By the beginning of the 20th century Japan came up as a rapidly developing state with a significant capitalist sector and lingering vestiges of feudal relations in agriculture.

According to Asian traditions, Japanese monopolies were closely associated with feudal landlords and the monarchy. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century. The bourgeoisie used numerous pre-capitalist forms of exploitation - enslaving hiring of women6 and children, a system of forced hostels of a semi-prison type, etc. The standard of living of workers was much lower than in other countries.

The global economic crisis of 1900 also affected the Japanese economy. It resulted in the ruin of small and medium-sized capitalist enterprises and their absorption by large ones, as a result of which numerous monopolies began to appear in Japan. The predominant form of monopoly associations of finance capital were trusts (dzaibatsu). At that time, such major monopolies as MITSUI, MITSUBISHI, SUMITOMO, YASUDA appeared in the country, which concentrated the lion's share of the national wealth.

The rapid development of capitalism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. began to be constrained by some objective circumstances and in particular by the almost complete absence of its own raw material base ... At the same time, Japan began to acutely feel the need for markets for its goods and capital investment ...

Trying to go beyond its territory, Japan at the turn of the century begins to actively prepare for future military operations. As such objects, Japan began to consider relatively closely located countries and territories - Korea, China and then Russia. It took several years to prepare for these captures. There was an active militarization of the country, supported by significant financial injections from the state and private companies.

In the war of 1904 - 1905. Japan inflicted heavy defeats on Russia on land and at sea. Russia's further struggle was interrupted by internal revolutionary upheavals. But Japan itself turned out to be severely depleted and was unable to significantly expand and consolidate its victory. Under the Treaty of Portsmouth - 1905 - she received "exclusive rights" in Korea, received land leased by Russia on the Liaodong Peninsula, the South Manchurian Railway. and the southern part of Sakhalin Island.

The outcome of the war untied Japan's hands in Korea. In 1905, the Japanese protectorate treaty was imposed on the Korean government, and from 1910 Korea became a Japanese colony.

In 1909, Japanese troops landed in South Manchuria (Kwantung Province) and in fact forced the Qing court to agree to this annexation.

The Russo-Japanese War and the ongoing militarization of the country contributed even more rapid development heavy industry, the concentration of capital and the strengthening of the position of monopolies. But the country itself still remained agrarian.

In 1901, the Japanese Social Democratic Party was established in Japan, which was banned on the same day. Practically the entire first half of the century was marked by constant actions of the workers. The government dealt with these phenomena and their leaders with extreme cruelty - repressions, numerous executions ...

In August 1914, Japan entered the war with Kaiser's Germany on the side of the Entente countries, but did not conduct military operations. Taking advantage of situations, Japan began to seize German possessions one by one on Far East and began to actively oust representatives of the Western capitalist world from the markets of Asia ... The main efforts of Japan were directed at the expansion of China. In 1915, it seized the province of Shandong and issued an ultimatum to China with a number of demands that violated its sovereignty. But China was forced to accept them.

After the end of the First World War, Japan undertook large-scale actions to seize the Russian Primorye, Eastern Siberia and Northern Sakhalin. The intervention in the Russian Far East began, which was accompanied by a cruel attitude towards the civilian population ... However, the actions of the Red Army and the unfolding partisan movement led to the fact that the Japanese in 1922 were forced to withdraw their troops.

On Versailles peace conference In 1919, in addition to Chinese Shandong, Japan achieved the transfer to it of a mandate for the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands, which had previously been the possession of Germany - the payment of the allies for intervention in the Soviet Far East ...

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First World War seriously influenced the further formation of the Japanese economy. The revision of treaties with Western powers, the development of external contacts, the control of China and Korea - all this made Japan practically a monopolist in the Asian market. After the war, Japan actively invested in the economies of other countries. Growing exports served as a good stimulus for the growth of the industry, the pace of its development was amazing: the volume of production almost doubled in just five years. In the development of industry, priority was given to heavy industry. The war had a positive effect on the development of the largest firms that only enriched themselves during the hostilities: Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda and others. At the same time, the position of the workers and peasants, who were dissatisfied with rising prices and increasing taxes, deteriorated sharply. A wave of so-called rice riots swept across the country. Although these uprisings were brutally suppressed, one of the consequences of the “popular anger” was the resignation of the war-minded Terauti government and the coming to power of a new government headed by Haara, the leader of the party of landowners and big capitalists. Also, after the riots, a mass movement for universal suffrage unfolded, the strengthening of which forced the government to make concessions - the property qualification was significantly reduced.

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Japan achieved the official transfer to its jurisdiction of all the Pacific territories that previously belonged to Germany. The Western powers, counting on Japan's support in the fight against the spread of communism, agreed to these demands. Japan agreed to participate in the anti-Soviet struggle and was among the interventionists who invaded the territory of the Soviet Union in 1920. However, Japan remained true to its interests here too: in the Soviet Union, it was only interested in Sakhalin, beyond the occupation of which it did not advance. Sakhalin was in actual possession of Japan until the establishment of Russian-Japanese relations in 1925. The Japanese people, among whom socialist ideas were widespread, were sympathetic to the problems of socialist Russia, moreover, the intervention required exertion of strength from an almost completely exhausted country. Dissatisfaction with government policy was brewing even in army circles, whose maintenance was sharply reduced due to the lack of sufficient funding from an almost impoverished state, which nevertheless had huge ambitions.

The period of 1920-1921 became the time of the crisis of the world economy. Japan, whose economic development during this period depended on external relations, came under a blow from which it could not recover for a long time. The global crisis has caused mass unemployment. The crisis was aggravated by the fact that after the end of the war, Japan again lost its position in the Asian market, where Western entrepreneurs returned, whose products were certainly better. All these circumstances were beneficial to the Western powers, especially the United States, who wished to moderate the Japanese appetite for the spread of their influence.

On November 12, 1921, a conference was convened in Washington, in which all the countries of Western Europe took part, wishing to resolve disputed issues regarding the Pacific territories. As a result of these negotiations, agreements were concluded that significantly weakened Japan's position. A certain "balance" of world powers was established, but Japan was not going to put up with the new state of affairs. Less than 10 years later, she upset this fragile Pacific balance.

Japanese fascism

In 1927, another change of government took place in Japan: the outbreak of an internal financial crisis brought an ardent militarist, General Giichi Tanaka, to power. First of all, he. section of the alley with the "left" movement in the country: the workers' and peasants' parties suffered significant damage. In the same year, General Tanaka brought to the attention of the emperor a secret project, according to which Japan was to pursue a policy of "blood and iron" and crush the Western powers. One of the points of this program was the beginning of hostilities against the Soviet Union. Less than a year later, Tanaka began to implement his plan: the intervention in China began. This attempt was unsuccessful and Tanaka's cabinet was removed from the board. He was replaced by more peaceful ministers. However, in 1931, Japan again reminded of itself: another attempt to regain its influence in China resulted in a war in Manchuria and its capture. The next step was the violation of the commitments made at the Washington Conference. In 1936, Japan officially announced its unwillingness to follow the treaties, which further strained its relations with Britain and the United States. These actions of the Japanese government were not supported by all of its members. Tired of the endless foreign policy maneuvers of the current government, fascist-minded politicians attempted a coup - the fascist putsch of 1936. As a result, Koki Hirota came to power. The creation of the Hirota government was a further step towards the fascistization of Japan, which at the foreign policy level led to the deployment of Japanese aggression. Further development of the country in this direction was carried out under the leadership of the First Minister Fumiro Konoe, who was closely connected with the holders of big capital and with the military-fascist circles. It was his government that initiated the start of the war with China.

War in China (1937–1941)

Japan had been preparing plans for an offensive against China for a very long time, therefore, when on May 7, 1937, it launched military operations against Chinese troops near Beijing, it was a well-planned operation. The Japanese, believing in their quick success, were unpleasantly surprised when the resistance of the Chinese military led to the protracted nature of the war.

With the beginning of the war, the entire economy of the country was transferred to serve military needs. The law "On the General Mobilization of the Nation" was adopted, providing for the government's right to total control of all spheres of the economy, including transport and trade. Since Konoe's cabinet was linked to large Japanese firms, this provision of the law meant that control of the economy had passed into the hands of the monopolists. The share of military spending was significantly increased: up to 70-80% of the national budget. The situation of workers has deteriorated sharply: wage decreased, and the working day increased to 14 hours. The Japanese government took advantage of the situation and the control over the situation in the country that fell into their hands and began reprisals against all dissident and opposition forces widespread among the people. Were disbanded communist parties many of whose members were arrested. In this situation, the policy of England and the United States is striking, which by their tactics of "non-intervention" practically expressed their approval of Japanese policy. This led to the fact that Japan, having captured a significant number of Chinese territories, declared its dominance over all of China and put forward aggressive demands against the Soviet Union. Only then the United States, which did not want to part with its possessions in China, tried to interfere in the affairs of Japan. The war dragged on: the Konoe government was forced to resign. In 1939, he was replaced by an even more aggressive and fascistized government of Kiichiro Hiranuma. Japan took the path of further aggravation of relations with the Western powers. The attack on the Chinese territories of the Soviet Union showed that Japan could not cope on its own. During May-August 1939 between the Japanese-Manchurian troops, on the one hand, and the Soviet and Mongolian, on the other, there were fighting, ending in heavy defeats for the Japanese. Failing, the Hiranum government resigned.

When fascist Germany began hostilities in Europe, launching the Second World War with its attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, the Japanese government, headed by General Nobuyuki Abe, declared the settlement of the Chinese question and non-interference in European affairs to be its top priority. The domestic economy was collapsing before our eyes. A card system was introduced. But this did not stop the Japanese military, eager to get rich by capturing new territories. In 1940 Konoe came to power again. This meant the complete fascisization of the Japanese political and state system. All parties except the ruling one were dissolved. In addition, it was announced the creation of a new economic system, according to which the economy finally passed into the hands of the state. Another point of the new policy was the proclamation of the creation of a single Asian zone headed by Japan. In the same year, a pact was concluded with Germany and Italy, in which these three countries recognized the legitimacy of claims against each other. The United States and Britain continued to maintain a policy of non-interference in the affairs of the three aggressors: on the one hand, they still hoped to "set" Japan against Soviet Union, and on the other hand, they tried to peacefully resolve the conflict with Germany. On April 13, 1941, a neutrality pact was signed between the Soviet Union and Japan. The Soviet Union hoped in this way to ensure security eastern borders, but Japan had a different opinion on this matter: despite the signing of the agreement, the Japanese General Staff was developing a plan for a surprise attack on the USSR and the capture of the Far East. The United States tried to harmonize Japan's policy with its own interests, which was beneficial to the Japanese government, which sought to gain as much time as possible to build up military power and openly implement its plans. However, endless negotiations over China eventually stalled. On November 26, 1941, the American ambassador demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from China. For Japan, this option was unacceptable, and the government decided to start hostilities. On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor was attacked.

War in the Pacific (1941–1945)

The Pacific War began with the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japanese aircraft managed to disable most of the American fleet located in the area. A new treaty was concluded with Germany and Italy on the conduct of joint military operations against England and the USA. Initially, the war developed in favor of Japan: all the countries of the South were captured. East Asia. One of the reasons for this success was also that the occupied countries, being British and American colonies, were themselves eager to free themselves from their influence and did not offer due resistance to the Japanese aggressors. However, already in 1942, the United States managed to win several naval victories, thereby stopping the Japanese invaders. Japan focused its attention on the USSR: it actively cooperated with Germany, passing it secret information about the location of Soviet strategic points. The United States, meanwhile, stepped up its activities in the Pacific. In the spring and summer of 1943, the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and the islands of Attu and Kiska were cleared of the Japanese. Japan gradually lost its positions. At the 1943 conference in Cairo, an agreement was concluded between Britain, the United States and China on the further policy towards Japanese aggression. Gradually, all the occupied territories were taken away from her, and in 1944 military operations were already conducted on the territory of Japan: the islands of Iwajima and Okinawa were captured. In 1945, shortly before the surrender of Germany, an agreement was concluded between the USSR, the USA and England, according to which the Soviet Union undertook to enter the war against Japan in exchange for the return of the lost eastern territories to it. An earlier neutrality treaty with Japan was annulled.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

On April 26, 1945, a declaration was issued on behalf of the American government, which demanded that Japan cease hostilities. The Japanese decided to ignore this statement, thereby depriving themselves of any possibility of a peaceful resolution of the conflict. On August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, and on August 9, a second bomb on the city of Nagasaki. The number of victims was incalculable. The use of this terrible means was carried out not only for the sake of capitulating Japan, but also to demonstrate to the whole world its superiority in the field of armaments. First of all, this was done for the Soviet Union, which demanded too much after the victory over Germany. The Soviet Union began military operations against Japan, defeating its troops in Manchuria. As a result, on August 14, 1945, the Japanese government announced its intention to accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. Despite this, the Kwantung Army continued to resist Soviet troops. The forces were not equal, and the Japanese suffered a final defeat. The Soviet Union thus regained South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. On September 2, 1945, Japan signed the act of unconditional surrender, which was the last event in the Pacific War and World War II.

American occupation

As a result of this act, Japan was occupied by the American military. She temporarily lost her independence in matters of diplomacy and trade. In addition, she was forced to carry out any foreign policy relations through America. Japan not only lost all its colonies and any influence in China, but also for some time lost power on the islands of Okinawa, where they settled American troops. General MacArthur, who led the occupation, became the de facto ruler of Japan, despite the formal preservation of all Japanese government bodies. American influence on Japanese events continued until 1951, when a peace treaty was signed between Japan and Western countries. According to this treaty, Japan regained its national independence, but some of the measures taken to prevent a new wave of Japanese military aggression were preserved.

Domestic political changes

According to the requirements of the Potsdam Declaration, Japan was obliged to direct its forces to the democratization of domestic politics. Some laws adopted during the reign of the fascist forces were repealed, and the establishment of democratic rights and freedoms was proclaimed. In particular, universal suffrage was established in Japan. All military forces of Japan were disbanded, and all military administrative institutions were liquidated. Nevertheless, the influence of pro-fascist elements remained in the country for quite a long time, partially retaining their positions in remote provinces.

After all these measures, democratic parties reappeared in Japan. On November 9, 1945, the jiyuto party was created, liberal in its spirit, then the so-called progressive party - simpoto, whose leader - Kijuro Shidehara - was put by MacArthur at the head of the Japanese government, whose reign did not last long: after the 1946 elections, it resigned . The government, elected under the new laws, adopted on May 3, 1947, a new constitution of the country, where the parliament was proclaimed the highest and only legislative body of the country. The new constitution included an article declaring the refusal of the Japanese people from war and forbidding Japan to have its own armed forces.

Economy

After the war, the Japanese economy was almost completely destroyed: part of the industrial enterprises suffered due to the bombing of opponents, but more damage was caused by the tension with which the enterprises were forced to operate during the war. Inflation began, which was impossible to stop. The occupiers, preoccupied with political changes, paid almost no attention to the economic crisis and the elimination of its consequences. Only a few years later, the Japanese economy began to revive thanks to American investment. The United States placed its military orders in Japanese industry, and also provided economic assistance in overcoming the crisis. As a result, by 1951 the level of production reached the pre-war level. Gradually, Japan regained its position in the foreign market, competing Western countries in trade in Southeast Asia. Pretty soon, Japan itself began to invest in the development of production in neighboring countries.

In the late 1950s, Japan ranked first in the world in terms of industrial growth. There were many reasons for this, but the main thing is that the almost completely destroyed production of Japan was restored already taking into account the latest advances in technology. Meanwhile, the situation of the workers remained very difficult. The extended working day, adopted during the war, was maintained, and wages did not increase, despite the increase in the volume of output. All this, as well as the signing of new unequal "security" treaties with America, gave rise to mass protests against the ruling cabinet. As a result, Hayato Ikeda came to power, whose name is associated with significant changes in both internal and foreign policy Japan. The Ikeda government, bypassing the current constitution, reorganized the armed forces and increased them. A project was developed to double the output, which, however, was soon rejected due to the obvious impossibility of its implementation. An important event that contributed to the increase in the number of workers needed by industry was the agricultural law, which eliminated small and medium-sized land holdings in favor of larger and more independent ones. In the field of foreign policy, Ikeda maintained a pro-American orientation, linking his country even more to the United States. In 1963, Japan signed a number of treaties indicating its consent to the creation of a South Asian military bloc (Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam) under American control. American military bases were located on the territory of Japan, American submarines received permission to deploy in Japanese ports. However, close military-political cooperation did not contribute to mutual understanding in the field of the economy, in particular, foreign trade. America owned the exclusive rights to almost unlimited exports to the Japanese market, which undermined the country's economy. The heads of Japanese concerns tried to free themselves from the unilateral economic relations imposed on them. Japan ranked first in industrial growth, first in shipbuilding, second in steel production, as well as in automotive, cement and electronics. Great progress was observed in such industries as radio engineering, optics, and the chemical industry, but for all this, it was forced to put up with the dominance of low-quality American goods in its market. The first minister, Ikeda, made several business trips in the early 1960s with the aim of establishing sales markets in Asia and Western Europe, in particular, in the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy and England. Also, at the request of the Japanese monopolists, the government was forced to expand ties with the Soviet Union. In 1961, an exhibition of Soviet industrial achievements was organized in Tokyo. In 1962, a number of agreements were signed between the Soviet government and the largest Japanese concerns.

In general, the further development of the Japanese state was associated with the buildup of economic power for a set of practical absence of military interests. Japan finally realized that world domination can be achieved not with the help of weapons, but with the help of expanding spheres of economic influence. Japan's orientation towards economic development determined its modern appearance.

Cities and city dwellers Traditional holidays

Japan is a country with rich history and culture. Many of the most important historical events left a mark on the Japanese calendar and are celebrated as holidays. In addition to public holidays, traditional religious and folk holidays are also very popular - echoes of ancient rituals. Speaking about Japanese holidays, it should be noted that the attitude towards holidays in Japan is somewhat different from the European one. So, for example, in this country it is not customary to celebrate national holidays: celebrations with festive treats and guests are arranged only to celebrate some personal events: birthdays, weddings, etc. The Japanese attitude to gifts is interesting. Appreciating the shape in everything, the Japanese are also most attracted to gifts by the way they are packed, rather than what is inside. Perhaps that is why it is considered impolite to open a gift in the presence of a guest, which is contrary to our ideas of good manners.

As in any other country, in Japan the calendar is replete with numerous significant dates. There is also a traditional set: Constitution Day, Empire Foundation Day, New Year etc. But of greatest interest are Japanese holidays, which have developed from ancient customs and rituals.

One of the most beautiful and attractive for tourists is the festival of admiring flowers - Hanami. The flowering of plums, sakura, peaches, wisteria, chrysanthemum leaves no one indifferent, unlike most public holidays. The roots of the Hanami holiday go back to the Heian era, when the aestheticization of culture led to an increase in the popularity of these ordinary, in general, events that repeat from year to year.

Another favorite holiday is the Boys' Day, traditionally celebrated on May 5th. The origin of this holiday is connected with the ancient rites of initiation of minor members of the community. Later, in the era of the dominance of the military class, this holiday began to be regarded as milestone in the development of the future warrior - his initiation into the samurai. It is still important to this day.

Boys take part in celebration ceremonies until the age of 15 - the age of majority. The reverence for this holiday and the joy of parents can be compared with the reverence with which, in Russia, older family members treat their offspring with their first passport. On the day of the holiday, houses and streets are decorated according to tradition. In every house where there are boys of suitable age, a kind of stand is set up, on which items of military weapons, armor, and also (influence of modernity) evidence of the achievements of older men of the family are exhibited. All this is aimed at instilling in the boy a sense of pride in his own family and the desire to glorify it with his future deeds.

The girls' holiday, or in Japanese - Hina Matsuri (Doll Festival) copes in a similar way. In a family where there are girls, a stand is organized, but now with women's household items: dolls and toys. In addition to the ritual significance of protection from evil spirits, this holiday now occupies an important place in the education of women. Girls are instilled with the traditional qualities of a good wife, they are taught the basics of housekeeping, raising children, etc.

Major Japanese holidays

January

Ganjitsu (New Year)

Ekiden (marathon relay)

Haru no Nanakusa (Seven Spring Herb Rice Porridge Day)

Kagami-biraki (ritual breaking of New Year's decorative rice balls - mochi)

Seijin no hi (Coming of Age)

February

3 or 4

Setsubun (New Year's Eve according to the old calendar)

4 or 5

Risshun (Chinese New Year, or the beginning of spring)

Kigen Setsu (State Foundation Day)

Valentine's Day

March

Hina Matsuri (Puppet Festival)

White Day

20 or 21

Shunbun no hi (Spring Equinox)

April

Kambutsu-e (Buddha's Birthday) or Hana Matsuri (Flower Festival)

Midori no hi (Green day)

May

may Day

Campokinambi (Constitution Day)

Kodomo no hi (Children's Day)

June

World Caries Day

July

Tanabata (Festival of Stars)

Umi no hi (Day of the Sea)

August

Day of Remembrance for the Victims of the Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

September

Nihyaku toka (beginning of typhoon season), Disaster Management Day

14 or 15

Chushu no Meigetsu (Full Moon Day)

Keiro no hi (Day of Respect for the Elderly)

23 or 24

Shubun no hi (Autumn Equinox)

October

Donation Day for the Poor

Taiku no hi (Sports Day)

November

Bunka no hi (Culture Day)

Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three Festival)

Kinrokansha no hi (Labour Thanksgiving)

December

Tenno tanjiobi (Emperor's Birthday)

Omisoka (cleansing the house before the New Year)

Traditional Japanese Cuisine

There is a saying that "a Japanese eats not only with his mouth, but also with his eyes." Indeed, the design of a dish in Japanese cuisine is given the same importance as its preparation. This explains some elements of Japanese dishes that are by no means meant to be eaten. Of course, such an important sphere of human life as eating in Japan cannot but be accompanied by various traditions and rituals. So, for example, the Japanese never sit down at a common table, and a separate table is set for a guest who has come, where the entire menu is displayed at once.

Interest in the East, especially in Japan, is unusually high in modern world. With the growing interest in the culture of Japan, tourism began to develop at an extraordinary pace in the country. Not the last place among the features of the nation that arouses the curiosity of guests is exotic Japanese cuisine. Therefore, here in all cities there are countless restaurants and pubs that satisfy the most diverse tastes and requests of visitors. Among such establishments there are bars in the American and European style, oriental teahouses and Japanese restaurants specializing in the preparation of national dishes.

Here you can try chicken skin skewers, corn soup, jellyfish noodles, slices sea urchin with pickled bamboo shoots and raw shells. Since the Japanese eat all dishes with chopsticks, which replace the rather complicated set of European cutlery, the soup has to be sipped. The traditional materials for making Japanese chopsticks are: Ivory, silver, the most practical and common option is wooden (bamboo) sticks that can be thrown away after the first use. It is Japanese cuisine that holds the secret of preparing the most expensive dish in the world - “marble meat”.

The ordinary table of an ordinary Japanese is much more modest. Rice, the staple of Japanese cuisine, can be cooked in a wide variety of ways, but is most often served boiled or steamed. The Japanese breakfast is very dense: it includes gohan - crumbly boiled rice, kono-mono - pickled pickles or misoshiru - bean soup. For lunch, gohan with boiled vegetables, boiled lentils, dried fish and eggs are again served. They have dinner again with gohan with strong broth or zashi-mi - raw fish. In general, Japanese cuisine is distinguished by its simplicity and lack of unnecessary frills. Great importance is attached to taste sensations: the uncomplicated tastes of natural products, so the Japanese consume little fat, spices and sauces. The basis of the Japanese diet is vegetable products, vegetables, rice, fish, seafood, beef, pork, lamb and poultry. An indispensable Japanese product is rice, from which literally everything is prepared: from everyday dishes to desserts. The famous Japanese sake is also made from rice. The technology for making sake is similar to that used for brewing beer, but the finished drink contains 3 times more alcohol. Sake is drunk warm from small porcelain cups.

The Japanese attach great importance to legumes. Bean cheese (tofu) and soybean paste (miso) are very popular in Japan.

The favorite traditional drink of the Japanese is green tea, which they drink at any time of the day and most often without sugar. To the European taste hopelessly spoiled by black tea, Japanese tea seems tasteless and tasteless. pale. It should be borne in mind that the main thing in tea drinking is the enjoyment of a delicate aroma, which requires great concentration, which is so important, for example, in a tea ceremony. In addition to tea, the Japanese drink fruit water with ice. Especially common as a soft drink is kori - shaved ice with fruit syrup.

Culture, education

The 1950s were a turbulent period for Japan. economic development and the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution, which covered all sectors of the economy, which significantly increased the role of education. The developing industry needed qualified personnel. A restructuring of the education system began. First, the elementary and incomplete high school, then - and the highest level of education. The need to replenish working resources and a narrow specialization that ensures the training of the right specialist in as soon as possible significantly lowered the level of the general education standard. Significant steps have also been taken in the area of moral education young people needed to ensure internal stability. The educational policy developed by the LDP proclaimed "the need to cultivate devotion to society ... to increase labor productivity for one's own happiness and the happiness of others." The “new patriotism” of obedient and dedicated workers was the basis for declaring the goal of the Japanese life to be “dissolving in work” and the obligation to “put your whole soul into it.”

The number of higher educational institutions, technical colleges, universities have been established in almost all prefectures.

Literature

Changes in the socio-political and economic situation of the country had a significant impact on the development of literature in the 1950s and 1960s. Literature was required, first of all, to be able to entertain, and this process was reflected in the boom of "intermediate literature", which is a cross between outright hack-work and true art. Famous representatives of the literature of these years are Matsumoto Seicho, who wrote in the detective genre, Yamaoka Sohachi, the author of many historical novels, the most famous of which was Tokugawa Ieyasu. In the late 50s and early 60s, Tanizaki Junichiro and Kawabata Yasunari enjoyed the greatest fame. Common to the works of these writers are a philosophical attitude to the world and the search for inner spiritual beauty. The discord between the ideal and reality explains, according to Kawabat, that highest moment when a person and the world come into harmony. He became one of the first Japanese writers to be awarded the Nobel Prize.

The young writers of the 1950s and 1960s reflected the mood of young people who were disillusioned with the status quo. His most famous novel, The Sunny Season, quickly became a bestseller. Based on it, a film with the same name was made. The appearance and behavior of the protagonist became a role model for the youth of these years, who were attracted by the protest against the falsity and hypocrisy of the world around them.

In the early 50s, the young writer Mishima Yukio gained popularity. He was a representative of a new modernist trend, with an apology for human alienation and pessimism, disbelief in a person's active life position, elevation of mental inferiority to the refinement of feelings. His most famous work was the novel The Golden Temple, in which the hero, a mentally handicapped person, first bows before a beautiful work of architecture, then burns it, considering beauty and life incompatible.

The beginning of the writing activity of one of the most famous writers of post-war Japan, Abe Kobo, also dates back to the 1950s. The work that made him famous was the satirical novel "The Wall", awarded the Akutagawa Ryunosuke Literary Prize. In the first half of the 60s, he published the novels Woman in the Sands, Alien Face, Burnt Map, in which he uses allegory, a parable, and a philosophical form of narration.

Thus, the development of literature in the 1950s and 1960s proceeded in two directions. In the 50s, the hero of literary works denies the past of his country, although he is powerless to change anything in its development. In the 60s, a hero appears, looking for his place in society and, not finding it, comes to loneliness, alienation, and spiritual emptiness.

In the subsequent period of the development of Japanese literature, the ideas of the chosenness of the Japanese people intensified. Frank propaganda of Japanism and militarism becomes the most important part of the work of Mishima Yukio. If in the 50s he interpreted plays for the No theater in a modern manner, then already in the mid-60s he began to openly glorify samurai prowess and demanded the revival of the divinity of the emperor as a fetish for the worship of new generations of Japanese (essay "The Sun and Iron") . In his reflections on the chosenness of the nation, he came to the recognition of the ideas of Hitlerism (the play "My Brother Hitler"). However, not satisfied with just propaganda, Mishima created the far-right paramilitary organization "Shield Society" at his own expense. In November 1970, he attempted a military coup. Having received no support, he committed suicide in the traditional way - seppuku. This fact entered the history of Japanese culture as the last evidence of following the military code of honor - "Bushido".

Architecture and fine arts

The development of post-war Japanese architecture followed complex and ambiguous paths. During the war, the housing stock of almost all major cities Japan. Therefore, the problem of housing construction turned out to be paramount. Due to the lack of a clear plan, construction was carried out spontaneously, without taking into account the urgent needs of the city. It was only in the second half of the 1950s that a development strategy was developed. The resolution of the housing crisis was to be facilitated by the construction of micro-districts (danti) with multi-apartment residential buildings. Apartments in four-five-story houses (apato) in these areas had a "western" type of layout and interior. In addition to planning, Japanese builders actively began to use new materials for them, for example, concrete. But even such uncomfortable housing was available only to middle-income Japanese. Most of the housing stock was still made up of traditional wooden houses (no baths, no kitchens, and often no sewerage).

The housing problem became even more aggravated in the 1960s, when high rates of economic growth and intensive construction of industrial enterprises caused virtually uncontrolled urbanization of the country. This explains why the construction of such houses, originally conceived as a temporary measure, was continued and even became the main direction in solving the housing problem.

The 50-60s was the period of searching for the most rational forms and methods of reconstructing the city, which to a large extent preserved the features of the feudal heritage - wooden housing stock, devoid of household amenities, and narrow streets.

As in all other areas of culture, the architects faced the problem of combining the requirements of modern society with the traditional style. One of the successful attempts to solve this problem was the construction of so-called public houses (dormitories). Buildings with a reinforced concrete frame, functional in their essence, were at the same time, in terms of aesthetic appearance and structural system, close to the national house - its frame structure with non-load-bearing walls. The traditional connection between the outside and the inside was now carried out with the help of large glazed surfaces. Clear forms, strict proportions, harmony of Western and Japanese styles characterize the work of Japanese architects of these years (Maekawa Kunio, Sakakura Junzo, Taniguchi Yoshiro, Togo Murano and younger architects Tange Kenzo, Otaka Masato, Otani Sachio, Yokoyama Kimio). Among the architectural monuments of these years, one cannot fail to mention the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kamakura (architect Sakakura Junzo), the complex of buildings in the Peace Memorial Park in Hiroshima (Tange Kenzo), the National Museum of Science in Tokyo (Taniguchi Yoshiro), the library and concert hall in Yokohama (Maekawa Cunio).

Significant success in architectural creativity was achieved in the works of Tange Kenzo, who built sports complexes during the preparations for the 1964 Olympics. He made extensive use of the principle of traditional landscape architecture. After these events, Japanese architecture reached a new level, becoming a significant phenomenon in world culture.

The visual arts of Japan in the post-war period was a reflection of the struggle between two internal trends: the influence of American culture, planted by the occupiers, and the struggle between progressive and conservative ideas in national culture. The art of engraving was the least affected by foreign influence and retained its connection with the national artistic tradition.

In 1949, an organization was created that put forward the slogan "Japanese folk prints" (jimmin hanga). The "Japanese Engraving Society" brought together realist artists whose main focus of work was social themes. The core of the society was made up of artists Ueno Makoto, Suzuki Kenji, Takidaira Jiro, Nii Hirohava, Iino Nobuya. Especially active was Ono Tadashige, acting not only as an artist, but also as a critic, art critic, one of the largest specialists in the history of engraving. Widely known are his works "Black Rain" and engravings dedicated to Hiroshima: "Hiroshima", "Water of Hiroshima".

The work of a prominent graphic artist Ueno Makoto is distinguished by great skill. His works are dedicated to the working people of Japan. In the engravings "Mother's Love", "Thirst", "Old Beggar" shows hard life common people. For his work dedicated to the bombing of Nagasaki, the artist received the World Peace Council Prize.

Japanese theatre, film and music

For theatrical art, the time has come for a significant restructuring. After a long period of difficulties, the Noh theater entered a period of sharp increase in the number of theatrical performances, due to the trend that has arisen in the public life of the country of increased attention to national cultural traditions (classical theater, literature, applied arts, tea ceremony, ikebana, bonsai, etc.). ).

At the same time, classical theaters, for the first time in their history, made an attempt to abandon traditional plays and create new texts in modern language. The Noh theater staged a play, The Notes of Chieko, and Kabu-ki staged a dramatization of the classic novel, The Tale of Prince Genji. The joruri puppet theater has restored staging of classical plays and works of Western drama.

The situation in the new theater (shingeki) has also changed, its Hayuza and Bungakuza troupes are widely turning to world drama. Plays were staged here: "Lysistrata" by Aristophanes, "Three Sisters", " The Cherry Orchard» Chekhov, Molière's Tartuffe, Brecht's The Threepenny Opera, Ionescu's Rhinoceros.

In 1947-1950, the first opera troupes appeared in Japan, the purpose of which was to promote the art of opera and create a national opera. The Japanese got acquainted with the European ballet only in 1922, during the tour of the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova. Then there were attempts to organize a national ballet school. In 1958, a ballet association was created, which aims to unite various ballet troupes and assist them in staging performances.

The 50-60s became the time of the so-called independent movement, which determined the development of Japanese cinema. The first film distribution company appeared in 1950 and in just a few years established its independence in the cultural life of the country. This made it possible to produce films that, in terms of the breadth and boldness of posing social problems, were fundamentally different from the films that had previously appeared on the screens.

These years saw the active work of several directors, including Kurosawa Akira, Mizoguchi Kenji, Imai Tadashi, young directors Imamura Shohei, Masumura Yasuzo and others. Kurosawa's famous films of this period are "To Live" (awarded at the Cannes International Film Festival) - about fidelity to human duty, "At the Bottom" based on the play by M. Gorky. Kurosawa's films brought fame to the talented actor Mifune Toshiro, who plays in almost all of the director's films. During these years, films based on the works of the classics of Japanese literature (Ihara Saikaku) were staged. Such films tend to follow the concept of national aesthetics and traditional techniques. artistic expressiveness. This specificity of Japanese films made them extremely interesting for world cinematography.

The film adaptation of Noma Hiroshi's novel The Void Zone, directed by Yamamoto Satsuo, had great fame. The film shows the Japanese military and its customs, suffocating atmosphere of cruelty, transforming imperial army into a zone of emptiness where there is no place normal person.

Japanese cinematographers stage many films during these years. Famous directors and actors founded independent companies: Kurosawa-pro, Ishihara-pro, Mifune-pro, and others. The number of films from 215 in 1950 increased to 547 in 1960. However, since the beginning of the 60s, the position of the film industry began to be severely infringed upon by the developing television.

Nevertheless, during these years, the most famous films of talented directors were released, such as the films of director Teshigahara Hiroshi, who filmed several novels by Abe Kobo - "Trap", "Woman in the Sands", "Alien Face" and "Burned Map", "Red Beard » Kurosawa, Imai Tadashi's film A Tale of the Cruelty of Bushido.

The culture of Japan in the 1970s and 1980s is characterized by an intensification of the trends that have developed in the past decades. Through the efforts of the media, the so-called mass culture is formed, the essence of which is the endless consumption of cultural values. Consumer standards and ideals have developed tendencies in society to alienate and dehumanize the individual.

The musical art of Japan has been developing for several centuries. Folk songs are still widespread in the modern world. In their origin, they mainly refer to former religious hymns and other musical themes that accompany rituals. Subsequently, they lost their original functions and now act as folklore monuments. In a peasant environment, they are often performed during leisure hours. In addition, the media contributed a lot to the popularization of this genre and the loss of its original roots. In the 20th century, many Japanese composers, inspired by traditional tunes, created many imitative works.

Japanese popular music attracts the most people's attention now. Among young people there are a huge number of lovers of Western music: jazz, Latin American pop music, rock music. Songs popular in Europe quickly become the property of the Japanese public, which determines the influence of Western music on the development of contemporary musical art in Japan. There is also Japanese popular music that grew out of national soil: kayokyoku. The heyday of this genre falls on the 20s of the XX century. Musically, now this style is a kind of synthesis of traditional Western melody and specific Japanese techniques.

Like the rest of the world, Japan fell under the influence of the Beatles. A broad movement developed to imitate the Liverpool Four. Many amateur groups were formed, which could not but affect the further development of the Japanese stage.

anime

One of the most popular achievements Japanese culture XX century was the art of manga and anime. For European understanding, it is common to consider manga as Japanese comics, and anime as Japanese animation. In fact, these terms serve to highlight the specifically Japanese understanding of these two genres. Features of the Buddhist-Shinto mentality of the Japanese nation determined the significant difference between their "comics" and "cartoons" from similar works of European countries, in particular, America and France. Russia, in its consciousness, is closer to Christian countries, and therefore a complete understanding of the content of Japanese animation is not always available to us. Even if it sometimes seems similar to American or French, deep cultural differences are visible even to non-professionals. The need for special terms for Japanese animation is also explained by the importance attached to it at home. If we traditionally consider cartoons as something secondary to cinema, and comics are not considered art at all, then in Japan the situation is just the opposite. Many film artists started out as anime dubs, directors from anime, and illustrators from manga. Needless to say, Japan is the only country that has nominated a feature-length cartoon for the Oscar in the Best Foreign Film nomination. If in other countries cartoons often lose the fight with television series and movies, then in Japan the opposite is true: TV channels arrange whole battles for the right to show this or that anime series. There is no doubt that anime has significantly influenced the development of modern popular culture in Japan. Variety artists are made up in anime style, clips of many popular music stars are created in the form of anime and so on. However, it would be wrong to underestimate the influence of anime on Western cultures. And Japanese samurai, and Japanese elves, and even Japanese cowboys - all this is Japan's contribution to the treasury of world culture. In addition, anime and manga are an excellent tool for those who want to get acquainted with the peculiarities of the Japanese mentality. Of course, this can be done in another way: getting acquainted with the monuments of ancient Japanese writing, studying religious treatises and trying to understand the symbolism of ikebana and the tea ceremony, but all this is rather tedious and requires incredible patience and love for Japan to complete what has been started. Anime in this respect is unique in that it allows you to combine business with pleasure. After watching a certain number of Japanese cartoons, you will not only get incredible aesthetic pleasure (and if you are interested in Japan, then this should happen for sure), but you will finally be able to understand the intricacies of the Japanese worldview.

Of course, for this to be possible, a certain amount of knowledge is needed. But now, when the art of anime finds more and more response in the souls of our compatriots and various associations of anime fans are being created, it is not so difficult to get acquainted with some elementary concepts. There would be a wish...

If you are already familiar with this culture and are fairly well versed in its “wilds”, then the material that will be presented below is unlikely to be a discovery for you. But if you have only recently discovered this wonderful world for yourself, if you have seen only a few cartoons, but they shocked you to the core, and you would like to comprehend all the depths of their content, then we will gladly open for you the veil of mystery, whose name is - anime.

First of all, as you have already understood if you carefully read our book, Japanese culture in general is characterized by an increased attention to symbolism. Take, for example, the performances of classical Noh or Kabuki theaters, where the interpretation of any gesture, look, and even sigh depends correct understanding the entire content of the play. Or the traditional art of illustration (by the way, the direct ancestor of manga), where the choice of a particular color, pose of a depicted person or objects surrounding him, could say a lot not only about his state of mind, but also about his attitude to certain events. Naturally, first manga, and then anime, could not miss such an opportunity for the semantic saturation of their stories. As a result, the figurative system of manga and anime, which has absorbed not only the traditional heritage, but also all the diversity of the modern realities of Japanese life, is unusually complex and diverse. There is also an increased attention to detail in this art: any stroke can say a lot to an enlightened viewer. Naturally, the Japanese, who have absorbed all this knowledge with their mother's milk, interpret these works without any particular difficulties. In Japan, anime is traditionally a genre aimed at children, which makes sense, given that they are cartoons. We, as people far from Japanese culture, have to work hard to appreciate anime in all its glory. A detailed anime interpretive guide would take up too much space, and it doesn't need to. If you watched these cartoons in sufficient detail, then you probably noticed that the color of the hair usually indicates the character of the hero, and the size of the eyes indicates the age, etc. The main thing in this matter is an attentive attitude to everything that happens on the screen, and comparing what you already see with what you see at the moment. So gradually you will not only master the world of anime, but also acquire many important knowledge in the field of culture and history of both ancient and modern Japan, because many anime were created on the basis of significant historical events. If you do not intend to dig so deep, then the aesthetic pleasure that you will receive when viewing is quite enough for you: bright and colorful, they have not left anyone indifferent yet. Enjoy your time!

Chapter 4. Japan. 20th century

Japan after World War I

The First World War seriously influenced the further formation of the Japanese economy. The revision of treaties with Western powers, the development of external contacts, the control of China and Korea - all this made Japan practically a monopolist in the Asian market. After the war, Japan actively invested in the economies of other countries. Growing exports served as a good stimulus for the growth of the industry, the pace of its development was amazing: the volume of production almost doubled in just five years. In the development of industry, priority was given to heavy industry. The war had a positive effect on the development of the largest firms that only enriched themselves during the hostilities: Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda and others. At the same time, the position of the workers and peasants, who were dissatisfied with rising prices and increasing taxes, deteriorated sharply. A wave of so-called rice riots swept across the country. Although these uprisings were brutally suppressed, one of the consequences of the “popular anger” was the resignation of the war-minded Terauti government and the coming to power of a new government headed by Haara, the leader of the party of landowners and big capitalists. Also, after the riots, a mass movement for universal suffrage unfolded, the strengthening of which forced the government to make concessions - the property qualification was significantly reduced.

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Meiji era. Civil War and the abolition of the shogunate

In the late 60s of the 19th century, events took place in Japan that drastically changed the course of the historical development of this country. In the official Japanese historiography, they received the name "Meijiishin", which translates as the restoration of the monarchy.

The restoration of imperial power as real and the overthrow of the shogunate are a kind of key events in the political life of the country, which, on the one hand, seemed to crown the struggle of the anti-shogun forces, and on the other, opened the way leading to profound social transformations.

Shogunate - formed in the XII-XIX centuries. in Japan, a form of government by large feudal lords, in which the emperor was deprived of real power.

The movement to overthrow the shogunate united almost all layers of Japanese society: the peasantry, the urban poor, the opposition-minded nobility, represented primarily by the lower samurai, and the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. The wide scope of the anti-shogun movement, despite the heterogeneity of its participants and the presence of serious disagreements in the leadership, testified to the crisis not only of the upper classes, but also of the feudal system itself.

With a superficial approach to the events of 1867-1868. they can be perceived as a battle between two feudal groups: on the one hand, the Tokugawa clan (the last of the three dynasties of shoguns that ruled from 1603 to 1867), and on the other hand, the feudal lords from the southwestern principalities (Satsuma and Teshu), who opposed it, who, having concluded a military alliance among themselves, opposed the shogunate, achieved its overthrow and formed a new government, where the leaders of these principalities began to play a leading role. It is important that the intensification of the struggle within the ruling class took place against the background of the growth of a powerful peasant movement, which threatened to develop into an agrarian revolution, as well as the movement of the urban lower classes.

By 1868, the revolutionary events developed in two streams, as it were: on the one hand, the movement of the masses, which had a pronounced anti-feudal character; on the other hand, the struggle of the nobility in the person of the "enlightened samurai", who sought to reform the existing system, change the form of government of the country. Both of these streams, for all their independence, were not isolated from each other, but developed in close interconnection. Moreover, the anti-shogun-minded samurai not only used the revolutionary movement of the masses, but often led it, directing it into the general direction of the struggle against the existing regime.

Samurai - in a broad sense - the secular nobility in Japan, in the narrow and most commonly used sense - the military class of petty nobles. The term "samurai" is also used to refer to the Japanese military.

At the same time, the “enlightened samurai” itself was under the strong influence of the emerging bourgeoisie and, to a certain extent, expressed its interests. Thus, among the demands put forward by the anti-shogun opposition, an important place was occupied by issues related to the introduction of complete freedom of trade and entrepreneurial activity. Of no small importance was the fact that the leading countries of the West demanded that Japan abandon the policy of the "closed country" pursued by the Tokugawa house and open borders for the penetration of foreign goods. The southwestern principalities, which formed the basis of the anti-shogun coalition, established rather close ties with the countries of the West, in particular with England, enjoyed their support and patronage.

Thus, the Japanese society of the 60s of the XIX century was characterized by the active formation of a broad coalition of various social forces united by a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the shogunate as a spokesman for the interests of large feudal lords, as a stronghold of Japanese feudalism. The victory won by the troops of the southwestern principalities in 1868 predetermined the fall of the old regime and the establishment of a new government, which set a course for the development of free enterprise, the elimination of the military class, and the strengthening of the positions of new landlords and wealthy peasants.

Having defeated the troops of the shogun, Emperor Mutsuhito entered his capital Tokyo and united religious and secular power in his hands. Mutsuhito's reign was called the Meiji or "Enlightened Rule".

Administrative, military and agrarian reforms

The government of Emperor Mutsuhito declared Tokyo the capital of the state and began intensive reforms that cleared the way for market relations.

In 1872, the principalities were liquidated and instead of the previous four, three estates were established: the higher nobility, which included former feudal princes and court aristocracy; the nobility, to which all former samurai were assigned; common people, which included the rest of the population, including the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. All estates were formally equalized in rights. installed throughout the country general laws and established a unified judicial system. All regulation of professions and occupations was canceled, workshops and guilds that interfered with free enterprise were liquidated.

In December 1872, a Decree on the introduction of universal military service was issued. The Japanese army was rebuilt according to the European model.

In 1873, an agrarian reform was carried out. It abolished feudal ownership of land, the peasants received private ownership of the land they cultivated. At the same time, they had to pay a heavy land tax equal to 3 times the value of the land, and the land was valued very highly. About 1/3 of the entire arable land in the country was left to the so-called new landlords, who came from the peasant elite, merchants, usurers, to whom the peasants mortgaged the land before the reform and could not redeem it. These landowners, most of whom lived in cities (“absent landowners”), leased land on enslaving terms to landless and land-poor peasants. Over time, most of the peasants lost their own land and became tenants and semi-tenants.

The government carried out important reforms in the field of education.
A universal elementary education according to the European model, secondary schools and universities were created. Newspapers began to be printed and books by European authors were translated. Missions were sent to the USA and European countries to get acquainted with the life of their peoples. The government ratified treaties concluded with foreign powers and established diplomatic relations with them.

Features of economic development. The role of the state in the creation of modern industry. The emergence of concerns

Preservation of feudal remnants in the country, a narrow raw material base made it difficult to create a large modern industry. From 1868 to 1885 in Japan, about 1300 enterprises were created by private capital, mainly engaged in the processing of agricultural raw materials. Under these conditions, significant expenses for the creation of large industrial enterprises were assumed by the state, which replenished the treasury by constantly increasing various taxes on the peasantry.

The so-called exemplary enterprises built with public funds were then transferred to private companies at an extremely low price, primarily such as Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda, Furukawa. In the hands of the state remained mainly enterprises of the military industry. In Japan, such large monopolistic associations as the Japanese Paper Company (1880), the Japanese Textile Company (1882), the Japanese Steamship Company (1885) and others arose.

In an effort to catch up with the developed countries of the West, the government began to build industrial enterprises, railways, ships, telegraph lines at the expense of the state, while providing private entrepreneurs with generous subsidies, loans, and tax incentives. Economic and political ties between the bourgeoisie and the monarchist apparatus were strengthening in the country. The landowners also became an important support of the new regime, concentrating in their hands the lands of the ruined peasantry. Small enterprises played a significant role in the Japanese economy.

4. Changes in the state and social system. Constitution of 1889

The rapid development of capitalism strengthened the economic role of the bourgeoisie in the country, which also strove for political power. Dissatisfied with the fact that the so-called "clan" government, which consisted of former samurai elements, did not allow her to directly take power, the bourgeoisie demanded the adoption of a constitution and the creation of a parliament.

In the mid-1970s and 1980s, a movement began in the country, known in the history of Japan as the Movement for Freedom and People's Rights. The first political organizations emerged. In April 1874, the first political organization of Japan, Risshisha (Society for Determining Purpose in Life), appeared in Tosa under the leadership of Itagaki. In February 1875, the political organization "Aiko-kusha" ("Society of Patriots") was created in Osaka under the leadership of the same Itagaki, which became the all-Japanese center of the opposition movement. Rallies and demonstrations were held everywhere, the participants of which demanded the creation of a representative government. In March 1880, at the congress of provincial organizations "Aiko-kusya" in Osaka, the "Union of Supporters of Parliament" was created.

The government was forced to make some concessions. On October 12, 1881, an imperial decree was published stating that in 1890 a parliament would be convened. In preparation for parliamentary activity, opposition leaders created political parties: in October 1881 Itagaki created the Liberal Party, and in 1882 Okuma, another leader of the opposition, the Reform Party. The first party expressed the interests mainly of liberal landlords and rural entrepreneurs, the second - the interests of the urban commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the bourgeois-samurai intelligentsia associated with it. The leaders of these parties were closely associated with the largest concerns.

In 1889, under pressure from the opposition, the government published on behalf of the emperor the Constitution, which was drawn up according to the German model. Japan was proclaimed a monarchy headed by an emperor, whose "person is sacred and inviolable."

Legislative power was held jointly by the Emperor and Parliament. Parliament consisted of two chambers: the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. Princes of the blood, representatives of the titled aristocracy, the largest capitalists and landowners, as well as persons with "special merits to the monarchy" were appointed members of the House of Peers. The House of Representatives was elected, but it could be dissolved by the emperors.

According to the electoral law of 1889, suffrage with the help of various kinds of electoral qualifications (age, property and others) was actually granted to an insignificant minority of the population (1 - 2%), mainly landlords, large and part of the middle bourgeoisie. Deputies were elected for 4 years. The Cabinet of Ministers as a whole and each minister individually were responsible only to the emperor. An important role in determining policy was played by the Privy Council, an advisory body under the emperor, appointed by the latter, consisting of the president, vice president and 25 members.

Thus, the Constitution of 1889 legitimized the autocratic, monarchical system. Japan became a constitutional monarchy.

In 1890, the first parliamentary elections were held. Of the 300 elected deputies, more than half belonged to the opposition - the Liberal Party and the Reform Party. During the first years of the existence of the parliament, the opposition acted quite sharply, demanding the creation of a government responsible to the parliament. But soon she found mutual language with the "clan" government on the basis of aggressive foreign policy.

Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895

First of all, the Japanese ruling circles continued their penetration into Korea, on which an unequal treaty was imposed as early as 1876, although Korea was nominally a vassal state in relation to China.

When a peasant uprising broke out in Korea in 1893, Japan, along with China, sent its troops there. Rejecting China's proposal to simultaneously withdraw Japanese and Chinese troops from Korea, the Japanese seized the royal palace in Seoul, overthrew the pro-Chinese government, and established a pro-Japanese government, after which they provoked a war with China.

But even before these events, on July 25, 1894, the Japanese navy began military operations against China without declaring war; the official declaration of war followed only on August 1, 1894. The superiority of the Japanese army and navy, mediocrity and cowardice of the Qin command led by Li Hongzhang led to major defeats for China on land and at sea (near Asan, Pyongyang). From October 1894, hostilities moved into the territory of Northeast China. By March 1895, Japanese troops captured the Liaodong Peninsula, Yingkou, and Mukden was under threat.

On April 17, 1895, Japan and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki, humiliating for China. The war marked the beginning of the partition and financial enslavement of China by Western powers; accelerated the capitalist development of Japan, and the capture of Fr. Taiwan and the Penghuledao Islands was the beginning of the creation of the Japanese colonial empire.

Foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century. Preparing Japan for World War

Japan's international influence grew. Japan got the European powers and the United States to cancel the unequal treaties. England was the first to renounce such a treaty on July 16, 1894.

At the end of the 19th century, Japan, along with other leading countries, took part in the division of China into so-called spheres of influence and established its control over the province of Fujian, which lies opposite about. Taiwan. In 1900, she participated in the suppression of the uprising of the Chinese people against foreign invaders.

The Sino-Japanese War accelerated Japan's transformation into an influential world power. Japan, although lagging behind in terms of economic development from the countries of Western Europe and the United States, experienced an economic boom.

On September 15, 1900, former Prime Minister Ito created a new party - the Association of Political Friends, representing the interests of large owners, which advocated an active and aggressive foreign policy. The military had a great influence on the political life of the country.

Lagging behind the leading countries in economic development, Japan sought to overcome this gap by seizing foreign territories. First of all, Japan began to prepare for a war against tsarist Russia, its main competitor in the Far East. She was supported by England and the USA. England concluded an alliance with Japan on January 30, 1902, directed against Russia; The United States gave Japan a lot of financial assistance. On February 8, 1904, Japan launched a war against Russia and managed to achieve victory over its enemy.

Under the Portsmouth Peace Treaty of September 5, 1905, Japan received exclusive rights in Korea, the territory “leased” by tsarist Russia on the Liaodong Peninsula, the South Manchurian Railway, South Sakhalin, a significant monetary contribution.

In November 1905, a Japanese protectorate treaty over Korea was imposed on the Korean government. In August 1910, Korea was annexed and turned into a Japanese colony.

Japan's relations with the United States gradually cooled. After Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War, the United States began to view it as a dangerous competitor in China, in particular, in Manchuria.

To defuse the tension that had arisen in Japanese-American relations, on November 30, 1908, an exchange of notes was held between the American Secretary of State Root and the Japanese ambassador to the United States, Takahira. This agreement reaffirmed the principle open doors” in China, provided for the maintenance of the status quo in the Pacific basin and contained mutual obligations to respect the inviolability of the territorial possessions of both countries, but the Ruth-Takahira agreement did not achieve its goal.

Anglo-Japanese relations also deteriorated. The 1902 treaty was revised against Japan. According to the new agreement of July 13, 1911. England refused to support Japan in the event of a war with the United States.

In July 1912 Emperor Mutsuhito died and his son Yoshihito took the throne. The Meiji Era ended and the Taisho Era (Japanese reckoning) began.

On the eve of the First World War, the internal political situation in Japan was very tense. This was caused by the policy of further militarization of the country and the increase in the tax burden in connection with this. Parliament opposed the proposals of the government of Field Marshal Katsura to increase the size of the armed forces, but in Japan preparations for war were already in full swing. Ground forces were modernized, ships for the navy were built at shipyards, soldiers and officers were intensively trained. On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany on the side of the Entente.

International recognition

During the early Meiji era, the government focused solely on domestic development. In this regard, diplomats directed their efforts to ensure the possibility of revising unequal treaties. Initially, they faced opposition from foreign partners, but their position in dialogue with foreign countries became stronger as the first fruits of the reform appeared. In 1894 Great Britain agreed to revoke its treaty privileges, and other states soon followed suit.

By that time, Japan felt itself powerful enough to more vigorously defend its interests on the mainland, in particular in Korea, where China was its main rival. Under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, China recognized the independence of Korea and ceded Fr. Taiwan. Only the intervention of Russia, France and Germany prevented the capture by Japan of the Liaodong Peninsula in southern Manchuria.

Over the next few years, Japan built up its armaments. The confrontation with Russia over control of Korea and Manchuria escalated. The conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902 confirmed the trend towards the strengthening of Japan's international positions. Negotiations with Russia in 1904 ended in failure. The Russo-Japanese War brought a lucrative treaty signed in 1905 in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA. In accordance with it, Russia recognized the dominant role of Japan in Korea, transferred the Liaodong Peninsula to it, and also ceded the southern part of Sakhalin and Russian rights in southern Manchuria.

These acquisitions provided Japan with a leading position in East Asia, which was confirmed by the events of the next 15-20 years. Clear evidence was the formal annexation of Korea in 1910. After the outbreak of World War I, Japan declared war on Germany, and the Japanese armed forces seized German-owned islands in the North Pacific. Japan also attacked German bases in the Chinese province of Shandong, thus discovering a pretext for presenting an ultimatum to China in 1915 (21 demands), which provided not only for the transfer of Japan's former German rights, but also for the provision of additional advantages throughout the country. At the peace conference at Versailles in 1919, Japan was in the camp of the victorious powers and, although Chinese opposition prevented the formal recognition of its new conquests on the continent, managed to secure the former German possessions in the Pacific Ocean and obtain a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. At the Washington Conference of 1921–1922, China was forced to recognize Japan's economic interests in Shandong, and agreements with the United States and Great Britain to reduce naval armaments made Japan invulnerable in the western part Pacific Ocean.

Liberal 1920s.

During the First World War in Japan, there was a rapid flowering of industry. The production of textile goods expanded. The temporary absence of European competition created additional prospects for exports. Particularly rapid progress was observed in shipbuilding, as well as in coal mining and ferrous metallurgy.

In 1925, universal male suffrage was introduced. This measure was legally approved under the pressure of new left-wing political organizations that emerged during the period of strengthening the positions of moderates. political parties. The formation of trade unions in the conditions of the post-war depression and the spread of socialism under the influence of the revolution in Russia contributed to the emergence of radical groups. The Japanese Communist Party, founded in 1922, was soon banned. The law on the protection of order in 1925 provided for a ten-year term of hard labor for revolutionary activity.

Reactionary moods and the Second World War.

The difficulties caused by the world economic crisis that broke out in 1930 contributed to unrest among the population. Patriotic societies, uniting right-wing radicals and young officers of the army and navy, launched a campaign against the parliamentary form of government and "weak foreign policy." In November 1930, Prime Minister Hamaguchi Yuko was shot dead. Another prime minister, Inukai Ki, was killed in a failed mutiny in May 1932. A third narrowly escaped death in February 1936, when troops led by extremist young officers captured central Tokyo. The political activity of the military sharply reduced the authority of the parties and increased the influence of the highest command in the army. Japan took a new course in international affairs, the first manifestation of which was the Kwantung Army's invasion of Manchuria in September 1931. In 1932, this Chinese territory was turned into the pro-Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Meanwhile, the armed forces continued to press for further expansion, which resulted in full-scale hostilities in 1937. The following year, Japan occupied the most important and most populated areas of China.

The attack on China led to a deterioration in relations with the United States, Great Britain and the USSR. In 1936 Japan concluded a pact with Germany, and in 1940 entered into the Tripartite Alliance with Germany and Italy. The political parties of Japan were disbanded in 1940, and the Imperial Rule Support Association took their place. The 1941 Neutrality Pact with the USSR and the subsequent German attack on the Soviet Union eliminated the danger from the north. All these diplomatic events gave rise to persistent demands in the country for Japan to invade Southeast Asia in order to create a so-called. The great sphere of co-prosperity in East Asia under the auspices of Japan. This plan could only be threatened by opposition from the United States. As a result, after long unsuccessful attempts to ensure neutrality in relations with the United States through diplomacy, under Prime Minister Tojo Hideki, a decision was made to eliminate this threat by attacking American installations in the Pacific Ocean. The first object (December 7, 1941) was the naval base of Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands. Initially, the Japanese troops were successful and within a few months expanded the zone of occupation to the Indian border and the Australian coast, extending their control to half of the Pacific Ocean.

In June 1942, the advance detachment of Japanese ships was stopped at Midway Atoll and, after a fierce battle, was forced to retreat. Starting in 1943, naval operations led by the American Admiral Chester Nimitz divided the central part of the Pacific Ocean like a wedge, which allowed the Allies to occupy the Mariana Islands by the middle of summer 1944. At the end of 1942, the Japanese advance in the South Pacific was stopped at New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, and the following year, the armed forces under the command of General Douglas MacArthur were already pushing the enemy in the opposite direction. The American army landed in the Philippines in October 1944. In the spring of 1945, Burma was returned, and the capture of Okinawa became the prologue to the defeat of the Japanese armed forces. In August 1945 the Americans dropped atomic bombs to Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan, exhausted by the naval blockade and demoralized by the bombardment, agreed to an unconditional surrender.

Japan after 1945.

When the war ended, the country lay in ruins. 90 cities served as targets for American bombers, 20 of which were more than half destroyed. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were literally wiped off the face of the earth. Some 8 million people were killed or injured in air raids and 2.5 million homes were destroyed.

The American presence in the country began with the adoption of a wide-ranging program of transformation in the social and political fields. Among the most important measures were agrarian reform, which led to the creation of a large layer of landowners, the passage of labor laws that allowed the activity of trade unions, and the dissolution of the giant industrial and financial zaibatsu corporations that controlled the pre-war economy.

The Japanese embarked on the task of economic reconstruction with aid from the United States in the form of technology, investment, food, and raw materials. As Japan's economy grew, access to foreign markets became increasingly important. By the end of the 1950s, the conditions for an economic breakthrough were prepared. The strategic goal was not the creation of new industries, but the development of already existing promising industries. For this, modern technologies were copied or licenses were bought.

In the field of domestic politics, the pre-war conservative parties under the leadership of the former diplomat Shigeru Yoshida assumed control of the country. When the new radical trade unions began to put pressure on the management of companies and threatened to hold a general strike on February 1, 1947, D. MacArthur intervened, ordering Yoshida to hold general elections in April 1947. The Japanese Socialist Party was then considered the leading one, but managed to win less than a third of the seats in parliament. Socialist leader Katayama Tetsu formed a coalition cabinet with the centre-right Democratic Party. The coalition government collapsed in early 1948 when it was denied support by the right wing of the Democrats. The new bloc, under the leadership of the leader of the Democratic Party, Hitoshi Ashida, broke up at the end of 1948, after the facts of bribing Ashida and other government officials became known. In the elections held after that, Yoshida's Liberal Party won a landslide victory. The subsequent merger of liberals with Democrats, which resulted in the creation of the Liberal Democratic Party in 1955, led to the establishment of a conservative monopoly on power, which lasted until 1993. The weakening of the influence of the socialists was a reflection of changes in American policy in the East. Initially, the US administration sought to create a demilitarized Japan. However, due to the deterioration of Soviet-American relations after 1945, the Chinese Revolution of 1949 and the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, they saw Japan as an ally who could help the United States defend its interests in the Western Pacific.

In 1951, a peace treaty was signed in San Francisco, formally ending the state of war between the United States and Japan. The problems associated with the occupation by the United States of the islands of Bonin and Okinawa remained unresolved, Japanese sovereignty over which was restored in 1968 and 1972, respectively. to the use by the Americans of military bases on its territory.

In 1960, Prime Minister Ikeda Hayato announced plans to triple the national income by the end of the decade. Met with a fair amount of skepticism, this goal was nevertheless achieved. Another success of the decade was the hosting of the 1964 Olympic Games, which contributed to the construction of a super high-speed railway between Tokyo and Osaka and a network of first-class highways.

The 1970s proved to be a more difficult decade. The cost of gasoline, electricity, plastics and many other products rose so much that in 1974, for the first (and only) time in the post-war period, national income did not increase, but decreased. A number of energy-saving measures have been taken that have helped companies keep prices down and retain vital export markets. In the second half of the 1970s, national income increased annually by an average of 5%.

In 1974, the country was shaken by a political scandal connected with the activities of the American aircraft manufacturer Lockheed. Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka received a large bribe from this company in connection with the purchase of aircraft by Ol Nippon Airways. After his arrest, Tanaka formally resigned from the LDP, but retained his seat in the House of Representatives and continued to lead the largest faction in the party. The Lockheed scandal caused a decline in the number of voters who supported the LDP in government elections in the 1970s.

An important political step was the establishment of diplomatic relations with the Chinese People's Republic in 1972, and then the signing of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1978.

In the 1980s, Japan's economy continued to grow at a rapid pace, albeit at a slower rate than in the 1970s. To a large extent, this process was due to the further expansion of exports, especially to the United States, in volumes that significantly exceeded the increase in Japanese imports. The influx of money from abroad, which was the result of foreign trade operations, provided Japan's banks with a strong position in international financial spheres and allowed Japanese investors to actively acquire property abroad. In an atmosphere of "easy" money, corporations gave huge amounts of money to leading functionaries of the ruling LDP, often arranging lucrative securities deals. One such episode in 1984-1986 caused a public scandal involving the leaders of all the major factions of the LDP, including both the incumbent Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita and his predecessor Yasuhiro Nakasone. Public outrage about this, associated with bribing officials, forced Takeshita to resign in 1989, and he was replaced by Sasuke Uno, a loyal representative of the Nakasone faction. The LDP under Takeshita managed to introduce a nationwide consumption tax, which was strongly opposed by opposition political forces, including the country's largest women's organization, the Union of Housewives and the Socialist Party led by Takako Doi. As a result, in the Tokyo municipal elections in early July, the LDP was defeated, and in the midterm elections to the Senate in late July 1989, the socialists gained an advantage over the LDP. As a result, Uno had to retire and was replaced by Toshiki Kaifu.

In 1991, Kaifu left his post due to problems with the reform of the electoral system. Despite his resignation as finance minister in 1988, Kiichi Miyazawa became prime minister. The scandals that caused Shin Kanemaru to retire from the political scene led to the fall of the Miyazawa government and a major setback for the LDP. When Kanemaru was fined a small sum for receiving $4 million in an illegal donation from a yakuza (organized crime) controlled shipping company, public outrage forced him to resign his parliamentary mandate in October 1992. In the general elections in July 1993, held at the initiative of Miyazawa, the LDP was defeated. Seven opposition parties formed an alliance that ended the LDP's 38-year monopoly of power. In August 1993, founder of the New Japan Party Morihiro Hosokawa headed the government, and Takako Doi was elected Speaker of the House of Representatives.

During his ten-month tenure as prime minister, Hosokawa in January 1994 secured the passage of a compromise bill that restricted corporate funding of individual candidates and replaced the lower house's multi-member constituencies with single-member PR constituencies. The defection of several members of his team and fierce opposition forced Hosokawa to resign in April 1994. Former Foreign Minister Tsutomu Hata became Prime Minister. Khata's government was in power for two months. In June 1994, another alliance, consisting of former opponents - the LDP and the Social Democratic Party, supported the candidacy of the socialist leader Tomiichi Murayama for the post of prime minister. In the autumn of that year, a special session of legislators began to revise the boundaries of constituencies.

In the early 1990s, Japan was at the height of prosperity and economic power. However, her position could not be called stable. Asian neighbors, especially South Korea and Taiwan (followed by Thailand and Malaysia), have become large producers of low-cost products, including televisions, personal computers and automobiles, i.e. the very goods that made Japanese exports successful from the 1970s to the mid-1980s. To adapt to the new environment, Japanese industry has focused on advanced and sophisticated products such as optical communications, biotechnology, high-definition televisions, supercomputers, large memory chips, aircraft and space vehicles.