Methods of historical research.

Method is a means of historical research. With the help of research methods, there is an accumulation of historical knowledge, as well as a refinement of ideas about the past.

Methods of historical research are divided into:

• Specially historical.
• General scientific.

The following research methods are specifically historical:

1) The ideographic (descriptive - narrative) method involves not only a description historical events and phenomena, but also reduces to it the functions of historical knowledge in general.

Historical knowledge begins with a description of a particular phenomenon. To reveal the individual originality of the object of historical knowledge, the corresponding language means of expression are used. The ideographic method allows fixing the unique features of a historical phenomenon.

Description is not a random enumeration of information about the depicted, but a coherent presentation that has its own logic and meaning. The logic of the image can, to one degree or another, express the true essence of the depicted

Description is a necessary link in the picture of historical reality, the initial stage of the historical study of any event or process, an important condition and prerequisite for understanding the essence of phenomena. However, by itself it does not provide such an understanding. In fact, description, although an important step in this cognition, is not a universal method. This is just one of the procedures of the historian's thinking. It prepares the ground for further essential-content analysis.

2) The retrospective method (from Latin retro - back and specio - I look) is a consistent immersion in the past in order to identify the causes of events.

Historical processes develop in the direction "from the past to the present", from the formation of the causes of the phenomenon to the emergence of the phenomenon itself. The process of historical knowledge "moves" in the opposite direction: from knowledge about events and phenomena to determining their causes and prerequisites. That is, it refers to how events developed in reality - from cause to effect. The historian goes from the effect to the cause. The significance of earlier historical phenomena can only be comprehended if later ones are taken into account.

The essence of the retrospective method is to use knowledge about a higher stage of historical development to understand and evaluate the previous one. The fact is that in order to understand the essence of the studied event or process of thinking, it is necessary to trace its development from end to end. Each previous stage can be understood not only in terms of its connection with other stages, but also in the light of the subsequent and higher stage of development as a whole, in which the essence of the whole process is most fully expressed.

The essence of the retrospective method was best expressed by K. Marx. It is about understanding quite specific phenomena and about history in general. About the method of studying the medieval community by the German G. L. Maurer, K. Marx wrote: “But the stamp of this “agricultural” community is so clearly expressed in the new community that Maurer, having studied the latter, could restore the first.”

In Russian historiography, the retrospective method was successfully used by I. D. Kovalchenko in the study of agrarian relations in Russia in the 19th century. The essence of the method was an attempt to consider the peasant economy at different system levels: individual peasant farms (yards), a higher level - peasant communities (villages), even higher levels - volosts, counties, provinces. The system of provinces represents the highest level, it was on it, according to the scientist, that the main features of the socio-economic system of the peasant economy were most clearly manifested. ID Kovalchenko believed that their knowledge is necessary to reveal the essence of structures that are at a lower level. The nature of the structure at the lower (household) level, being correlated with its essence at the highest level, shows to what extent the general tendencies in the functioning of the peasant economy were manifested in the individual.

The retrospective method is applicable to the study of not only individual phenomena, but also entire historical epochs. This essence of the method is most clearly expressed by K. Marx. He wrote: “Bourgeois society is the most developed and most versatile historical organization of production. Therefore, the categories that express its relations, the understanding of its organization, at the same time make it possible to penetrate into the organization and production relations of all obsolete social forms, from the fragments and elements of which it is built, partly continuing to drag behind it still unsurmounted remnants, partly developing to its full value that that before there was only a hint, and so on. Human anatomy is the key to monkey anatomy. On the contrary, the hints of the higher in the lower species of animals can only be understood if this higher itself is already known later.

3) "Method of Survivals". In a concrete historical study, the retrospective method is very closely related to the “survival method”, by which historians understand the method of reconstructing objects that have gone into the past according to the remains that have survived and have come down to the modern historian of the era.

The well-known researcher of primitive society E. Taylor (1832-1917) wrote: “Among the evidence that helps us trace the actual course of civilization, there is an extensive class of facts, for which I would consider it convenient to introduce the term “survival”. These are those customs, rituals, views, which, being transferred by force of habit from one stage of culture, to which they were characteristic, to another, later one, remain a living evidence or a monument of the past.

In the broad sense of the word, we can include monuments, information of a relic nature as remnants.

If we are talking about written sources belonging to a certain era, then data or fragments included from older documents may be relic in them. The most striking example of sources containing information about the contemporary era (fixation) of their origin and the remnants of more ancient eras are barbaric truths. Fixing in the form of legal decrees the emergence of the state, the privileges of its officials, these sources contain a lot of information related to the routines of tribal relations, i.e. to customary law.

4) Historical - systemic method is to consider society as complete system. The objective basis for using a systematic approach is the fact that social reality does not consist of separate and isolated objects, phenomena and processes, but is a collection of interconnected and interacting objects, certain integral, systemic formations.

5) Comparative (comparatively - historical) method is a comparison of historical objects in space and time. With the help of the comparative method, simultaneous (synchronous) and non-temporal (diachronic) events can be compared. Comparison makes it possible to identify both similarities in various historical phenomena, as well as their unique, individual features.

The method of comparison has been known in science since the era of Antiquity.

The condition for the productive application of the comparative-historical method is the analysis of single-order events and processes. It is quite clear that such an analysis cannot be realized using this method as such. Until the characteristics of the compared events are given by a detailed, if possible, exhaustive identification of their features, the comparative historical method will not give a result or the result will be false. Moreover, it should be emphasized that the degree of knowledge of the compared should be approximately the same in each case, since the insufficient knowledge of any of the compared events can be taken as their insufficient development, which will inevitably lead to erroneous conclusions. Therefore, the productive use of this method is preceded by a detailed description of what is being studied as a result of the application of the descriptive-narrative method. The description acts as the basis for comparison.

Comparison of the studied phenomena differs in the degree of penetration into their essence. The initial stage of comparative analysis is analogy. Judgments by analogy, whether they concern simple events, actors or complex phenomena and processes, do not contain a decoding of their essence and are usually used as an illustration or proof of something. Analogy does not involve analysis, but the direct transfer of representations from object to object.

The next stage of comparative analysis is the identification of the essential and content characteristics of the subject being studied. In this case, we are talking about a comparison of one-order phenomena as a result of regular recurrence.

In the XVI century. Reformation took place in a number of Western European countries. It was caused by a number of similar reasons; it was based on the transition of society from medieval orders in all spheres of life to new, capitalist ones. This is the "earthly" roots of the Reformation, although its course in different countries had its own characteristics, including the content of the ideas put forward.

The next step in comparative-historical analysis is the method of typology. The typology goes further than the content-essential analysis by means of comparison in the sense that types of single-order phenomena are distinguished.

6) Historical - typological method is to highlight the types of historical phenomena, their classification. The selection of types (classification) of single-order phenomena is based on comparative studies, but is not limited to them. The essence of the historical-typological method is to determine the features (criteria) that can become the basis for classification.

7) The problem-chronological method is the study of the sequence of historical events in time. Since the historical process develops “from the past to the present”, the result of the historical reconstruction of events is the alignment of their sequence according to the chronological principle, the formation of a “chain” of the “links” of history connected by causal relationships.

8) The biographical method is one of the oldest approaches to the study of history.

Some of its features were already identified in ancient historiography. So, Plutarch (c. 45 - c. 127) in his work "Comparative Lives" not only presented the biographies of great people, but also tried to look at their actions as history. Of course, ancient historians did not come to the conclusion that history is a product of human activity. Until the formation of this thesis, there are still whole centuries, since the idea of ​​providentialism dominated the historical thinking for more than a millennium. Even G. W. F. Hegel considered people with their passions, will, actions as puppets of the spirit.

With the development of historiography, the biographical method acquired an ever greater role in historiography. It is especially characteristic of various areas of so-called political historiography, where the subject itself - political history - to a certain extent contributed to the promotion of the role of the personality of a politician as a real bearer of the highest state power.

An extreme expression of the biographical method was a variant of its interpretation associated with the theory of "heroes and the crowd" of the English historian T. Carlyle. This historian outlined his understanding of the role of great personalities in history in the lecture “Heroes, the veneration of heroes and the heroic in history”, read in 1841. In a book published later, he considered history as biographies of great personalities, and the people as a blind and mute instrument of their actions .

Among the most notable varieties of the biographical method is the method of collective biographies of the English historian L. Namier (1888-1960), which he used in the course of studying the activities of the English parliament and subsequently became widespread in a number of national historiographies of the West and in the USA. L. Namier addressed the average, ordinary person, however, not to the person from the street, but to the deputy of the English parliament. This is the novelty of his approach. In 1928 the historian began to write the history of the English parliament, which he presented in the form of a biography of the deputies. L. Namier considered each of them as a representative of a certain social institution and identified the dates of life, social origin and position, education, personal and business ties, behavior in different situations etc. The theoretical concept of the method of collective biographies is connected with the certainty that one can break through to understanding the causes of actions and explaining their nature only through the thickness of biographical details, thus revealing not the imaginary, but the true interests of a person. The only way to do this is to study all the details of his life. In accordance with this, the activity of the parliament looks like just a struggle of its members for power, career, personal well-being.

Narrowing the scope of the biographical method in the historiography of the second half of the 20th century. connected, firstly, with the loss of political history of its former traditional role and, secondly, with the emergence of new branches of historical research in the historical science of a number of countries of the world.

Is the appearance of a great personality an accident or does it depend on the era, on the conditions surrounding it? Undoubtedly, it is only by taking into account the nature of historical conditions that one can understand the actions of a historical personality, and hence the causes of its emergence. She owes her appearance not to herself, more precisely, not only to herself, not only to her talent, will, striving for results, etc., but also to the environment. One can only guess how many people outstanding in their personal qualities remained unknown or did not realize themselves due to the fact that they were prevented by the era in which they lived, that their time had not come, etc. One of these people was the famous Russian statesman MM Speransky (1772-1839), whose reform projects were far ahead of their time. Paradoxically, in order for great commanders to appear, war is needed. In order for a great personality to appear, conditions are necessary, and more specifically, a situation of maturing social change. These changes put forward the personality, against their background the personality becomes great, having a large-scale influence on the course of events by realizing the desire for change by millions who have realized their need.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND YOUTH POLICY

KHANTY-MANSIYSKY AUTONOMOUS REGION - YUGRA

State educational institution

higher vocational education

Khanty-Mansiysk autonomous region- Ugra

"Surgut State Pedagogical University»

MAIN METHODS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Essay

Completed by: Vorobieva E.V. group B-3071,IVGFS rate Checked by: Medvedev V.V.

Surgut

2017

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

The modern historian is faced with the difficult task of developing a research methodology, which should be based on knowledge and understanding of the possibilities of the methods existing in historical science, as well as a balanced assessment of their usefulness, effectiveness, and reliability.

In Russian philosophy, three levels of scientific methods are distinguished: general, general, and particular. The division is based on the degree of regulativeness of cognitive processes.

The general methods include philosophical methods that are used at the basis of all cognitive procedures and allow us to explain all processes and phenomena in nature, society and thinking.

General Methods are applied at all stages of the cognitive process (empirical and theoretical) and by all sciences. At the same time, they are focused on understanding certain aspects of the phenomenon under study.

The third group is private methods. These include the methods of a specific science - for example, a physical or biological experiment, observation, mathematical programming, descriptive and genetic methods in geology, comparative analysis in linguistics, measurement methods in chemistry, physics, etc.

Private methods are directly related to the subject of study of science and reflect its specificity. Each science develops its own system of methods, which is developed and supplemented by related disciplines along with the development of science. This is also characteristic of history, where, along with the traditionally established methods of source study and historiographic analysis based on logical operations, methods of statistics, mathematical modeling, mapping, observation, questioning, etc., began to be used.

Within the framework of a specific science, the main methods are also distinguished - basic for this science (in history it is historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological, historical-systemic, historical-dynamic) and auxiliary methods, with the help of which its individual, particular problems are solved. .

In the process of scientific research, general, general and particular methods interact and form a single whole - methodology. The general method used reveals the most general principles of human thought. General methods make it possible to accumulate and analyze the necessary material, as well as to give the obtained scientific results - knowledge and facts - a logically consistent form. Particular methods are designed to solve specific issues that reveal certain aspects of a cognizable object.

1. GENERAL SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE

General scientific methods include observation and experiment, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analogy and hypothesis, logical and historical, modeling, etc.

Observation and experiment are general scientific methods of cognition, especially widely used in natural science. By observation they mean perception, living contemplation, directed by a specific task without direct interference with the natural course in natural conditions. An essential condition for scientific observation is the promotion of a particular hypothesis, idea, proposal. .

An experiment is such a study of an object when the researcher actively influences it by creating artificial conditions necessary to reveal certain properties, or by changing the course of the process in a given direction.

The cognitive activity of a person, aimed at revealing the essential properties, relationships and connections of objects, first of all singles out from the totality of observed facts those that are involved in his practical activity. A person mentally, as it were, dismembers an object into its component parts, properties, parts. Studying, for example, a tree, a person singles out different parts and sides in it; trunk, roots, branches, leaves, color, shape, size, etc. Cognition of a phenomenon by decomposing it into components is called analysis. In other words, analysis as a method of thinking is a mental decomposition of an object into its constituent parts and sides, which gives a person the opportunity to separate objects or any of their sides from those random and transient connections in which they are given to him in perception. Without analysis, no cognition is possible, although analysis still does not single out the connections between the sides, the properties of phenomena. The latter are established by synthesis. Synthesis is a mental union of elements dissected by analysis .

A person mentally decomposes an object into its constituent parts in order to discover these parts themselves, in order to find out what the whole consists of, and then considers it as composed of these parts, but already examined separately.

Only gradually comprehending what happens to objects when performing practical actions with them, a person began to mentally analyze, synthesize a thing. Analysis and synthesis are the main methods of thinking, because the processes of connection and separation, creation and destruction form the basis of all processes in the world and practical activities person.

Induction and deduction. As a research method, induction can be defined as the process of deriving a general proposition from the observation of a number of single facts. On the contrary, deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular. The inductive method of cognition, which requires going from facts to laws, is dictated by the very nature of the cognizable object: in it, the general exists in unity with the individual, the particular. Therefore, in order to comprehend the general pattern, it is necessary to investigate single things, processes.

Induction is only a moment of movement of thought. It is closely related to deduction: any single object can be comprehended only by being included in the system of concepts already existing in your mind. .

The objective basis of the historical and logical methods of cognition is the real history of the development of a cognizable object in all its concrete diversity and the main, leading trend, the pattern of this development. Thus, the history of the development of mankind is the dynamics of the life of all the peoples of our planet. Each of them has its own unique history, its own characteristics, expressed in everyday life, customs, psychology, language, culture, etc. The World History- this is an infinitely colorful picture of the life of mankind of different eras and countries. Here is necessary, and accidental, and essential, I am secondary, and unique, and similar, and singular, and general. . But despite this endless variety life paths different peoples, their history has something in common. All peoples, as a rule, went through the same socio-economic formations. The commonality of human life is manifested in all areas: economic, social, and spiritual. This commonality expresses the objective logic of history. The historical method involves the study of a specific development process, and the logical method - the study of the general patterns of movement of the object of knowledge. The logical method is nothing else than the same historical method, only freed from its historical form and from the contingencies that violate it.

The essence of the modeling method is to reproduce the properties of an object on its specially arranged analogue - a model. A model is a conditional image of an object. Although any modeling coarsens and simplifies the object of knowledge, it serves as an important auxiliary means of research. It makes it possible to study the processes characteristic of the original, in the absence of the original itself, which is often necessary due to the inconvenience or impossibility of studying the object itself. .

General scientific methods of cognition do not replace concrete scientific methods of research; on the contrary, they are refracted in the latter and are in dialectical unity with them. Together with them, they perform a common task - the reflection of the objective world in the human mind. General scientific methods significantly deepen knowledge and make it possible to reveal more general properties and regularities of reality.

2. SPECIAL METHODS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Special-historical, or general historical, methods of research are one or another combination of general scientific methods aimed at studying the object of historical knowledge, i.e. taking into account the features of this object, expressed in general theory historical knowledge .

The following special historical methods: genetic, comparative, typological, systemic, retrospective, reconstructive, actualization, periodization, synchronous, diachronic, biographical. Methods associated with auxiliary historical disciplines are also used - archeology, genealogy, heraldry, historical geography, historical onomastics, metrology, numismatics, paleography, sphragistics, phaleristics, chronology, etc.

The main general historical methods of scientific research include: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological, and historical-systemic.

Historical-genetic method is one of the most common in historical research. Its essence lies in the consistent disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the studied reality in the process of its historical movement, which allows you to get as close as possible to reproducing real history object. This object is reflected in the most concrete form. Cognition proceeds sequentially from the individual to the particular, and then to the general and universal. By its logical nature, the historical-genetic method is analytical and inductive, and by the form of expressing information about the reality under study, it is descriptive. .

The specificity of this method is not in the construction of ideal images of an object, but in the generalization of actual historical data towards the reconstruction of a general scientific picture of the social process. Its application makes it possible to understand not only the sequence of events in time, but also the general dynamics of the social process.

The limitations of this method are the lack of attention to statics, i.e. to fixing some temporal given of historical phenomena and processes, the danger of relativism may arise. In addition, he “gravitates towards descriptiveness, factualism and empiricism. Finally, the historical-genetic method, for all its antiquity and breadth of application, does not have a developed and clear logic and conceptual apparatus. Therefore, his methodology, and hence his technique, are vague and uncertain, which makes it difficult to compare and bring together the results of individual studies. .

Idiographic method was proposed by G. Rickert as the main method of history . G. Rickert reduced the essence of the idiographic method to the description individual features, unique and exceptional features of historical facts, which are formed by the historian on the basis of their "reference to value". In his opinion, history individualizes events, highlighting them from an infinite set of so-called. "historical individual", which meant both the nation and the state, a separate historical personality .

Based on the idiographic method, it is appliedideographic method - a way to unambiguously record concepts and their relationships using signs, or a descriptive method. The idea of ​​the ideographic method goes back to Lullio and Leibniz .

Historical-genetic method close to the ideographic method, especially when used at the first stage of historical research, when information is extracted from sources, their systematization and processing. Then the researcher's attention is focused on individual historical facts and phenomena, on their description, as opposed to identifying developmental features. .

cognitive functionscomparative historical method :

Identification of signs in phenomena of a different order, their comparison, comparison;

Elucidation of the historical sequence of the genetic connection of phenomena, the establishment of their generic relationships and relationships in the process of development, the establishment of differences in phenomena;

Generalization, building a typology social processes and phenomena. Thus, this method is wider and more meaningful than comparisons and analogies. The latter do not act as a special method historical science. They can be applied in history, as well as in other areas of knowledge, and regardless of the comparative historical method.

In general, the historical-comparative method has broad cognitive capabilities. .

Firstly, it allows revealing the essence of the studied phenomena in those cases when it is not obvious, on the basis of the available facts; to identify the general and repetitive, necessary and natural, on the one hand, and qualitatively different, on the other. This fills in the gaps and completes the study.

Secondly, the historical-comparative method makes it possible to go beyond the phenomena under study and, on the basis of analogies, to come to broad historical generalizations and parallels.

Thirdly, it allows the application of all other general historical methods and is less descriptive than the historical-genetic method.

The successful application of the historical-comparative method, like any other, requires compliance with a number of methodological requirements. First of all, the comparison should be based on specific facts that reflect the essential features of phenomena, and not their formal similarity.

It is possible to compare objects and phenomena both of the same type and of different types, which are at the same and at different stages of development. But in one case, the essence will be revealed on the basis of identifying similarities, in the other - differences. Compliance with these conditions of historical comparisons in essence means the consistent implementation of the principle of historicism.

Revealing the significance of the features on the basis of which a historical-comparative analysis should be carried out, as well as the typology and stages of the compared phenomena most often requires special research efforts and the use of other general historical methods, primarily historical-typological and historical-systemic. In combination with these methods, the historical-comparative method is a powerful tool in historical research. But this method, of course, has a certain range of the most effective action. It is primarily the study of social historical development in broad spatial and temporal aspects, as well as those less broad phenomena and processes, the essence of which cannot be revealed through direct analysis due to their complexity, inconsistency and incompleteness, as well as gaps in specific historical data .

The historical-comparative method is inherent in a certain limitation, and one should also bear in mind the difficulties of its application. This method as a whole is not aimed at revealing the reality in question. Through it, first of all, the root essence of reality in all its diversity, and not its specific specificity, is known. It is difficult to apply the historical-comparative method in studying the dynamics of social processes. The formal application of the historical-comparative method is fraught with erroneous conclusions and observations .

Historical-typological method. Both the identification of the general in the spatio-singular and the isolation of the stadial-homogeneous in the continuous-temporal require special cognitive means. Such a tool is the method of historical-typological analysis. Typologization as a method of scientific knowledge aims to divide (order) a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively defined types (classes) on the basis of their common essential features. Typologization, being a type of classification in form, is a method of essential analysis .

Revealing the qualitative certainty of the considered set of objects and phenomena is necessary to identify the types that form this set, and knowledge of the essential-content nature of types is an indispensable condition for determining those basic features that are inherent in these types and which can be the basis for a specific typological analysis, i.e. to reveal the typological structure of the reality under study.

The principles of the typological method can only be effectively applied on the basis of a deductive approach. . It consists in the fact that corresponding types are distinguished on the basis of a theoretical essential-content analysis of the considered set of objects. The result of the analysis should be not only the identification of qualitatively different types, but also the identification of those specific features that characterize their qualitative certainty. This creates the possibility of assigning each individual object to a particular type.

The selection of specific features for typology can be multivariate. This dictates the need to use both a combined deductive-inductive and inductive approach in typology. The essence of the deductive-inductive approach is that the types of objects are determined on the basis of an essential-content analysis of the phenomena under consideration, and those essential features that are inherent in them - by analyzing empirical data about these objects .

The inductive approach differs in that here both the selection of types and the identification of their most characteristic features are based on an analysis of empirical data. It is necessary to follow this path in cases where the manifestations of the individual in the particular and the particular in the general are diverse and unstable.

In cognitive terms, the most effective typification is one that allows not only to single out the corresponding types, but also to establish both the degree to which objects belong to these types and the measure of their similarity with other types. This requires methods of multidimensional typology.

Its use brings the most scientific effect in the study of homogeneous phenomena and processes, although the scope of the method is not limited to them. In the study of both homogeneous and heterogeneous types, it is equally important that the objects under study be comparable in terms of the main fact for this typification, in terms of the most characteristics underlying historical typology .

Historical-system method based on a systematic approach. The objective basis of the systematic approach and method of scientific knowledge is the unity in the socio-historical development of the individual (individual), special and general. This unity is real and concrete and appears in socio-historical systems. different levels .

Individual events have features that are unique to them and are not repeated in other events. But these events form certain types and types of human activity and relations, and, consequently, along with individual ones, they also have common features and thereby create certain aggregates with properties that go beyond the individual, i.e. certain systems.

Individual events are included in social systems and through historical situations. The historical situation is a spatio-temporal set of events that form a qualitatively defined state of activity and relations, i.e. it is the same social system.

Finally, the historical process in its time span has qualitatively different stages or stages, which include a certain set of events and situations that make up subsystems in the overall dynamic system of social development. .

The systemic nature of socio-historical development means that all events, situations and processes of this development are not only causally determined and have a causal relationship, but also functionally related. Functional connections, as it were, overlap causal connections, on the one hand, and have complex nature, with another. On this basis, it is believed that in scientific knowledge, not a causal, but a structural-functional explanation should be of decisive importance. .

The system approach and system methods of analysis, which include structural and functional analyzes, are characterized by integrity and complexity. The system under study is considered not from the side of its individual aspects and properties, but as a holistic qualitative certainty with a comprehensive account of both its own main features and its place and role in the hierarchy of systems. However, the practical implementation of this analysis initially requires the isolation of the system under study from an organically unified hierarchy of systems. This procedure is called system decomposition. She presents a complex cognitive process, because it is often very difficult to distinguish certain system from the unity of systems .

The isolation of the system should be carried out on the basis of identifying a set of objects (elements) that have a qualitative certainty, expressed not just in certain properties of these elements, but, above all, in their inherent relationships, in their characteristic system of relationships. The isolation of the system under study from the hierarchy of systems must be justified. In this case, methods of historical and typological analysis can be widely used.

From the point of view of specific content, the solution of this problem is reduced to the identification of system-forming (systemic) features inherent in the components of the selected system.

After the identification of the corresponding system, its analysis as such follows. Structural analysis is central here, i.e. identification of the nature of the relationship between the components of the system and their properties, the result of structural and system analysis will be knowledge about the system as such. This knowledge is empirical in nature, because it does not in itself reveal the essential nature of the revealed structure. The transfer of the acquired knowledge to the theoretical level requires the identification of the functions of this system in the hierarchy of systems, where it appears as a subsystem. This problem is solved by functional analysis, which reveals the interaction of the system under study with systems more high level .

Only a combination of structural and functional analysis makes it possible to cognize the essential-content nature of the system in all its depth. System-functional analysis makes it possible to identify which properties environment, i.e. systems of a higher level, including the system under study as one of the subsystems, determine the essential-content nature of this system .

The disadvantage of this method is that it is used only for synchronous analysis, which is fraught with non-disclosure of the development process. Another drawback is the danger of excessive abstraction - the formalization of the reality under study.

Retrospective method . A distinctive feature of this method is the direction from the present to the past, from the effect to the cause. In its content, the retrospective method acts, first of all, as a reconstruction technique that allows you to synthesize, correct knowledge about general phenomena .

The technique of retrospective cognition consists in sequential penetration into the past in order to identify the cause of a given event. In this case, we are talking about the root cause, directly related to this event, and not about its distant historical roots. Retro-analysis shows, for example, that the root cause of domestic bureaucracy lies in the Soviet party-state structure, although they tried to find it in Nicholas Russia, and in the Petrine reforms, and in the bureaucracy of the Muscovite kingdom. If in retrospection the path of knowledge is a movement from the present to the past, then in the construction of a historical explanation it is from the past to the present in accordance with the principle of diachrony .

Whole line special-historical methods associated with the category of historical time.These are the methods of actualization, periodization, synchronous and diachronic (or problem-chronological).

The first step in the work of a historian is the compilation of a chronology. The second step is periodization. The historian cuts history into periods, replaces the elusive continuity of time with some signifying structure. Relations of discontinuity and continuity are revealed: continuity takes place within periods, discontinuity - between periods.

Periodization means, therefore, to identify discontinuities, discontinuities, to indicate what exactly is changing, to date these changes and give them a preliminary definition. Periodization deals with the identification of continuity and its violations. It opens the way for interpretation. It makes history, if not quite understandable, then at least already conceivable.

The historian does not reconstruct time in its entirety for each new study: he takes the time that other historians have already worked on, the periodization of which is available. Since the question being asked acquires legitimacy only as a result of its inclusion in the research field, the historian cannot abstract from previous periodizations: after all, they constitute the language of the profession.

The diachronic method is characteristic of structural-diachronic research, which is a special kind of research activities, when the problem of identifying the features of the construction in time of processes of various nature is solved. Its specificity is revealed through comparison with the synchronistic approach. The terms "diachrony" (simultaneity) and "synchrony" (simultaneity), introduced into linguistics by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure, characterize the sequence of development of historical phenomena in a certain area of ​​reality (diachrony) and the state of these phenomena at a certain point in time (synchrony) .

Diachronic (multi-temporal) analysis is aimed at studying the essential-temporal changes in historical reality. With its help, you can answer questions about when this or that state can occur in the course of the process under study, how long it will last, how long this or that historical event, phenomenon, process will take. .

CONCLUSION

Methods of scientific knowledge is a set of techniques, norms, rules and procedures that regulate Scientific research, and providing a solution to the research problem. The scientific method is a way of finding answers to scientifically posed questions and at the same time a way of posing such questions formulated in the form of scientific problems. Thus, the scientific method is a way of obtaining new information to solve scientific problems.

History as a subject and a science is based on historical methodology. If in many other scientific disciplines there are two main methods of cognition, namely observation and experiment, then only the first method is available for history. Even despite the fact that every true scientist tries to minimize the impact on the object of observation, he still interprets what he sees in his own way. Depending on the methodological approaches used by scientists, the world receives different interpretations of the same event, various teachings, schools, and so on.

The use of scientific methods of cognition distinguishes historical science in such areas as historical memory, historical consciousness and historical knowledge, provided, of course, that the use of these methods is correct.

LIST OF SOURCES USED

Barg M.A. Categories and methods of historical science. - M., 1984

Bocharov A.V. Basic Methods of Historical Research: Textbook. - Tomsk: Tomsk State University, 2006. 190 p.

Grushin B.A. Essays on the logic of historical research.-M., 1961

Ivanov V.V. Methodology of historical science. - M., 1985

Bocharov A.V. Basic Methods of Historical Research: Textbook. - Tomsk: Tomsk State University, 2006. 190 p.

History as a subject and a science is based on historical methodology. If in many other scientific disciplines there are two main ones, namely observation and experiment, then only the first method is available for history. Even despite the fact that every true scientist tries to minimize the impact on the object of observation, he still interprets what he sees in his own way. Depending on the methodological approaches used by scientists, the world receives different interpretations of the same event, various teachings, schools, and so on.

There are the following methods of historical research:
- brain teaser,
- general scientific,

special,
- interdisciplinary.

historical research
In practice, historians have to use research based on logical and general scientific methods. The logical ones include analogy and comparison, modeling and generalization, and others.

Synthesis implies the reunion of an event or object from smaller components, that is, the movement from simple to complex is used here. The complete opposite of synthesis is analysis, in which one has to move from the complex to the simple.

No less important are such research methods in history as induction and deduction. The latter makes it possible to develop a theory based on the systematization of empirical knowledge about the object under study, deriving numerous consequences. Induction, on the other hand, translates everything from the particular to the general, often probabilistic, position.

Scientists also use analgia and comparison. The first makes it possible to see some similarity between different objects that have big number relations, properties and other things, and comparison is a judgment about the signs of difference and similarity between objects. Comparison is extremely important for qualitative and quantitative characteristics, classification, evaluation and other things.

The methods of historical research are especially distinguished by modeling, which only allows one to assume a connection between objects in order to reveal their location in the system, and generalization - a method that highlights common features that make it possible to make an even more abstract version of an event or some other process.

General scientific methods of historical research
In this case, the above methods are supplemented by empirical methods of cognition, that is, experiment, observation and measurement, as well as theoretical methods of research, such as mathematical methods, transitions from the abstract to the concrete and vice versa, and others.

Special Methods of Historical Research
One of the most important in this area is which not only highlights the underlying problems of phenomena, but also points out similarities and features in historical processes, points out the trends of certain events.

At one time, the theory of K. Marx was especially widespread, and it was opposed to which the civilizational method acted.

Interdisciplinary research methods in history
Like any other science, history is interconnected with other disciplines that help to understand the unknown in order to explain certain historical events. For example, using the techniques of psychoanalysis, historians have been able to interpret the behavior historical figures. Very important is the interaction between geography and history, which resulted in the cartographic method of research. Linguistics made it possible to learn a lot about early history based on the synthesis of the approaches of history and linguistics. There are also very close links between history and sociology, mathematics, and so on.

Research is a separate section of cartography, which is of great historical and economic importance. With its help, you can not only determine the place of residence of individual tribes, indicate the movement of tribes, etc., but also find out the location of minerals and other important objects.

Obviously, history is closely interconnected with other sciences, which greatly facilitate research and make it possible to obtain more complete and extensive information about the object under study.

History performs several socially significant functions.

cognitive function consists in a concrete study of the historical path of Russia and its peoples, in a theoretical generalization of historical facts and events that took place in Russia. In scientific language, the word "history" is often used as a process of movement in time and as a process of knowledge in time. Therefore, when studying the course national history it is important to know the process of origin, formation and functioning Russian state at various stages of its development.

Practical advisory function lies in the fact that history in general, and the history of Russia in particular, by revealing the patterns of development of society, helps to develop scientifically based foreign and domestic policy, the life of the country, international relations, direct the activities of historical figures and political parties.

educational function - plays an important role in the formation of a scientific worldview, in the knowledge of the laws of development human society. History provides documented accurate data on outstanding events of the past. Their comprehension develops a view of the world, society, the laws of development.

History is based on facts: objective events of the past, and we receive facts from various sources. Distinguish:

Material sources (material), or monuments of human activity (tools, household items, weapons, etc.;

Written sources: chronicles, legislative acts, memoirs);

Folklore sources;

Linguistic sources;

Visual sources (graphic, artistic);

Phonetic sources (film, photo, audio, video).

No source, by itself, can give an estimate of the past. It only reproduces or helps to reconstruct the historical fact, the truth. Only a historian, on the basis of studying sources of various origins, establishes the veracity of information, i.e. recreates a real picture of the past, interprets, explains it. And since each researcher has his own scientific concept, his own vision of history, the facts receive a different assessment and interpretation.

This is how theoretical concepts or approaches to the study of history are developed.

historical method - this is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations: through historical facts, ways of extracting new knowledge from facts.

Research methods of historical science are divided into the following groups.

1.3.1. General scientific methods of historical research:

- logical– establishment of causal relationships between phenomena, which allows you to arrange events in a logical order and derive one fact from another;

- classification- grouping facts according to certain features and criteria;

- historicism- consideration of phenomena not in isolation, but taking into account previous and subsequent events;

- analysis and synthesis- the decomposition of the process under study into its component parts and the combination of new components into a new whole.

1.3.2. Socio-historical research methods:

- chronological - a presentation of events in the order in which they occurred; when studying the history of Russia, the following chronological methods are used:

Actually chronological, the essence of which is that the phenomena are presented in a strict chronological order;

- chronologically problematic, provides for the study of history by periods, and within them - by problems;

- problem-chronological, studying any one side of the life and activities of the state in its consistent, chronological development;

Much less common, but used synchronous method, which allows you to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia or its regions.

- comparative historical - highlighting historical events in one or more countries and comparing them according to various parameters;

- historical simulation – creation of a theoretical model to explain the most important processes in a particular society.

Historians use the results of almost all humanities(disciplines): geography, economics, religious studies. Auxiliaries stand out in particular. historical disciplines who study material sources: paleography (studies the material and tools of writing, changes in graphics, the system of accepted abbreviations in writing), heraldry (coats of arms and their symbols), sphragistics (seals, inscriptions on them, material, era of manufacture, nature of use) , numismatics (the study of coins), chronology and metrology (studies calendars, a system of calculations and measures), source studies (studies historical documents to establish the time and place of their creation, authorship, purpose of writing, reliability), historigraphy (from the Greek "History" - intelligence , the study of the past, and "Grapho" - I write. This term is often used to refer to historical literature, meaning not only the content, but also the authorship).

1.4. The general objective of the discipline "History of the unified state system for the prevention and elimination emergencies(RSChS) and civil defense (GO)”: the study of the origins, development and improvement of the national system of civil protection.

The main task of training: the formation of high morale-combat, professional and patriotic qualities in trainees, necessary for future specialists in the field of technosphere safety (life safety); familiarization of students with the historical prerequisites for the occurrence of emergencies in the wars for freedom and national interests of Russia; substantiation of the historical importance of the creation of the State Rescue Service in our country; creation of a scientific and informational basis for the organization and conduct by graduates of special historical work in accordance with the order of the Minister of the Ministry of Emergency Situations No. 734 of December 21, 1998 (see Appendix).

It makes no sense to study the exploits of the past without a firm faith in the future. In this, by no means a new saying, lies the truth, which largely determines the need to study history in educational institutions training specialists in the field of civil protection.

The history of the Russian state is also the history of its defense, including armed defense. It is well known that the importance of history in educational process determined primarily by its enormous cognitive capabilities. For a civil protection specialist, knowledge of special history is an essential part of his general and professional readiness, an integral part of general cultural development. The need to study special history stems from the role that historical experience plays in the development of all areas of modern military affairs.

Special historical knowledge occupies a special place in the formation of personal, primarily moral and combat qualities of future civil protection specialists. They actively help students to establish themselves in the conviction that the path they have chosen of selfless service to their people is the path true and necessary for the Fatherland.

The study of the experience of defensive (defensive, including military) construction of Russia, the organization and implementation of its defense can and should become an inexhaustible source of historical optimism for future specialists. History testifies that in the best times for the spiritual rise of the Fatherland and in the darkest years for it, the most noble forces of the nation gathered in the army and other power structures. Understanding this allows future specialists to form that courageous idealism in serving the Fatherland, which has traditionally been inherent in the best representatives of the corps of defenders of our Motherland at all stages of its history. It is this quality, based on knowledge of special and military history, will make it possible to successfully resist any attempts of disorientation, disinformation, blackmail and defamation in order to deform consciousness and betray the duty of a specialist defender of the Motherland, as it often happened relatively recently around our army and navy.

In the daily creative activity of a civil protection specialist, his ability to correctly navigate the main directions of development of the civil protection system and skillfully use all the possibilities of the latest means and methods of protection to successfully complete the tasks is becoming increasingly important.

Practice shows that the complex and responsible tasks of training and educating subordinates, maintaining high combat readiness and combat capability of command and control bodies, forces and means of civil protection require specialists correct understanding laws of social development, knowledge of the essence and content contemporary problems civil protection, the ability to deeply understand the dialectics of its forms, means and methods.

The complexity and specificity of the functional duties performed by civil protection specialists, as well as the special responsibility assigned to them during higher degrees readiness and modes of operation make increased demands on their morale, combat and professional qualities. The formation of these qualities can be successful only if the trainees have a solid worldview foundation, in the creation of which special historical training provides especially favorable opportunities.

In particular, an active way of influencing the formation of the scientific worldview of students is to reveal to them the content of the main methodological problems of the history of civil protection. These problems are primarily definition of the object and subject, structure, functions and boundaries of the history of the CP, analysis common properties its subject, its relationship with other social and special sciences, characterization of the principles of mutual relations of individual parts and aspects of historical science, consideration of their subordination and coordination, disclosure of content, patterns and general provisions the history of the CP, as well as their role in relation to its special and particular provisions.

The disclosure of the problems of the history of civil defense in combination with the structure of military history contributes to the formation of the scientific worldview of students. In particular, the fixed distinction between the two areas of historical knowledge and the clarification of their interrelationships and correlations contribute to a deep disclosure of the nature, content of not only civil protection, but also armed struggle, war in general, help to correctly understand their laws and individual specific aspects, understand the principles, categories and conceptual apparatus.

Thus, an opportunity is created for revealing and in-depth understanding of the conformity of the laws of materialistic dialectics with the real cause-and-effect relationships of nature and society. This way, already at the first acquaintance with the subject of historical training, there is a consolidation and development of those fundamental principles of the worldview of the defender of the Motherland, the content of which was set forth in the process of studying social disciplines at the previous levels of education (at school and university).

An opportunity is created to study all the specific forms in which the basic laws of materialistic dialectics can manifest themselves, acting as a universal universal connection both in war and in any emergency, as well as in conditions of ensuring technospheric security. It seems possible to fill the categories of materialistic dialectics, which are concepts of the ultimate degree of generality, with specific content - knowledge about the development of phenomena and processes of civil protection and technospheric security.

Consequently, with a sufficiently high cognitive activity of students and the necessary depth of study of the discipline, a sufficiently deep formation of a single categorical system of scientific thinking of a civil protection specialist is possible. This will allow developing creative abilities, learning the correct objective approach to analyzing the internal structure of the protection system, both in wartime conditions and in emergency situations, to identifying the specifics of using various means and methods of protection and security in specific situations. historical conditions to the search for ways to prevent and eliminate the consequences of emergencies.

Experience shows that using the possibilities of history to form the scientific outlook of future specialists, starting with the first lecture, can be successfully continued in the course of studying the discipline. At the first, initial stage, this is manifested in the ordering, systematization of the existing individual concepts and ideas that are of a worldview nature. Gradually, during training sessions And independent work, there can and should be a quantitative accumulation of information that forms the basis of a specialist's professional thinking. Ultimately, it is precisely those intellectual skills and abilities that testify to the maturity and strength of the worldview positions of a specialist are formed.

Exclusively important role historical preparation plays in the formation of the political (state) thinking of a specialist. The past, imprinted on the pages of history, is essentially an important element of our worldview, which allows us to determine the correct position on the most burning problems of our time. The progressive minds of mankind at all times noted that knowledge of history does not burden the memory, but makes a person wiser, able, based on the experience of the past, to solve the problems of today, to lift the veil over the future. Particularly fruitful in this respect is special history, including military history. Its knowledge gives everyone the opportunity to think in particular about such facts: there was the First World War, was the second. Will it be possible to prevent the third - the most unthinkable? After all, if reliable barriers are not put in the way of its preparation and unleashing, then the probable alternative may be the absence of a future for billions of people on earth. One of the important factors in preventing the possibility of unleashing a new world war is, as is well known, the strengthening of the state's defense might and the increased readiness of the Armed Forces to prevent and, if necessary, suppress aggression.

The experience of history teaches that if difficulties arise in the world, crisis or pre-crisis phenomena, a deterioration in the economic situation, a weakening of the combat effectiveness of the armed forces, the supporters of aggression become more rigid and arrogant. And today, in the context of a tense foreign policy struggle to maintain military-strategic parity at a gradually lowering level, the policy of preventing war is unthinkable without maintaining the high combat readiness of the Russian Armed Forces, their ability to suppress any outside encroachment on the security of the state. At the same time, the system of civil protection (civil defense) of the country, as an integral part of the system national security and the country's defense capability must be ready to perform tasks in any scenario of the deployment of military operations and large-scale terrorist acts, including in conditions of massive use by the enemy of modern and advanced weapons, as well as to take part in the protection of the population and territories in emergency situations of a natural and man-made nature as well as terrorist attacks.

Thus, understanding the laws of historical development, the ability to draw the right conclusions for the future based on the analysis of the course and outcome of past wars and emergencies will lead the student to a conscious perception of the importance for the preservation of peace of the activity that awaits him after graduation. It is the knowledge of history that allows the student to fully appreciate the meaning and interconnection of such concepts as peace, vigilance and combat readiness. Based on historical experience, they are more confidently oriented in the modern situation, realizing that if a war is blazing somewhere, hotbeds of military conflicts are smoldering, the legitimate rights of peoples are being violated, then this threatens not only the regional, but also the world world with emergencies on a global scale. It is history that repeatedly testifies: in the event of an aggravation of the international situation, the boundaries between political struggle and military clashes can become very thin, fragile, unstable, and in this case only extreme vigilance and the highest combat readiness can save the world from catastrophe.

Increasing the methodological armament of future specialists, special historical knowledge at the same time actively helps to form in them high morale-combat and political qualities necessary for further professional activity. Revealing the heroic past of our people, especially its military and labor traditions, historical science contributes to raising the morale of soldiers, civil protection specialists, instilling patriotism in them, it actively participates in the formation of a moral and political factor - the most important component of ensuring the country's security.

IN modern conditions it is especially important to emphasize the role of historical knowledge in patriotic education citizens. In order to unobtrusively and effectively influence the formation of civil state consciousness, especially among young people, in order to correctly and effectively direct their education, it should be remembered that the most confident civil development of a person occurs when it begins with history, with the memory of the heroic past of the Motherland. And it is necessary to constantly study, to be able to truthfully and honestly present the glorious history of the Fatherland, the origins of the courage and heroism of the defenders of the Motherland, not bypassing the difficulties and dramatic pages of their activities in the field of civil protection. At the same time, one should not forget, from the standpoint of scientific objectivity, to see and understand how dearly one had to pay for voluntaristic mistakes, dogmatism in thinking, for inertia in practical actions. It is absolutely clear that one cannot count on success in this difficult task if the civil protection specialist himself does not have a clear moral position, which can only serve as a reliable compass that provides a choice of methods and arguments for analyzing, explaining and correctly politically evaluating the events and facts of national history. . It is natural to assume that the formation of such a position should take place in the course of training at a university. And the special historical training of students is essentially called upon to ensure this process.

Thus, the study of the experience of the history of our country allows professionals to confidently find their place both in the process of implementing new concepts of civil protection and in implementing the provisions of the modern doctrine of state defense and defense.

It follows from the foregoing that the role and functions of the special historical training of BSARF students are very wide and diverse. Specifically, they basically boil down to the following:

To study and comprehend that part of the general historical process that is associated with wars and emergency situations of wartime and peacetime;

To assimilate social experience that is of theoretical and practical importance for solving the defensive, defense tasks of our state, for the development of modern military art, the theory and practice of civil protection;

To educate new generations of certified professionals, and through them all employees of our service, on the heroic, patriotic traditions of defending the Motherland;

Actively assist the leadership of the EMERCOM of Russia, all rescue services in the fight against all kinds of anti-scientific conjectures, versions and false theories in the field of history, against its use as a means of ideological struggle;

To enable professionals to properly understand contemporary defense policy and draw the right conclusions from it for their own needs. practical work in the civil protection system.

1.5. Target setting and organizational guidelines for the study of the discipline "History of the unified state system for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (GO)".

As a result of studying the discipline, students should

Have an idea:

On the experience of preventing and eliminating emergency situations in peacetime;

On the practice of using civil defense formations of foreign countries and organizations international cooperation on issues of prevention and liquidation of emergencies of various nature;

Know:

The history of MPVO, GO, RSChS at all stages of their origin and development during the years of the Great Patriotic War, in local wars, armed conflicts, as well as in the elimination of major industrial accidents, catastrophes and natural disasters;

The reasons for the emergence and development of emergencies in the military solution of geopolitics problems on the examples of domestic military history in the interests of the possible peacekeeping activities of the EMERCOM of Russia.

Be able to:

Apply the principles of historicism in a creative approach to solving the problems of their practical professional activities upon graduation from the academy;

Use the experience of national military history to affirm in the minds of subordinate personnel the ideas of patriotism, the selfless fulfillment of the professional duty of a rescuer, a sense of pride in belonging to an important component of the national security of the Fatherland - the Defense Forces of Russia.

The discipline "History of the unified state system for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (GO)" is studied in a complex of operational and tactical disciplines that profile the training of undergraduate students of the academy.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH - 1) a system of theoretical and empirical procedures aimed at obtaining new knowledge necessary to achieve the goals (3); 2) a special type of cognitive activity, the distinguishing feature of which is the creation of new knowledge (4). Historical research as a special type of cognitive activity is associated with cognitive modeling historical reality, the purpose of which is to obtain new historical knowledge with the help of certain scientific means and research activities. Historical knowledge as a result of scientific research represents various models of historical reality as its formally structured images or representations, expressed in symbolic form, in the form of the language of historical science. Since these models are formally structured images or representations, they contain certain errors in relation to the historical reality they reproduce. This is due to the fact that no model can reproduce all its aspects, and therefore this or that model always leaves something out of consideration, due to which some aspects of the historical reality being modeled are described and explained incorrectly. Since any formal system is either incomplete or contradictory, historical knowledge as a model of historical reality always contains an error associated with either an incomplete description (simple model) or an inconsistent description (complex model) of this reality. The error contained in the model is discovered as it begins to interfere with the solution of other problems associated with the modeled object. The scientific problems that arise due to such model errors encourage scientists to build new, more advanced models; however, the new models again contain errors, but with respect to other aspects of the historical reality being studied. Historical research as a professional activity is carried out in a certain cultural and epistemological context, and in order to be scientific, it must correspond to certain attributive features, such as: rationality; striving for truth; problematic; goal setting; reflexivity; objectivity; empiricism; theorism; methodology; dialogism; novelty; contextuality. I. and. how cognitive activity is a culturally organized and motivated activity directed at an object (a fragment of a historical

reality), therefore, the structure of historical research is the interaction-dialogue of the subject of historical research with its subject using such means as methodology, which determines the method of this interaction, and historical sources, which are the basis for obtaining empirical information about the subject of cognitive interest. Historical research is a certain sequence of interrelated cognitive actions, which can be expressed as the following logical scheme: the emergence of cognitive interest - the definition of the object of historical research - a critical analysis of the system of scientific knowledge about the object of historical research - the formulation of a scientific problem - the definition of the goal of research - the system analysis of the object research - setting research objectives - defining the subject of research - choosing the methodological foundations of research - determining the body of sources of empirical information - implementing research activities at the empirical and theoretical levels - obtaining new conceptually completed scientific knowledge. Cognitive interest in a certain fragment of historical reality, called the object of historical research, acts as a motive for research activities. Critical analysis of the system of scientific knowledge about the object of historical research makes it possible to formulate a scientific problem, and after its completion - to reflect on the scientific novelty of historical research. Critical analysis of the system of scientific knowledge, which implies the establishment of its authenticity, allows us to formulate the scientific problem of historical research as a question, answering which the scientist intends to obtain fundamentally new scientific knowledge. The scientific problem, without which, in principle, scientific research itself is impossible, sets its goal, which makes it possible to determine the boundaries of the subject area of ​​historical research. The content of the subject of historical research is determined by its tasks, the formulation of which is carried out within the framework of the methodological consciousness of the scientist on the basis of a preliminary system analysis of the subject area of ​​research. This analysis involves the construction of a cognitive model of the subject area of ​​historical research as a whole, makes it possible to express it in a system of basic concepts, set tasks and define the subject of research in the form of a list of questions, the answers to which make it possible to implement a cognitive research strategy aimed at obtaining new historical knowledge on based on a representative base of sources of empirical information with the help of the most effective methodological guidelines associated with the solution of a particular class of research problems. This kind of methodological guidelines, or scientific paradigms developed within the framework of various models of historical research, determine certain cognitive activities scientist during its implementation. In their structure, one can single out actions related to: a) obtaining representative empirical information from historical sources (source study level); b) with the receipt of scientific facts based on empirical information, their systematization and description, the creation of empirical knowledge ( empirical level); c) with the interpretation and explanation of scientific facts, the development of theoretical knowledge (theoretical level); d) conceptualization of scientific empirical and theoretical knowledge (conceptual level); e) presentation and translation of scientific historical knowledge (presentation and communication level).

A.V. Lubsky

The definition of the concept is cited from the ed.: Theory and Methodology of Historical Science. Terminological dictionary. Rep. ed. A.O. Chubaryan. [M.], 2014, p. 144-146.

Literature:

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