavic group

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

2.2 Czech language

2.3 Slovak language

2.4 Serbolussian language

2.5 Polab language

3. South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian

3.2 Slovenian language

3.3 Bulgarian language

3.4 Macedonian language

4. East Slavic group of languages0

4.1 Russian language

4.2 Ukrainian language

4.3 Belarusian language

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

SlaviclanguageAnd- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family (see. Indo-European languages). Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Total number over 290 million speakers They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the root word, affixes, word structure, use grammatical categories, sentence structure, semantics, system of regular sound correspondences, morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained both by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages, and by their long and intensive contacts at the level literary languages and dialects. There are, however, differences of a material, functional and typological nature, due to the long-term independent development of Slavic tribes and nationalities in different ethnic, geographical and historical-cultural conditions, their contacts with kindred and unrelated ethnic groups.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian), South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and West Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Polish with a Kashubian dialect that has retained a certain genetic independence , Upper and Lower Lusatian). There are also small local groups of Slavs with their own literary languages. Not all Slavic languages have come down to us. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. the Polish language disappeared. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics (see East Slavic languages, West Slavic languages, South Slavic languages). Each Slavic language includes a literary language with all its stylistic, genre and other varieties and its own territorial dialects.

1 . Modern Slavic languages. ABOUTgeneral information

1. 1 West Slavic group

The West Slavic group includes Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Slovak and Serbo-Lusatian languages (upper and lower). Polish is spoken by about 35 million people living in Poland, and about 2 million Poles abroad (including about 100 thousand in Czechoslovakia - in Teszyn Silesia and Orava). Kashubians live in Poland on the coast of the Vistula, mainly in the Sea and Kartuz regions. Their number reaches 200 thousand. On the territory of Czechoslovakia, closely related Czech and Slovak languages are represented: In the western regions, about 10 million. people use Czech, in the east, about 5 million speak Slovak. About 1 million people live outside of Czechoslovakia. Czechs and Slovaks.

The Serboluzhitsky language is spoken in the territory of western Germany along the upper reaches of the river. Spree. The Upper Lusatians are part of the state of Saxony; the Lower Lusatians live in Brandenburg. Lusatians are a national minority of the former GDR; before the Second World War there were about 180 thousand; Currently, their number is estimated at 150 thousand people.

Thus, about 50 million people use West Slavic languages, which is approximately 17% of the total number of Slavs and about 10% of the total population of Europe.

In the territory East Germany West Slavic languages were subjected to German assimilation in the XII-XVI centuries and disappeared. The data of modern toponymy testify to the ancient Slavic population of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony and some other areas. Back in the 18th century Slavic speech was preserved on the Elbe, in the Lyukhovsky district on the river. Etse. The language of the Polabian Slavs is being restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, small recordings of living speech made in the 17th-18th centuries, and small dictionaries of that time. In Slavic studies, it is called the "polabian language".

1.2 South Slavic group

The South Slavic group includes Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian. They are distributed throughout most of the Balkan Peninsula. From Eastern Slavs the southern ones are remote by the territory of Romania, from the western ones by Hungary and Austria.

Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian languages are represented on the territory of Yugoslavia. The Slovenian language is spoken by about 1.5 million Slovenians living in Slovenia. 500 thousand Slovenes live outside of Yugoslavia. The Kajkavian dialect is a transitional language from Slovene to Serbo-Croatian.

Over 18 million people speak Serbo-Croatian, uniting Serbs and Croats, as well as Montenegrins and Bosniaks. They use a single literary Serbo-Croatian language. Serbo-Croatian is separated from Bulgarian by a wide belt of transitional and mixed dialects stretching from the mouth of the river. Timok through Pirot Vrane, up to Prizren.

Macedonian is spoken by people south of Skopje in Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria. In the west, the territory of distribution of this language is limited by the Ohrid and Presnyansky lakes, in the east by the river. Struma. The total number of Macedonians is difficult to establish, but it hardly exceeds 1.5 million in total. The Macedonian language received literary processing only after the Second World War.

Bulgarian is spoken by about 9 million people living in Bulgaria. In addition to the Macedonians living in Greece, it should be noted that one hundred outside Bulgaria and Yugoslavia live: Slovenes in Trieste, Italy, Austria, Serbs and Croats (about 120 thousand) in Hungary and Romania, Bulgarians in Moldova and Ukraine. The total number of southern Slavs is about 31 million people.

1.3 East Slavic group

East Slavic languages are used as the main languages throughout the East European Plain north of the Black and Caspian Seas and the Caucasus Range, east of the Prut and Dniester rivers. Especially widespread was the Russian language, which is a means of interethnic communication for many Slavs (over 60 million).

2. West Slavic group of languages

2.1 Polish language

Poles use Latin script. To convey some sounds, diacritical marks are used for Latin letters and combinations of letters.

There are eight vowels in the literary language. Nasal vowels are not always pronounced the same, in some positions the nasal overtone is lost.

The territory of distribution of the Polish language is divided into five dialect groups: Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Silesian, Mazovian and Kashubian. The most extensive territories are occupied by dialects of Greater Poland, Lesser Poland and Mavsoshya.

The division into dialects is based on two features of Polish phonetics: 1) mazurenia, 2) features of interword phonetics. Masuria dominates in Mavsosh, Lesser Poland and the northern part of Selesia.

The most significant features characterize the Kashubian dialect, which is distributed west of the lower Vistula. The number of speakers of this dialect reaches 200 thousand people. Some scientists believe that the Kashubian dialect should be regarded as an independent language and attributed to the West Slavic subgroup.

Dialect features:

1. Different from the Polish place of stress. In the southern part of the Kashubian region, the stress falls on the initial syllable; in the north, the stress is free and ubiquitous.

2. Pronunciation of solid s, dz.

3. Pronunciation of vowels i (y), and how ё.

4. The presence of a soft consonant before the group - ar-.

5. Loss of nasality after soft consonants and before all consonants except d, n, s, z, r, t.

6. Partial preservation of vowel differences in longitude and brevity.

2.2 Czech

The Czech script uses the Latin alphabet. For the transmission of Czech sounds, some changes and innovations have been made, based on the use of superscripts.

Czech spelling is dominated by the morphological principle, but there are a number of historical spellings.

The distribution area of the Czech language is characterized by dialect diversity. The most important dialect groups are: Czech (Czech Republic and Western Moravia), Middle Moravian and Lyashskaya (Silesia and northeastern Moravia). This classification is based mainly on differences in the pronunciation of long vowels. Within the marked dialect groups, smaller dialect units are distinguished (in the Czech group, there are: Central Bohemian, North Bohemian, West Bohemian and North-East Czech dialects; dialect diversity is especially great in Moravia). It should be noted that many dialects of eastern Moravia are close to the Slovak language.

2 . 3 Slovak language

Distributed in eastern regions Czechoslovakia. It is closest to the Czech language, with which it has a common grammatical structure and a significant part of the main vocabulary (the names of natural phenomena, animals, plants, parts of the year and day, many household items, etc.) are identical.

The Slovak language consists of three dialects: Western Slovak, many of whose features are close to the neighboring Moravian dialects of the Czech language, Middle Slovak - the dialect basis of the modern literary language, East Slovak, some dialects of which testify to Polish or Ukrainian influence.

2. 4 SerbolussianTo

The Lusatian Serbs are the descendants of the Western Slavs, who in the past occupied the territories between the Odra and the Elbe and were subjected to Germanization. They speak quite sharply different dialects from each other: Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, in connection with which there are corresponding two literary languages. In addition, the presence of the Eastern Lusatian (muzhakovsky) dialect should be noted.

Writing in both Lusatian languages arose in the 16th century.

Lusatian graphics are Latin.

2.5 Polab language

From the language of the tribes that once occupied the territory between the Oder and the Elbe, only information about the language of the Drevlyane tribe, who lived on the left bank of the Elbe in the vicinity of Lüneburg (Hannovrer), has survived. The last speakers of the Polabian language died out at the end of the 18th century, and our information about it is based on records and dictionaries of that language made by German folk art lovers.

The entire region of the Polabian Slavs is usually divided into Velet, Obodrite and Drevlyan dialect groups, but there is no exact information about the first two.

3 . South Slavic group of languages

3.1 Serbo-Croatian

Serbo-Croatian is used by three nations - Serbs, Croats and Montenegrins, as well as Bosnians, residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. At present, the differences between the Serbian and Croatian versions of the literary language are only in vocabulary and pronunciation. The graphic form of these variants differs; Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet, which is derived from the Russian civil alphabet, while Croats use the Latin alphabet. Serbo-Croatian is characterized by considerable dialectal diversity. It is customary to distinguish three major dialects: Shtokavian, Chakavian and Kajkavian. These names were obtained by them from the relatively insignificant feature of the interrogative pronoun that The Shtokavian dialect occupies most of the territory of the Serbo-Croatian language. The Chakavian dialect currently occupies a relatively small territory of the Serbo-Croatian language: the coast of Dalmatia, the western part of Croatia, part of Istria and the coastal islands of Krk, Rab, Brac, Korcula and others. located in this region).

3.2 Slovenian language

The Slovenian literary language uses the Croatian script.

The territory of the Slovene language is distinguished by its extreme dialectal diversity. This is due to the fragmentation of the people and partly the nature of the relief. There are up to six dialect groups: 1) Khorutan (extreme northwest); 2) seaside (western Slovenia); 3) Vehnekrainskaya (to the northwest of Ljubljana in the valley of the Sava river); 4) Lower Krainsk (southeast of Ljubljana); 5) Styrian (in the northeast between Drava and Sava); 6) Pannonian (extreme northeast) with Zamursky (beyond the Mura River) dialect, which has a long literary tradition.

3. 3 Bulgarian language

Bulgarians use the Cyrillic alphabet, which goes back to the Russian civil alphabet. Bulgarian differs from the Russian alphabet in the absence of letters s And uh.

A characteristic feature that makes it possible to group the Bulgarian dialects is the pronunciation of the replacements of the old ? . All-Bulgarian dialects in this regard are divided into Western and Eastern. The border that separates these two dialects goes from the mouth of the river. Vit through Pleven, Tatar-Pasardzhik, Melnik to Thessalonica. There are also northeastern dialects.

3. 4 Macedonian language

The youngest and Slavic literary languages. Its development began in 1943, when, in the course of the liberation struggle against Hitlerism, a decision was made to turn Yugoslavia into a federal state on the basis of the national equality of all its peoples, including the Macedonians. The basis of the new literary language was the central dialects (Bitol, Prilep, Veles, Kichevo), where the influence of the Serbian and Bulgarian languages was relatively weaker. In 1945, a single orthography was adopted, which was brought closer to the graphics in 1946. The first school grammar was published.

In addition to the central one, there are also northern and southern dialects. A northern dialect extending north from Skoplje and Kumanov, as well as occupying the Dolniy Polog, characterized by features close to the Serbian language. The southern dialect is diverse.

4. East Slavic group of languages

4.1 Russian language

Russians use graphics dating back to the Cyrillic alphabet. By order of Peter I (1672-1725), the Slayan alphabet was replaced by the so-called "civilian" one. The letters were given a more rounded and simple shape, convenient for both writing and printing; a number of unnecessary letters were excluded. The civil alphabet, with some changes, is used by all Slavic peoples who do not use the Latin alphabet. The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological, although we often find elements of phonetic and traditional spelling.

The Russian language is divided into two main dialects - North Great Russian and South Great Russian, between which the Middle Great Russian dialects stretch in a narrow strip from the gray-west to the south-east, forming a passage between the two dialects. Transitional dialects for the most part have a northern basis, on which later (after the 16th century) southern Russian features were layered.

The Northern Great Russian dialect is characterized by three main features that are common to all its dialects: okanie, distinction of vowels A And O not only under stress, but also in unstressed positions, with the presence G explosive and - T(solid) at the end of the 3rd person of the present tense of verbs. There are also clatters and clatters (no distinction c And h).

The South Great Russian dialect is characterized by akany, the presence of fricative g and -t "(soft) in the 3rd person of verbs. Yakan is characteristic.

4.2 Ukrainian language

Ukrainian graphics are basically the same as in Russian. The peculiarity of e is, first of all, the absence of letters e, b, s, e. For transmission yo in Ukrainian the combination is used yo And yo. In the meaning of separating solid b an apostrophe is used.

The territory of the Ukrainian language is divided into three dialects: northern (to the north from the line Sudzha - Sumy - Kanev - Belaya Tserkov - Zhytormir - Vladimir-Volynsky), southwestern and southeastern (the border between them goes from Skvyra through Uman, Ananiev to the lower currents of the Dniester). The southeastern dialect formed the basis of the Ukrainian literary language. Its features basically coincide with the system of the literary language.

4.3 Belarusian language

The Belarusian alphabet differs from the Russian one in the following features: the vowel th always denoted by the letter i; letter b is absent and the separating value is conveyed by an apostrophe; used to convey non-syllable y superscript; missing letter sch, since there is no such sound in Belarusian, but there is a combination shh. The Belarusian spelling is based on the phonetic principle.

The territory of the Belarusian language is divided into two dialects: southwestern and northeastern. The approximate border between them goes along the Vilnos-Minsk-Rogachev-Gomel line. The principle of division is the character of akanya and some other phonetic features. The southwestern dialect is characterized primarily by non-dissimilative yak and yak. It should be noted that on the border with Ukrainian there is a wide band of transitional Ukrainian-Belarusian dialects.

Slavic language phonetic morphological

Conclusion

The emergence of Slavic writing in the second half of the 9th century. (863) was of great importance for the development of Slavic culture. A very perfect graphic system was created for one of the types of Slavic speech, work began on translating some parts of the Bible and creating other liturgical texts. Old Church Slavonic became common language in connection with Western influence and the transition to Catholicism. Therefore, further use Old Church Slavonic connected mainly with the Slavic south and east. The use of Old Church Slavonic as a literary language led to the fact that this language was primarily subjected to grammatical processing.

The Proto-Slavic language has experienced a long history. It was during the existence of the Proto-Slavic language that all the main characteristics Slavic languages. Among these phenomena, the main phonetic and morphological changes should be noted.

Literature

1. Kondrashov N.A. Slavic languages: Proc. Manual for students of philol. special, ped, in-comrade. - 3rd edition, remastered. and additional - M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

2. Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary, edited by V.N. Yartseva

3. Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.

4. Nachtigal R. Slavic languages. M., 1963

5. Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, Moscow, 1951.

6. Trubachev O.N. Ethnogenesis and culture of the ancient Slavs: linguistic studies. M., 1991.

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Origin

The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of " Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages most actively took place in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the inhabitants of these territories, who stood at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

Separation time

Gray and Atkinson

Atkinson and Gray performed statistical analysis related words 103 living and dead Indo-European languages (out of about 150 known), using a lexical-statistical database (created from the Swadesh lists by Isidore Dayen) and additional information.

And the Slavic linguistic unity, according to the results of their research, broke up 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. The Balto-Slavic linguistic unity broke up 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

The methods and results of Gray and Atkinson have been heavily criticized from various quarters.

Chang, Cathcart, Hall and Garrett

Kasyan, Dybo

In September 2015, A. S. Kasyan and A. V. Dybo, as part of an interdisciplinary study on Slavic ethnogenesis, published a lexico-statistical classification of Slavic languages, built on high-quality 110-word Swadesh lists, collected according to the Global Lexicostatistical Database project standard » and processed by modern phylogenetic algorithms.

The resulting dated tree is in agreement with the traditional Slavic point of view on the structure of the Slavic group. The tree suggests the first division of the Proto-Slavic language into three branches: eastern, western and southern. The moment of collapse is dated to ca. 100 AD e., this is consistent with the opinion of archaeologists that at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. e. the Slavic population occupied a rather vast territory and was no longer monolithic. Further, in the V-VI centuries. n. e., three Slavic branches are almost synchronously divided into more fractional taxa, which corresponds to the rapid spread of the Slavs in Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e. (Slavicization of Europe).

The Slovene language was excluded from the analysis, since Koine Ljubljana and Literary Slovene show a mixture of South Slavic and West Slavic lexical features (presumably this may indicate the original West Slavic attribution of the Slovene language, which for a long time was influenced by neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and qualitative Swadeshevic lists for Slovene dialects were not collected at that time. Due to the lack or unreliability of lexical data, the study did not cover the so-called. Old Novgorod dialect, Polab language and some other Slavic idioms.

History of development

In the early period of the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants developed, consonantism became much simpler, the stage of reduction became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey the ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the satem group (sürdce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: Eastern, Western and Southern. From them, the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. There were 3 subgroups in the West Slavic group: Lechitic, Lusatian Serb and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period in the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes took place during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries, there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the ultra-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. In some cases they disappeared, in others they turned into full vowels. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity is lost, at the same time in Czech and Slovak languages (excluding North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in Slovene these differences persist. In the Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, nasal vowels are preserved, which are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovenian language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the respective languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n', in Slovak - t - t', d - d', n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect due to assimilation t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as hardening l', as a rule, only one pair is presented n - n', in a number of Western Slovak dialects (Povazhsky, Trnavsky, Zagorsky) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - from the old paired soft consonants, only n' (< *nj), l' (< *lj) have not undergone hardening (primarily in the Serbo-Croatian area).

Stress in Slavic languages is realized in different ways. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress has been replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the extinct Polabian language also had a mobile stress). In the Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. In a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress has formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the Polish literary language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern Kashubian dialect, and also in the Lemko dialect. The first syllable is stressed in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, and also in some Goral dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect. In Macedonian, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, multi-local, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different in dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but is assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

Slavic languages received their first literary processing in the 60s. ninth century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavonic for the needs of Great Moravia. At its core, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it adopted many local linguistic features. It was later developed further in Bulgaria. The richest original and translated literature in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia was created in this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic). There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From IX century. Slavic texts have not been preserved. The most ancient date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuil of 993, the Varosh inscription of 996 and others. Starting from c. more Slavic monuments have been preserved.

Similarities and differences of Slavic languages

Due to historical reasons, the Slavic languages managed to maintain significant similarities with respect to each other. At the same time, almost each of them has a number of unique features.

	Eastern group			Western group			Southern group
	Russian	Ukrainian	Belorussian	Polish	Slovak	Czech	Serbo-Croatian	Bulgarian	Macedonian	Slovenian
Number of carriers	250	45	6,4	40	5,2	9,5	21	8,5	2	2,2
Nearest	Belorussian	Ukrainian	Kashubian	Czech	Slovak	Serbo-Croatian	Macedonian	Bulgarian	Slovenian
Writing	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Latin	Latin	Latin	Cyrillic / Latin	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Latin
Differences from others Slavic languages	reduction of unstressed vowels (akanye); Preservation of soft consonants [g '], [k '], [d '], [p ']	alternation o-i, e-i in a closed syllable	phonetic principle in spelling; ultimate reduction of vowels (akanye)	two rows of hissing consonants; stress fixed on penultimate syllable	ascending diphthongs	the stress is fixed on the first syllable; separation of long and short vowels;		loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	the presence of a dual number; high heterogeneity (more than 40 dialects)
Accent type	free dynamic	free dynamic	free dynamic	fixed on penultimate	fixed- noe on the lane	fixed- noe on the lane	free musical	free dynamic	fixed- third layer ha from the end of the word)	free musical
Morphology: vocative form (case)	No	There is	There is	There is	No	There is	There is	There is	There is	No

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary were performed by foreign languages (in Rus' - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. He absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Slavonic language, was influenced by many European languages.

Czech Republic in the 18th century literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. The German language dominated in the cities. During the period of national revival in the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th - centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and colloquial. The Slovak literary language had a different history, it developed on the basis of the vernacular. in Serbia until the 19th century. Church Slavonic dominated. In the XVIII century. began the process of rapprochement of this language with the people. As a result of the reform carried out

Slavic programming languages, Slavic languages of the world
branch

Languages of Eurasia

Indo-European family

Compound

East Slavic, West Slavic, South Slavic groups

Separation time:

XII-XIII centuries n. e.

Language group codes GOST 7.75–97: ISO 639-2: ISO 639-5: See also: Project:Linguistics Slavic languages. According to the publication of the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Languages of the World", volume "Slavic Languages", M., 2005

Indo-Europeans
Indo-European languages
Anatolian Albanian Armenian Baltic Venetian Germanic Illyrian Aryan: Nuristani, Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dardic Italian (Romance) Celtic Paleo-Balkan Slavic· Tocharian italicized dead language groups
Indo-Europeans
Albanians Armenians Balts Venetians Germans Greeks Illyrians Iranians Indo-Aryans Italics (Romans) Celts Cimmerians Slavs Tokhars Thracians Hittites in italics now defunct communities
Proto-Indo-Europeans
Language Homeland Religion
Indo-European studies p o r

Slavic languages- a group of related languages of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is more than 400 million people. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level of literary languages and dialects.

The long independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of material, functional and typological differences.

1 Classification
2 Origin
- 2.1 Modern research
3 Development history
4 Phonetics
5 Writing
6 Literary languages
7 See also
8 Notes
9 Literature

Classification

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes in its composition the literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialect fragmentation and stylistic structure within each Slavic language is not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch
- Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: Bel)
- Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv)
  - Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Western Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
- Russian (ISO 639-1: en; ISO 639-3: rus)
- Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: UK; ISO 639-3: ukr)
  - Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch
- Lechitic subgroup
  - Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages
    - Kashubian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb)
      - Slowinski † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -)
  - Polabian † (ISO 639-1: -; ISO 639-3: pox)
  - Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol)
    - Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl)
- Lusatian subgroup
  - Upper Lusatian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb)
  - Lower Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb)
- Czech-Slovak subgroup
  - Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk)
  - Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces)
    - knaanite † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch
- Eastern group
  - Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul)
  - Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd)
  - Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
  - Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu)
- Western group
  - Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs):
    - Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: boss)
    - Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp)
      - Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
    - Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv)
      - Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv)
    - Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -)
  - Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

Origin

Genealogical tree of modern Slavic languages according to Gray and Atkinson

The Slavic languages within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic parent language", according to which the Balto-Slavic parent language first emerged from the Indo-European parent language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it took place to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. for a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states in the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. This period significantly increased the territory of Slavic settlements. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the most ancient - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic language contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Modern research

In 2003, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson, scientists from the University of Oklad, published their study in the scientific journal Nature. modern languages Indo-European family. The data obtained indicate that the Slavic linguistic unity broke up 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. And the Balto-Slavic linguistic unity broke up 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

History of development

Main article: History of the Slavic languages Bascan Plate, XI century, Krk, Croatia

In the early period of the development of the Slavic parent language, a new system of vowel sonants developed, consonantism became much simpler, the stage of reduction became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey the ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the satem group (sürdce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Novgorod birch bark 14th century

Most of the suffixes were already formed on the Proto-Slavic soil. In the early period of its development, the Proto-Slavic language experienced a number of transformations in the field of vocabulary. Having retained in most cases the old Indo-European vocabulary, at the same time he lost some lexemes (for example, some terms from the field of social relations, nature, etc.). Many words have been lost in connection with various kinds of prohibitions (taboos). For example, the name of oak was lost - the Indo-European perkuos, whence the Latin quercus. In the Slavic language, the taboo dǫbъ was established, from where “oak”, Pol. dąb, Bulgarian. db, etc. The Indo-European name for the bear has been lost. It is preserved only in the new scientific term "Arctic" (cf. Greek ἄρκτος). The Indo-European word in the Proto-Slavic language was replaced by a taboo combination of the words *medvědь (originally "honey eater", from honey and *ěd-).

Zograph codex, X-XI centuries.

During the period of the Balto-Slavic community, vowel sonants were lost in the Proto-Slavic language, in their place diphthongic combinations arose in position before consonants and the sequences of “vowel sonant before vowels” (sьmürti, but umirati), intonations (acute and circumflex) became relevant features. The most important processes of the Proto-Slavic period were the loss of closed syllables and softening of consonants before iot. In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthongic combinations turned into monophthongs, syllabic smooth, nasal vowels arose, a syllable division shifted, which, in turn, caused a simplification of consonant groups, the phenomenon of intersyllabic dissimilation. These ancient processes have left their mark on all modern Slavic languages, which is reflected in many alternations: cf. "reap - reap"; “to take - I will take”, “name - names”, Czech. ziti - znu, vziti - vezmu; Serbohorv. zheti - zhaњem, uzeti - let's know, name - names. The softening of consonants before the iot is reflected in the form of alternations s - sh, z - zh, etc. All these processes had a strong impact on the grammatical structure, on the system of inflections. due to the softening of consonants before the iot, the process of the so-called. the first palatalization of the posterior palate: k > h, d > f, x > w. On this basis, even in the Proto-Slavic language, the alternations k: h, g: w, x: w were formed, which had a great influence on nominal and verbal word formation.

Later, the second and third palatalizations of the posterior palate developed, as a result of which alternations arose k: c, g: dz (s), x: s (x). The name changed by cases and numbers. Apart from the only one plural there was a dual number, which was later lost in almost all Slavic languages, except for Slovene and Lusatian, while the rudiments of the dualis are preserved in almost all Slavic languages.

There were nominal stems that performed the functions of definitions. the late Proto-Slavic period arose pronominal adjectives. The verb had the stems of the infinitive and the present tense. From the first, the infinitive, supine, aorist, imperfect, participles in -l, participles of the real past tense in -v, and participles of the passive voice in -n were formed. From the foundations of the present tense, the present tense, the imperative mood, the participle of the active voice of the present tense were formed. Later, in some Slavic languages, the imperfect began to form from this stem.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: Eastern, Western and Southern. From them, the corresponding languages were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. The West Slavic group had 3 subgroups: Lechit, Lusatian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period in the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. XII-XIII centuries there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the super-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. in some cases they disappeared, in others they turned into full vowels. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity is lost, at the same time in Czech and Slovak languages (excluding North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in Slovene these differences persist. Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels that are lost in other Slavic languages (nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasalizations were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovene language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the respective languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n' has been preserved, in Slovak - t - t', d - d' , n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect, due to the assimilation of t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as the hardening of l', as a rule, only one pair of n - n' is represented, in a number of West Slovak dialects ( Povazhsky, Trnavsky, Zagorsky) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - from the old paired soft consonants, only n '(< *nj), l’ (< *lj) не подверглись отвердению (в первую очередь в сербохорватском ареале).

Stress in Slavic languages is realized in different ways. In most Slavic languages (except Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the extinct Polabian language also had a mobile stress). in Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in Belarusian and Bulgarian, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. in a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress was formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the Polish standard language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern Kashubian dialect, and also in the Lemko dialect. The first syllable is stressed in the Czech and Slovak literary languages and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, and also in some Goral dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect. In Macedonian, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In Slovene and Serbo-Croatian, the stress is polytonic, multi-local, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different in dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but is assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

Slavic languages received their first literary processing in the 60s. IX century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavonic for the needs of Great Moravia. At its core, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later it was further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called the Old Church Slavonic language), the richest original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Rus', and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From IX century. Slavic texts have not been preserved. The most ancient date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuil of 993, the Varosha inscription of 996 and others. Starting from the XI century. more Slavic monuments have been preserved.

Modern Slavic languages use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. The Glagolitic alphabet is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and in several coastal areas in Croatia. In Bosnia, for some time, the Arabic alphabet was also used in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets.

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages (in Rus' - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. He absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Slavonic language, was influenced by many European languages.

Czech Republic in the 18th century literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. cities were dominated by the German language. the period of national revival in the Czech Republic artificially revived the language of the 16th century, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th-20th centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and colloquial. The Slovak literary language had a different history, it developed on the basis of the vernacular. Serbia until the 19th century dominated by the Church Slavonic language. 18th century began the process of rapprochement of this language with the people. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the middle of the 19th century, a new literary language was created. The Macedonian literary language was finally formed in the middle of the 20th century.

In addition to the "big" Slavic languages, there are a number of small Slavic literary languages (microlanguages), which usually function along with national literary languages and serve either relatively small ethnic groups or even individual literary genres.

Notes

Balto-Slavonic Natural Language Processing 2009
http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Languages spoken by more than 10 million people) according to the Encarta encyclopedia. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009.
Omniglot
1 2 Sometimes separated into a separate language
see Meillet's law.
Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - 1st ed. - T. 1-4. - M., 1964-1973.
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 10. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Lifanov K. V. Dialectology of the Slovak language: Tutorial. - M.: Infra-M, 2012. - S. 34. - ISBN 978-5-16-005518-3.
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 16. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - S. 14-15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)

Literature

Bernstein S. B. Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Introduction. Phonetics. M., 1961.
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proto-Slavic † (proto-language)
Oriental	Old Novgorod † (Old Pskov †) Old Russian † Western Russian † Belarusian (dialects) Russian (dialects) Ukrainian (Rusyn dialects)
Western
Southern
Other	literary microlanguages Pan-Slavic languages
† - dead, split or changed languages

Slavic microlanguages
Oriental	Galshansky \| Carpatho-Ruthenian \| Podlasie \| Western Polissian
Western	vich \| Eastern Slovak \| lyash \| Pannonian-Rusyn
southwestern	Venetian-Slovenian \| Gradish-Croatian \| Kajkavian \| Moliz-Slavic \| Prekmursko-Slovenian \| Rezyan \| Chakavian
southeastern	Banat-Bulgarian \| Pomak \| Aegean-Macedonian
see also

Slavic languages, Slavic languages of India, Slavic languages of Spain, Slavic languages of Kazakhstan, Slavic languages of cats, Slavic love languages, Slavic world languages, Slavic flame languages, Slavic programming languages, Slavic markup languages

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. The history of the origin of the Russian language

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