Below is a glossary of terms in history, which will be needed when passing the exam.

The terms are in alphabetical order from A to Z.

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• Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the highest degree of centralization is achieved, a standing army and police are created, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus is created. The activities of estate-representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia fell on the XVIII-XIX centuries.
• Autonomization- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin's proposal to include independent Soviet republics in the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.
• excise tax(lat. trim) - a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced in domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the item. existed in Russia until 1917.
• Anarchism(Greek anarchy) - a socio-political trend advocating the destruction of all state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Later, Russian anarchism manifested itself during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.
• Annexation(lat. accession) - the forcible seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.
• antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.
• "Arakcheevshchina"- the internal political course of the autocracy in last decade(1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I. Named after the trustee of the emperor - A.A. Arakcheev. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of Russian society: planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, intensifying persecution of education and the press. Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

• Corvee- gratuitous forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvée has already been recorded in Russkaya Pravda. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th century. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a labor system.
• Baskak- Representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled the local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. - Horde tribute collector.
• white guard- military formations that spoke out after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. White color was considered a symbol of "lawful order". military strength white movement- The White Guard - an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of the officers of the Russian army, headed by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.
• white matter- Ideology and politics of the White Guard. It was an independent trend in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The beginning of the movement was in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated "restoring order" in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​a "united and indivisible" Russia, the primacy Orthodox Church, fidelity to the historical "principles", but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the "democratic counter-revolution" in the person of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but in the future, the monarchist tendency with the idea of ​​​​restoring the monarchy became more and more clearly manifested. The White movement failed to offer a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces in the whitest movement, the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.
• "Bironovshchina"- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of "Bironism": political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, strict taxation, drill in the army.
• Middle thought- advice close to the Grand Duke, and then to the king. At Basil III the Middle Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the XVI century. The Near Duma was in fact the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the 17th century. especially trusted persons began to favor “in the room” (hence the name - Secret Thought, Room Thought). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many respects opposed the Boyar Duma.
• Bolshevism- an ideological and political trend in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of the governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the XX century. rejected many provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.
• Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the XV century. - the highest rank among service people "in the fatherland" in the Russian state. The boyars occupied the highest positions, headed the orders, were governors. The rite was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma is in Russia the highest council under the prince (since 1547 under the tsar) in the X-XVIII centuries. Legislative body, discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.
• "Bulyginskaya Duma"- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of the Interior A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative advisory body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convocation of the "Bulygin Duma" was disrupted by the revolutionary events in October 1905.
• Bureaucracy(Greek domination of the office) - 1) The control system, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

• Varangians(Normans, Vikings) - this is how participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes) were called in Rus'.
• "Great Menaion"(monthly readings) - Russian ecclesiastical and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a monthly collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian hagiographies, writings of the "fathers of the church", as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.
• rope- territorial community Ancient Rus' and the South Slavs.
• Supreme Privy Council- higher government agency Russia in 1726-1730 Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.
• Veche(old word Bern - advice) - popular assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. The first chronicle references to the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development was in the Russian cities of the second half of the XI-XII centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded agreements with other lands, etc.
• Governor- military leader, ruler of the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term "voivode" meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people's militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. the post of city governor appeared, who headed the military and civil administration of the city and county. From the beginning of the 17th century governors were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719. governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775 the post of voivode was abolished.
• Courts-martial- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out expedited trials and immediate reprisals for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.
• Military Industrial Committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.
• military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the planting of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruiting sets. "Settled troops" settled on state (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both military service and agricultural work. In 1817-1826. Count Arakcheev was in charge of the military settlements. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.
• "War Communism"- a kind of economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the resources of the country in the hands of the state. "War Communism" was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features are: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer of defense plants and transport to martial law, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of food surplus and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the face of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor service (since 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some of the features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society dreamed of by Marxists. In 1921, "war communism" showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the country's peaceful development, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.
• Volosteli- in the Russian principalities from the 11th century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the XVI century. official in rural areas - volosts. Volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.
• "Free Plowmen"- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for release could be: a one-time redemption, a redemption with installment payment, working off corvee. The landlords could release the peasants without a ransom. By the middle of the XIX century. about 100 thousand male souls were released. In 1848, the free cultivators were renamed into state peasants, settled on their own lands.
• Eastern question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in history international relations the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening Ottoman Empire(Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the Eastern question. The Eastern question escalated during Crimean War(1853-1856). Russia was losing its position in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured the dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in Russian-Turkish war(1877-1878) and the signing of the victorious peace in San Stefano, was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. From the end of the 19th century and before Turkey's participation in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was an integral part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After the surrender of Turkey in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire took place, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the powers of the Entente established new borders of the Turkish state.
• Votchina(fatherland - passed from the father, sometimes from the grandfather) - the oldest type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant form of land ownership. From the 15th century existed alongside the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually faded away. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by a decree of 1714 on single inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.
• Temporarily liable peasants- a category of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants carried duties (share-cropping or dues) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship has not been established. Having redeemed the allotment, the temporarily liable were transferred to the category of landowners. But until that moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was issued on the mandatory redemption of allotments of temporarily liable peasants. In some regions of Russia, temporarily liable relations remained until 1917.
• All-Russian market- the economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of the economies of certain regions of the country in the production of certain types of products and the strengthening of the exchange of goods between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of a single market.
• Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the allies of the USSR in anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 landing in Normandy.
• Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with peasant reform 1861 In order to buy land plots from the landlords, the peasants were given a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of the redemption payments depended on the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased from 1907.

• Guard- privileged (i.e., enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the "amusing" troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it turned into a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. Since the beginning of the XIX century. loses its importance as a political force, retaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. In the Great Patriotic War, from September 1941, the rank of guard units for the Armed Forces of the USSR was introduced.
• Hetman- Selected head of the registered Cossacks in the XVI-XVII centuries. Since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army. From 1708 the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. long time there were no such appointments, and from 1764 the hetmanship was abolished.
• Vowels- elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia since the second half of the 19th century.
• City Council- a non-estate body of city self-government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in landscaping, health care and other city affairs. Headed by the mayor.
• City government- the executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). Elected by city council. The mayor headed the council.
• living hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, the second in wealth and nobility after the "guests". With the knowledge of the tsar, merchants from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Living Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.
• The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation, and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after approval by the State Council and approval by the emperor. Elected for a term of 5 years. In total, during the existence of this authority there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - to October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, naming the lower house of the Federal Assembly as such. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislative bodies of modern Russia with pre-revolutionary ones. Since 1999 the State Duma of the third convocation has been working.
• State peasants- a special estate in Russia in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. Decorated by decrees of Peter I from the black-haired peasants, odnodvortsev, ladles and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. Considered personally free. From 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the XIX century. they accounted for 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886, they received the right to buy out land allotments into their property.
• State Council- supreme legislative body Russian Empire. It was created from the Indispensable Council in 1810, and in 1906 became the upper legislative chamber. Considered bills submitted by ministers before they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some members of the Council were elected. Abolished December 1917
• GOELRO(State electrification of Russia) - the first unified perspective plan restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10-15 years, adopted in 1920. It provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Completed mostly by 1931.
• Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.
• Lip- in North-Western Rus', a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. - a territorial district ruled by a provincial headman. The province has been an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into counties. Some provinces united into governor-generals. At the head were governors or governors-general. In 1914 Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the XX century. instead of provinces, krais and oblasts were formed.
• Gulag- the main directorate of the camps of the NKVD (MVD) of the USSR. The abbreviation GULAG is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.
• "People Walking"- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. common name freed serfs, fugitive peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation and place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or work for hire. Didn't have any duties.

• Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax from subjects. Known in Rus' since the 9th century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a kind of tribute was the "exit" - a collection of money in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became an obligatory state tax from black-haired, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called data money. Data people - in Russia in the 15th-17th centuries. persons from the taxed urban and rural population, given to lifelong military service. From the middle of the XVI century. included in the regiments of the "new order". Under Peter I, they were replaced by recruits.
• "Twenty-five thousand"- workers industrial centers USSR, sent in 1929-1930 by the decision of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks for economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.
• Palace peasants- feudal-dependent peasants in Russia, who lived on the lands of the great princes, kings and persons of the royal family and carried duties in their favor. Since 1797, they began to be called appanage peasants.
• Palace coups era- the name of the period 1725-1762, adopted in historiography, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, the supreme power passed from hand to hand by palace coups, which were committed by noble groups with the support of the guards regiments.
• Nobility- the ruling privileged class, part of the feudal lords. in Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility - these are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 13th century nobles began to be endowed with land for service. In the XVIII century. changed from a servant to a privileged class.
• Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, laws and resolutions issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies were called decrees. Thus, the Decree "On Peace" and the Decree "On Land" were adopted by the II Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.
• Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the years of the Great Patriotic War this measure affected many peoples. Eviction in 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, and others. In 1989, the deportation of peoples was declared illegal and condemned as a grave crime.
• tithe- tax in favor of the church. It was a tenth of the harvest or other incomes of the population.
• "Wild Field"- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously mastered in the XVI-XVII centuries. fugitive peasants and serfs, settled by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.
• Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other layers of workers. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must take place after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transitional period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is connected with the exercise of violence against "foreign" classes and strata of society.
• dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.
• Volunteer army - white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. It was headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by the Red Army under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.
• Duma ranks- in the Russian state, officials - boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles, duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century led orders. They were governors of the largest cities.

• sole inheritance- Established by decree of Peter I in 1714, the procedure for the transfer of land ownership by heredity, directed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.
• heresy- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and worship. They were most widespread in the Middle Ages.

• Gendarmerie, gendarmerie- The police, which has a military organization and performs security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827-1917. in Russia there was a separate corps of gendarmes, which performed the functions of a political police.

• Pawnbrokers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered bondage, "laid down". Having lost their personal freedom, they were exempted from paying taxes. They existed from the 13th to the 17th centuries.
• Procurement- in Ancient Rus', smerds (see Smerdy), who worked on the feudal lord's farm for a "kupa" - a loan. After paying off the debt, they were released. Unlike serfs (see serfs), they had their own household.
• Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the XIX century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society "from above". They constantly argued with the Slavophiles on the problems of the development of Russia. “Reserved Summers” - at the end of the 16th century. this was the name of the years in which the peasants were forbidden to move from one landowner to another on St. George's Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of the peasants.
• Land redistribution- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by a rural gathering on the basis of leveling land use.
• Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government, created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. At the end of the XVI-XVII century. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s years XVII 1st century replaced by magistrates and town halls.
• Zemsky Sobors- central state-wide class-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral headed by the metropolitan (from 1589 patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who had the right of the boyar court by virtue of their position. In addition, zemstvo sobors included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants elected from the nobility and the top citizens. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.
• Zemstvo movement- liberal opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of the rights of the zemstvo and the spread of the principles of zemstvo self-government to the highest state institutions.
• Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with a center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. It had its own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.
• Zubatovshchina- the policy of "police socialism" implemented by SV. Zubatov - head of the Moscow Security Department (since 1896) and the Special Department of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under the control of the police (for example, the organization of GA. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

• Elected Rada- a narrow circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makary, A.M. Kurbsky and others, in fact, an unofficial government in 1546-1560. The elected council united supporters of reaching a compromise between various groups and strata of the feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region, the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local state apparatus and carried them out.
• "The Chosen Thousand"- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, roundabouts, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were to receive an increment to their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.
• Sharecropping- a type of land lease, in which the rent is paid to the owner of the land in shares of the harvest (sometimes up to half or more).
• Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. Carried out in Russia late XIX V. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the lag behind the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen the defense capability. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.
• International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Association of Workers), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876, its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international association. III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and was a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for realizing the idea of ​​a world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "had fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
• Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and the religious trend in the Russian state (end of the 15th - mid-16th centuries). The name was given by the name of the hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky. In the struggle against non-possessors, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogma, and the inviolability of the church's possessions. They were supported by the grand ducal authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory "Moscow is the third Rome." In the second half of the XVI century. lost their influence in ecclesiastical and political affairs.
• Usefulness- a kind of sharecropping, in which the rent for the land is half the crop.

• Cadets(constitutional democrats) - "Party of People's Freedom" - one of the largest political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. It existed from October 1905 to November 1917. It represented the left wing in Russian liberalism. She advocated a constitutional monarchy, democratic reforms, the transfer of landlord lands to peasants for redemption, and the expansion of labor legislation. They headed the party of cadets P.P. Milyukov, A.I. Shingarev, V.D. Nabokov and others. They dominated the I and II Dumas, supported tsarism in the First World War, in August 1915 created the Progressive Bloc to achieve victory in the war and prevent revolutionary uprisings, demanded participation in the government and liberal reforms. The party was banned after the October Revolution of 1917
• Cossacks- the military class in Russia, which included the population of a number of southern regions of Russia. The Cossacks enjoyed special rights and privileges on the terms of compulsory and universal military service. It develops from the 14th century, when free people settled on the outskirts of the Russian principalities, carrying out guard and border service for hire. In the XV-XVI centuries. self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks arise and develop, the bulk of which were fugitives and townspeople. The government sought to use the Cossacks to protect the borders, in wars, and by the end of the 18th century. totally subjugated him. The Cossacks turned into a privileged military class. In 1920, the Cossacks were abolished as an estate.
• State factories- in Russia, state-owned, most often military and mining and metallurgical enterprises. They emerged in the 17th century. as manufactories, they became widespread from the beginning of the 18th century, especially in the Urals. The workers of state-owned factories were mainly state peasants. After the peasant reform of 1861, they became hired workers.
• Cartel- a form of monopoly in which the participants retain their production independence, but at the same time jointly resolve issues of production volume, sales of products, etc. Profit in cartels is distributed according to the share in production and sales of products. Cartels appeared in Russia at the end of the 19th century.
• Cyrillic- the ancient Slavic alphabet, named after the Slavic enlightener Cyril. Until the XI-XII centuries. used in parallel with the Glagolitic. Later it supplanted the Glagolitic alphabet and became the basis of modern systems Slavic writing.
• Princess- the name of the descendants of Russian specific princes (Rurikovich and Gedimi-novichi). By the beginning of the XVII century. in terms of economic and political situation, most of the princes equaled other service people. Since the 18th century became a titled part of the Russian nobility.
• Boards- central state institutions formed by Peter I in the course of public administration reforms in 1717-1722. and existed until the beginning of the 19th century. The collegial principle of discussing and solving cases, as well as the uniformity of the organizational structure, was put at the basis of the activities of the collegiums; competence is more clearly defined than in orders.
• Collectivization- the transfer by the state of formal ownership of the means of production to groups of citizens or collective farms controlled by it. In the USSR, collectivization was called the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms), carried out in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Collectivization was accompanied by the elimination of individual farms and the widespread use of violent methods. Terror fell on all sections of the peasantry - kulaks, middle peasants and even poor peasants. Collectivization changed the fundamental way of life of the bulk of the population of Russia.
• Committees of the poor (combeds)- organizations of the rural poor in the European part of Russia, created by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars in June 1918. In many areas, they actually performed the functions of state power. Disbanded in late 1918/early 1919.
• Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by members of the Supreme Privy Council in order to limit the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.
• Contribution- cash payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.
• Counter-reforms in Russia- the name of the events of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s. Preliminary censorship was restored, class principles were introduced in the initial and high school, the autonomy of universities was abolished, bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo and city self-government was established.
• Concern- one of the forms of monopolies, a diversified association (finance, industry, transport, trade, etc.) with the preservation of independence in management, but with the complete financial dependence of the enterprises included in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.
• Concession- an agreement on leasing to foreign firms enterprises or plots of land owned by the state, with the right to production activities.
• Cooperation- a form of organization of labor and production, based on the group ownership of the members of the cooperative. The main forms of cooperation: consumer, supply and marketing, credit, production.
• Feeding- the system of maintaining officials (governors, volostels, etc.) at the expense of the local population in Rus'. It was used by the great and specific princes as a way to reward princes, boyars and other close associates for their service. "Feed" was levied two or three times a year in the form of food, fodder, part of various duties from auctions and shops. Initially, feeding was not limited to anything. Only from the end of the 15th century. their sizes and terms began to be regulated. They were liquidated in the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible.
• Kornilovshchina- rebellion on August 25-31, 1917 with the aim of establishing the dictatorship of General L.G. Kornilov, who in July 1917 was appointed Supreme Commander. He sent troops to Petrograd, demanded the resignation of the Provisional Government, left A.F. Kerensky, head of government. The rebellion was liquidated by the revolutionary troops, detachments of the Red Guard. The Bolsheviks played an active role in the suppression of the Kornilov region.
• Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of one's identity, the isolation of one's national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to bait "rootless cosmopolitans" who were accused of "groveling" before the West. In 1949, a wave of denigration of cultural figures resulted in a struggle for "communist ideology", persecution, repression, rampant nationalism, etc., intensified.
• Red Guard- armed detachments, which were formed from March 1917 and consisted mainly of the workers of the industrial cities of Russia. Became military force Bolsheviks in the October Revolution, numbered up to 200 thousand people, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - Red Army, the official name of the Soviet Armed Forces from 1918 to 1943).
• Serfdom- a form of feudal dependence of the peasants: attaching them to the land and subordinating the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a nationwide scale, serfdom was formalized by the Sudebnik of 1497, decrees on “reserved” and “lesson” years, and finally enshrined in the Cathedral Code of 1649. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. all categories of the dependent population merged into the serfs. Abolished by the peasant reform of 1861
• Peasants- the bulk of rural producers, farmers. The word “chresti-anin” (the “peasant” etymologically goes back to it) was known in Rus' from the turn of the 10th-11th centuries. It denoted a person professing the Christian faith. From the end of the XIV century. the content of the word expanded, and by the 16th century. the whole taxed population of the village, the community members, was already called peasants.
• Cult of personality- admiration for someone, veneration, exaltation of someone. In the USSR in 1929-1953. existed is defined as a cult of personality I.V. Stalin. A dictatorial regime was established, democracy was abolished, Stalin during his lifetime was credited with a decisive influence on the course of historical development. Elements of the cult of personality were preserved under N.S. Khrushchev and L.I. Brezhnev.
• cultural revolution- a number of measures carried out in the 20-30s in the USSR, aimed at changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia and at breaking with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage through the ideology of culture. The main task was considered to be the creation of the so-called proletarian culture based on the Marxist-class ideology, "communist education", mass culture. It provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a new Soviet school, the training of personnel for the "people's intelligentsia", the restructuring of life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control. Along with positive results (elimination of illiteracy, development of education, etc.), it contributed to the strengthening of the dictatorial regime of I.V. Stalin.

• Left communists- a group of members of the RSDLP (b) headed by N.I. Bukharin, who actively opposed the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.
• life guard- personal protection of the monarch and the name of selected military units. In Russia, it was established by Peter I at the end of the 17th century. Later, many guards units of the Russian army were called the Life Guards.
• lendlease(English to lend and lease) - a policy carried out by the United States during the Second World War. It included the transfer on loan and lease of weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food to the allied countries in the anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-lease deliveries to the USSR amounted to $9.8 billion.
• Livonian Order- Catholic state and military organization German crusader knights in the Baltic. Arose in 1237. Actively waged wars of conquest. It was destroyed during the Livonian War and liquidated in 1561.
• The League of nations- International Organization for the Cooperation of Peoples for Peace and Security (1919-1946). In 1934, the USSR joined the League of Nations, but in 1939, due to the Soviet-Finnish war, it was excluded from it. She pursued a policy of connivance towards the countries of the fascist bloc. In fact, it ceased to exist since the beginning of the Second World War. The dissolution was officially announced in 1946.

• Manufactory- a large enterprise based on the division of labor and predominantly manual production. It appeared in Russia in the 17th century.
• Menshevism- a trend in Russian social democracy, which was formed at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903) from a part of the delegates who received a minority during the elections of governing bodies. Leaders -G.V. Plekhanov, Yu.O. Martov, I.O. Axelrod and others. The Mensheviks denied the strict centralism of the party and the vesting of the Central Committee with great powers, in the bourgeois-democratic revolution they considered the liberal bourgeoisie an ally of the proletariat, did not recognize the revolutionary role of the peasantry, advocated legal methods of struggle, and opposed the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. In 1908-1910. split into liquidators (in favor of legal work and liquidation of the illegal party) and Menshevik Party members (in favor of illegal struggle). During the First World War, three currents arose - defencists, internationalists and mezhrayontsy. After February Revolution supported the Provisional Government, did not recognize the October Revolution, believing that Russia was not ripe for socialism. Part of the Mensheviks became Bolsheviks.
• Localism- a special procedure for appointment to military, administrative and court service, taking into account the nobility of origin and personal merits of ancestors. It arose at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. and canceled in 1682. Month - in Russia XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. a six-day corvée of serfs, primarily yard people, deprived of land allotments. Remuneration for work was carried out in kind, issued monthly. The most severe form of serfdom.
• ministries(lat. I serve, I manage) - the central government bodies that were in charge of individual sectors of the economy and the life of the state. The first ministries were formed in 1802 and existed until 1917. In 1946 the name "ministry" was restored.
• Monopoly- the exclusive right to produce or sell something. With the introduction at the end of the XIX century. capitalism into the monopoly stage, the unions of capitalists seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods in order to dominate the market. The main forms of monopolies: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. Monopolies arose in Russia in the 1980s. Syndicates were the most common here. "Society for the sale of products of Russian metallurgical plants" ("Prodamet") by 1908 sold 90% of the metallurgical products of the South and 45% of the entire production of the empire. Syndicates were created in the coal industry ("Pro-dugol" in 1904), in the car building and oil industries.

• Viceroy- in the Russian state in the XII century. governors - officials who ruled individual territories. Appointed by the princes for "feeding". They were in charge of the administrative-territorial units of the empire, consisting of two or three provinces. In the 19th century vicegerency existed in the kingdom of Poland and in the Caucasus. Narodism is the leading direction in the liberation movement of the post-reform Russia XIX century. It was based on a system of views on the original path of development of Russia, capable, bypassing the stage of capitalism, to create, relying on the peasant community, a socialist society. This ideology is a social utopia. At the end of the 60s of the XIX century. three currents are formed in populism: rebellious, or anarchist (M.A. Bakunin), propaganda (P.L. Lavrov), conspiratorial (P.N. Tkachev). They differed in matters of tactics. In 1860-1880. The main organizations of the populists were the "Chaikovites" (organizers of going to the people), "Land and Freedom", which split in 1879 into "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". Since the second half of the 80s. Populism is in crisis due to the negative reaction of society to the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party became the successor of the populist ideology.
• People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats)- in the Soviet state in 1917-1946. central government bodies of a separate industry National economy or sphere state activities. They were headed by people's commissars. Transformed into ministries.
• Natural economy- a type of economy in which products and things are produced for their own use, and not for sale.
• Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises and other private property to state ownership, both through expropriation and on the basis of redemption transactions.
• Nonpossessors- religious and political movement in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. They preached asceticism, withdrawal from the world. They demanded that the church give up land ownership. The main ideologist of non-acquisitiveness was the elder of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Nil Sorsky. The Josephites opposed the nonpossessors. Non-acquisitiveness was condemned by church councils in 1503 and 1531. The New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced by the Soviet leadership in March 1921 at the X Congress of the RCP (b). It envisaged a way out of the economic and political crisis by returning to state-controlled and regulated private property in industry, replacing food appropriation with a food tax, proclaiming freedom of trade, using foreign capital in the form of concessions and the labor of farm laborers in the countryside. At the same time, the monetary reform of 1922-1924 was carried out, Soviet enterprises and cooperation developed, and the national economy was restored. However, as a result of the contradictions that arose at the end of the 1920s, the NEP was completely abandoned.
• Nomenclature(lat. list) - a list of officials, the appointment or approval of which falls within the competence of any body. In the USSR, such bodies were party committees of various levels. The ruling elite in the USSR was called the nomenklatura.
• "Norman Theory"- originated in the second quarter of the 18th century. Its supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) the creators of the state in Ancient Rus'. Based on the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians.

• "Secularization of Culture"- the acquisition of a secular character by culture: an increasing variety of secular themes and plots in literature and art.
• quitrent- a form of feudal rent. In Russia - the annual collection of money and products from serfs by landowners. The food quitrent was abolished by the reform of 1861, the cash quitrent remained until 1863.
• Community- a form of association of people that arose in antiquity. Distinctive features of the community - common ownership of the means of production, full or partial self-government. In Russia, the community was a closed class unit used for tax collection and police control. After the reform of 1861, the community became the owner of the land. It was destroyed by Stolypin's reforms.
• Philistines- the official name of the class of townspeople in the Russian Empire.
• Octobrists- members of the right-liberal party "Union of October 17", created after the publication of the Manifesto by Nicholas II on October 17, 1905. According to the Octobrists, this document marked Russia's transition to a constitutional monarchy. The party considered its main task to be assistance to the government, if it takes the path of social reforms. Octobrist Program: Constitutional Monarchy, One and Indivisible Russian state, the solution of the agrarian question without the alienation of landowners' lands, a limited right to strike and an 8-hour working day. The party represented the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, liberal-minded landlords, part of the officials and the wealthy intelligentsia. The leaders of the Octobrists - A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, D.N. Shipov and others.
• Opposition(lat. opposition) - a party or social group that opposes the opinion of the majority or the dominant point of view, putting forward its own way of solving problems.
• Oprichnina(oprich - Old Russian except) - in 1565-1572. the name of the inheritance of Ivan IV, in which a number of lands were allocated, as well as part of Moscow. The oprichnina introduced its own administration: the Boyar Duma, orders, and the army. It is also customary to call the oprichnina the entire system of measures of Ivan the Terrible - mass repressions, land confiscations, etc. - which was used by the tsar to combat alleged treason and the remnants of specific separatism.
• Horde exit- tribute, dues paid by Russian princes to the khans of the Golden Horde.
• buyout- the exclusive right granted by the state for a fee to private individuals (farmers) to collect taxes or sell certain types of goods (wine, salt, etc.). In Russia, the farming system existed until 1863.
• Segments- plots of land cut off from the allotments that were in use by the peasants during the peasant reform of 1861 and transferred to the landowners. The segments are interspersed with peasant lands, creating a striped strip and forcing the peasants to rent them from the landowner for various working off. The cuts accounted for a total of about 20% of the pre-reform land use of the peasants.
• Cut in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. a land plot allocated to a peasant in exchange for the communal lands allocated to him earlier, located in various places. The estate, however, remained within the boundaries of the village. The creation of cuts was the result of the implementation of the Stolypin agrarian reform
• "Thaw"- a common designation of changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that emerged after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by I. Ehrenburg. The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s and early 1950s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. Important role the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult, played a role in these processes. "Thaw" contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive developments of the mid-1950s were not further developed.
• Otkhodnichestvo- in Russia, the temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or for agricultural work in other areas. It was common among the landlord quitrent peasants.
• "Official nationality theory"- the national state doctrine of the Russian Empire, put forward during the reign of Nicholas I. The main principles of the theory were formulated by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov in 1832: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.
• Security departments, guards- local bodies of the police department, created to protect public safety and order. They were in charge of political investigation, had secret agents sent to political parties and opposition organizations. First appeared in St. Petersburg (1866) and Moscow (1880). By 1907 they already existed in 27 industrial and cultural centers of the country. Abolished after the February Revolution of 1917

• Patriarchate- a form of church government in Orthodoxy, in which the patriarch is at the head of the church. It originated in the early Middle Ages. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the patriarchate was established in 1589, abolished in 1721, and revived in early 1917.
• resettlement- the movement of the (peasant) population of the central regions of Russia to a new place of residence in the sparsely populated outlying areas - Siberia, Far East and others. Resettlement was the main means of internal colonization and solving the problem of lack of land for peasants. It was an integral part of the Stolypin agrarian reform.
• "Perestroika"- transformations carried out in the USSR from the mid-1980s to 1991 under the slogan of overcoming obsolete forms of social life and methods of work. The most important direction of this policy was democratization, including the expansion of glasnost. The other side of "perestroika" was economic transformations. In foreign policy the system of international security and non-violent peace was established. The reform of society within the framework of the existing socialist system ended unsuccessfully.
• Plan "Barbarossa"- the code name of the plan of aggressive war of fascist Germany against the USSR. It began to be developed in July 1940. The plan provided for the defeat of the USSR in a quick campaign, while the main forces of the Red Army were supposed to be destroyed west of the Dnieper-Western Dvina line, preventing them from retreating into the interior of the country. In the future, it was planned to capture Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Donbass and reach the line Astrakhan - Volga - Arkhangelsk. The Barbarossa plan was thwarted by the heroic struggle of the Soviet people.
• Pogost- originally the center of a rural community in the north-west of Ancient Rus'. From the second half of the X century. place of tribute collection, later - the center of the administrative-tax district.
• Household taxation- in Russia in the 17th - early 18th centuries. system of layout of direct taxes on taxable population. Changed the land tax. The state determined the amount of the tax, and the urban and rural communities distributed it to each household. Replaced by poll tax.
• Poll tax- the main direct tax in the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Replaced in 1724 household taxation. This tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80-90s of the XIX century.
• "Elderly"- in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries. collection of money from the peasants when they leave the landowner on St. George's Day. Introduced by the Sudebnik in 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants.
• "Police socialism"- the name of one of the methods of implementation accepted in historiography domestic policy which created government-controlled workers' organizations. At the beginning of the XX century. such organizations appeared in Russia, a gendarmerie colonel, head of the Moscow security department and the Special Department of the Police Department S.V. played an important role in their creation and distribution. Zubatov. The Russian version of "police socialism" is also called "Zubatovism" in the literature.
• Regiments of the "foreign system", or regiments of the "new system"- military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Used by Peter I to form a regular army.
• polyudie- a detour by a Russian prince with a squad of his vassal possessions in order to collect tribute.
• Estate- a form of conditional land tenure in the Russian state at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The estate was not subject to sale, exchange and inheritance. In the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually approached the patrimony, and in 1714 merged with it completely.
• Landlord peasants(serfs) - peasants who belonged to the landowners before the peasant reform of 1861.
• Posadnik- an elected official in the ancient Russian city, the head of the executive branch. Together with the prince, he was in charge of management and court issues, commanded the army, led the veche assembly and the boyar council.
• Posad people- the commercial and industrial population of Russian cities, who carried the state tax - trade taxes, trade duties, participation in citywide works, natural duties, etc. They were divided into hundreds - the Living Room, Cloth, Black. In 1775 they were divided into merchants and philistines.
• Possession peasants- in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked. The category of possessive peasants was introduced under Peter I by a decree of 1721 on the purchase of people for factories in connection with the need to provide growing manufactories with working hands. The position of the possessive peasants was somewhat different from the position of the serfs: they were not allowed to be transferred to agricultural work, to be recruited, etc. They were released by the peasant reform of 1861. Pososhnoe - in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.
• Privatization- transfer of state or municipal property to private ownership.
• Order control system- developed in the middle of the XVI century. a system of permanent government bodies - orders. It arose on the basis of the execution by the boyars of certain state functions by order (order) of the king. The system of orders reached its peak in the 17th century. Abolished at the beginning of the 18th century. Peter I.
• Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace and economic peasants, instead of paying a poll tax, worked in state and private factories, that is, attached (assigned) to them. Released by the peasant reform of 1861
• Tax in kind(food tax) - introduced in 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation, marked the beginning of the NEP. The amount of the tax in kind was established before the spring sowing, depending on the prosperity of the farm, and was much less than the food requisition, the surplus was allowed to be sold, which stimulated the growth of production. Active until 1923
• "Food Dictatorship"- the system of emergency measures of the Soviet government (1918-1921), taken in the context of a food crisis to supply the Red Army, the population of cities, and the poor in the countryside with bread. It provided for the centralization of the procurement and distribution of food, the steady implementation of the grain monopoly, the fight against bagging and speculation, and the suppression of the resistance of the kulaks. The Soviet government declared enemies of those who hid surpluses of grain, did not take them out to bulk points. The guilty were sentenced to imprisonment, execution, and their property was confiscated. The food dictatorship aroused the discontent of the peasants. Canceled with the introduction of the New Economic Policy.
• food squads(food detachments) - armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1920. They were created by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food, trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets. Conducted surplus appraisal in the countryside; acted jointly with the committees and local Soviets.
• Prodrazverstka(food allocation) - the system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism" (1919-1921), established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (except for those necessary for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. It was carried out by the bodies of the People's Commissariat for Food, food detachments, committees of the poor, local Soviets. Plan assignments were deployed by counties, volosts, villages, and peasant households. Prodrazverstka caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and in 1921 was replaced by a food tax.

• Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes, cut off from their class environment (clergy, petty bourgeois, merchants, petty bureaucracy). Legally, this category has not been formalized in any way. Raznochintsy were mainly engaged in mental work. "Detente" is a period in the relationship between the world systems of capitalism and socialism, which began at the turn of the 60-70s of the XX century. It arose on the basis of the military-strategic parity (equality of the sides) achieved by the USSR and the USA. Completed in 1979 with the introduction Soviet troops to Afghanistan.
• Split- separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of part of the believers who did not accept the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653-1656. Opponents of the official church began to be called schismatics, or Old Believers.
• Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, the economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.
• Recruitment duty- the method of manning the Russian regular army in the XVIII-XIX centuries. The taxable estates (peasants, philistines, etc.) were obliged to provide a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by universal military service.
• "Rail War"- the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans in August - September 1943 to disable the railways in the territories occupied by the Nazis.
• Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the official name of the united Polish-Lithuanian state from the time of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin (1569) to the partition of Poland in 1795.
• Russian Orthodox Church- the largest of the Orthodox churches. Founded in the X century. From the end of the XI century. at its head Metropolitan of Kyiv, from the end of the thirteenth century. - Metropolitan of Vladimir, who since 1328 lived in Moscow. Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1448 she became independent. The patriarchate was established in 1589 and abolished in 1721, restored in 1917.
• Ryadovichi- a category of dependent people in Kievan Rus. Ryadovich - a person who has concluded a certain contract - a number and is obliged to perform work under this contract.

• Seimas- the body of estate representation in some states of Eastern Europe, for example, in Poland.
• Secret Committees in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary state institutions created by the emperor to discuss reform projects, and in 1857-1858. - to discuss the preparation of projects for the abolition of serfdom. Secularization - the transformation of church property into state property. In Russia, large-scale secularization was carried out during the reign of Catherine II in 1764 and after 1917.
• "Seven Boyars"- the government of the Russian state during the Time of Troubles (1610-1613). It was formed after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. Consisted of seven boyars headed by F. Miloslavsky. This government agreed to the calling to the Russian throne of the Polish prince Vladislav. It also let Polish troops into Moscow.
• Senate- the highest body of state administration in the Russian Empire from 1711 to the beginning of the 19th century. After 1810 - the highest judicial and administrative body. Abolished in 1917
• Separate peace- a peace treaty with the enemy, concluded by one of the states that are members of the coalition, without the knowledge and consent of the allies.
• Syndicate- one of the forms of monopolistic associations. The syndicate undertakes the implementation of all commercial activities, while maintaining the industrial and legal independence of the enterprises included in it.
• Synod- the highest legal advisory administrative and judicial institution for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church. Existed from 1721 to 1917.
• Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 40-70s of the XIX century. A feature of their views was their commitment to the original development of Russia, the model of which was pre-Petrine Russia. Service people - in the Russian state of the XIV - early XVIII centuries. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" (Cossacks, archers, gunners, etc.). Service "in the fatherland" was hereditary. "According to the instrument" was recruited, as a rule, from the townspeople. Service people were exempted from state taxes and duties.
• Smerdy- the general name of the rural population of Ancient Rus'.
• Adviсe- authorities that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. According to V.I. Lenin, the Soviets were to concentrate in their hands the functions of all branches of power and become "full-powered" bodies. In fact, from the very first months of the proclamation of Soviet power in October 1917, they turned into an appendage of the Bolshevik Party.
• Estate-representative monarchy- a form of the feudal state, in which the power of the monarch is combined with the organs of estate representation. In Russia, class representation existed in the form of zemstvo sobors (XVI-XVII centuries).
• Land socialization- the main requirement of the agrarian program of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which implied the destruction of private ownership of land and its transfer to the use of the community.
• Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)- the largest party in Russia (1901-1923). They advocated the elimination of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the transfer of land to the peasants, democratic reforms, etc. They used the tactics of terror. Leaders - V.M. Chernov, A.R Gots and others.
• archers- in the XVI - end of the XVII century. the category of service people "according to the instrument", which constituted a permanent irregular army. They received state salaries, but the main source of income was crafts and trade.

• Totalitarianism- a form of government that is characterized by the complete subordination of the life of society to the interests of power and control over it, the actual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repression against political opposition and any manifestations of dissent.
• traditional society- a society in which a person does not think of himself outside of nature; age-old traditions and customs (ceremonies, prohibitions, etc.) completely dominate it. Such a society is not inclined to accept any innovations.
• Trusts- one of the forms of monopolistic associations, in which the participants lose their industrial, commercial and legal independence. Power in them is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. Most often, trusts arose in industries that produce homogeneous products.
• June 3 coup d'état(Third June Monarchy) - the dissolution of the Second State Duma on June 3, 1907 and the publication of a new electoral law in violation of the Manifesto on October 17, 1905. It was the end of the revolution of 1905-1907, after which the Third June Monarchy was established - an alliance of the tsar, nobles and the big bourgeoisie, united State Duma, which pursued a policy of maneuvering.
• Trotskyism- a direction in the Russian and international revolutionary movement, named after its ideologist L.D. Trotsky. Trotsky put forward the theory of "permanent revolution" (in the revolution of 1905-1907 he advocated skipping the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, denied the revolutionary role of the peasantry). IN Soviet time Trotsky advocated the nationalization of trade unions, questioned the possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the help of developed countries. In the conditions of an acute inner-party struggle, Trotsky's ideas were called Trotskyism. The views of Trotsky and his supporters were characterized as a "petty-bourgeois deviation" in the RCP(b) and crushed at the 15th Party Congress. In 1929 he was expelled from the USSR, in 1938 he created the Fourth International, waged a stubborn struggle in the press against Stalin, on whose instructions he was killed in 1940 in Mexico. In the USSR, the merits of Trotsky as an active participant in the October Revolution, the creator of the Red Army, the organizer of victory in the Civil War, etc., were diminished.
• Trudoviks- The "Labour Group" in the I and IV State Duma of deputies-peasants and populist intelligentsia, who acted in a bloc with leftist forces for the nationalization of land and its transfer to the peasants according to the labor norm, for democratic freedoms (1906-1917).
• Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousands") in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected at the veche and was the closest assistant to the posadnik - he was in charge of trade, tax collection, and the merchant court.
• tax- in the Russian state of the XV-beginning of the XVIII century. monetary and in-kind state duties of peasants and townspeople. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. a tax was a unit of taxation of peasants by duties in favor of the landowners.

• lot, specific principality - in Rus' in the XII-XVI centuries. an integral part of large grand principalities, ruled by a member of the grand ducal family.
• Ulus- camp of nomads, settlement. In a broad sense - a tribal association with a certain territory, subject to a khan or leader among the peoples of Central and Central Asia and Siberia. After the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan, an ulus was a country or region subordinate to one of the Genghis Khans.
• "Lesson Summers"- established by royal decrees from the end of the 16th century. terms of investigation and return of fugitive peasants to their owners (from 5 to 15 years). Canceled at mid-seventeenth c., when the investigation became indefinite, the Cathedral Code of 1649
• constituent Assembly- a representative, parliamentary institution in Russia, first convened on the basis of universal suffrage to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. The convocation of the Constituent Assembly is a program requirement of all revolutionary, democratic, liberal parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, including the Bolsheviks. The government created after the February Revolution was called Provisional until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Elections were held in November - December 1917. The Bolsheviks received only 24% of the vote. This meant the impossibility of implementing the decisions of the Bolsheviks through this authority. The Constituent Assembly was opened on January 5 (18), 1918 in the Tauride Palace in Petrograd. The majority of the elected deputies were Socialist-Revolutionaries (59%). The assembly did not recognize the legitimacy of the Council of People's Commissars and the decrees of the Soviet government. The Bolsheviks left the meeting room, and at 5 am on January 6 (19), 1918, the Constituent Assembly was dispersed. Officially, the decree on its dissolution was adopted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets on the night of January 6 (19) to January 7 (20), 1918.

• feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor rent (corvée), food rent ( quitrent in kind) and cash rent (monetary rent).
• Fiscal- in the Russian Empire in 1711-1729. a civil servant who supervised the activities of state institutions (mainly financial ones) and officials. He collected information about violations of laws, bribery, embezzlement, etc. He headed the fiscals of the chief fiscal, which was part of the Senate.

• "Journey to the People"- a unique phenomenon in Russian history: a spontaneous mass movement of radical youth, inspired by the ideas of revolutionary populism, in 1873-1874. More than 2,000 propagandists rushed to the village in the hope of rousing the people to a "general rebellion." "Going to the people" failed. Over a thousand people were arrested, 193 of the most active participants in the movement were brought to trial.
• "Cold War"- the state of confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States with their political partners, on the other. It lasted from 1946 until the end of the 80s. It was called the "cold war" because, unlike "hot wars" (open military conflicts), it was carried out by economic, ideological and political methods.
• serfs- the category of dependent population in Ancient Rus', known since the 10th century. Kholops were close in status to slaves. In the 17th century gradually merged with the serf peasantry.
• Farm - rural settlement, consisting most often of one yard. As a result of the agrarian reform carried out by the government of P.A. Stolypin, - a separate peasant estate, located outside the community.

• Black Hundred organizations- extreme right socio-political associations in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. They acted under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism, anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian people”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, etc.).
• Black-nose peasants- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries. free peasants who owned communal lands and carried state duties. In the XVIII century. became state peasants.
• Pale of Settlement- in 1791-1917. limited territories of the Russian Empire, outside which Jews were forbidden to live permanently.

• nobility- in Poland, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, the name of secular feudal lords, corresponding to the nobility.

• expropriation I (lat. deprivation of property) - compulsory deprivation of property, free of charge or paid.

• Paganism- the general name of polytheistic religions ("polytheism").
• Label- a preferential charter issued by the Golden Horde khans to secular and spiritual feudal lords of subject lands.
• Trade fairs- trades and markets periodically organized in a specified place.
• Yasak- in Russia XV-XX centuries. tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, which was levied mainly in furs.

Solve with history answers.

Absolute monarchy- autocracy, a state in which the monarch has unlimited power. At the same time, a powerful bureaucratic apparatus, the army and the police are being created, and the activities of the governing bodies are being stopped.
Autocracy- uncontrolled autocracy of one person.
Autonomy- the right of independent exercise of power (within certain predetermined limits) for a part of the state formation on its territory.
Authoritarianism- an anti-democratic system of political power, usually combined with elements of personal dictatorship.
Agora- the square where free citizens gathered, - the people's assembly in the ancient Greek city-state.
Aggressor- a state carrying out an armed encroachment on the sovereignty, territory or political system of another state.
Administration- a set of governing bodies.
Administrative-territorial division- division of the country's territory into smaller units with their own governing bodies.
Acropolis- fortified part of the ancient city.
Amnesty- exemption from criminal or other liability.
Anarchy- anarchy, disobedience to laws, permissiveness.
Entente- the alliance of England, Russia and France against Germany in the First World War;
Anti-Hitler coalition- an alliance of countries that fought against Nazi Germany and other Axis powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA, France, China, Yugoslavia, Poland, etc.
Aristocracy- tribal nobility, the upper class.
Auto-da-fe- public execution of heretics by the verdict of the Inquisition.
Balance of power (balance, balancing)- Approximate equality of the military potentials of the opposing sides.
Corvee- forced labor of a serf in the household of a feudal lord.
Blockade- a system of political and economic measures aimed at disrupting the external relations of any state. It is used to isolate a blocked object.
Bourgeoisie- the class of owners using hired labor. Income provides the appropriation of surplus value - the difference between the costs of the entrepreneur and his profit.
buffer states- countries located between the warring states, dividing them and thus ensuring the absence of common borders and contact of armies hostile to each other.
Bureaucracy- the dominance of bureaucracy, the power of papers, when the centers of executive power are practically independent of the people. It is characterized by formalism and arbitrariness.
vandals- an ancient Germanic tribe that captured and plundered Rome. In a figurative sense - savages, enemies of culture.
Vassal- feudal lord, dependent on his lord. Carried certain duties and fought on the side of the lord.
Great Migration- the movement of Germans, Slavs, Huns, etc. on the territory of the former. Roman Empire in the IV-VII centuries.
verbal note- form of current interstate correspondence.
Veche- National Assembly in Ancient Rus' (Novgorod, Pskov)
Vote- an opinion expressed by a vote.
Hague conventions- international agreements on the laws and customs of warfare (adopted in The Hague in 1899 and 1907), on the protection of cultural property (1954), on private international law, etc.
Coat of arms- a distinctive sign of the country, region, noble family.
Hetman- military leader, head of the "registered" Cossacks in the XVI-XVIII centuries. in Ukraine.
Guild- the union of merchants, merchants, artisans in the Middle Ages.
State anthem- a solemn song, the official symbol of the state.
State- an association of people (population) living in the same territory and subject to the same laws and orders of a common authority for all.
Democracy- a form of state and society based on the recognition of the people as a source of power and a participant in governance.
Demonstration- procession, rally or other form of mass expression of sentiment in society.
Denunciation- refusal of one of the parties to continue to comply with previously concluded agreements, contracts, etc.
Depression- the phase of economic development following the crisis of overproduction. Synonym - stagnation. Great Depression - economic and political crisis of 1929-1933 in USA.
Despot- a ruler who oppresses his subjects autocratically and uncontrollably.
Dictatorship- a political regime, meaning the complete domination of an individual or social group.
Dynasty- a succession of relatives - the rulers of the state.
Doge- the head of the Venetian and Genoese republics in the Middle Ages.
Druzhina- a permanent armed detachment, the army of the prince,
Heresy- Deviation from religiously prescribed views.
EEC (European Economic Community, Common Market)- an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of eliminating all restrictions on trade between its members.
Iron curtain- so in the West they called the border between the countries of the Warsaw Pact (“communist”) and the rest of the world.
Law- a set of rules, the implementation of which is mandatory for all.
Zaporizhzhya Sich- organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks, military republic led by the ataman in the XVI-XVIII centuries. with the center behind the Dnieper rapids, on the islands.
Insulation- creation of insurmountable barriers between the states or public groups.
Imperialism-. the phase of development of society, when competing financial-industrial groupings, monopolistically owning the market, control all areas of life and merge with state power.
Empire- a monarchy or despotism that has colonial possessions or includes heterogeneous elements.
industrial revolution- transition to a qualitatively new level of engineering and technology, leading to a sharp increase in labor productivity and output.
Inquisition- in the XIII-XIX centuries. the system of courts in the Catholic Church, independent of the secular authorities. She persecuted dissidents and heretics, used torture and executions.
Cossacks- the military class in Russia in the XVI-XX centuries. It arose on the Dnieper, Don, Volga, Ural, Terek in the form of free communities, was the main driving force behind the popular uprisings in Ukraine and Russia. In the XVIII century. turned into a privileged military class. At the beginning of the XX century. there were 11 Cossack troops (Donskoy, Kuban, Orenburg, Transbaikal, Terskoye, Semirechenskoye, Ural, Ussuri, Siberian, Astrakhan, Amur), numbering a total of 4.4 million people, over 53 million acres of land. Since 1920, as an estate, it has been abolished. In 1936, Cossack formations were created that took part in the war; in the 40s. disbanded. From the end of the 80s. the revival of the Cossacks began; the total number in the CIS is over 5 million people.
Capitalism- a social formation based on private ownership of the instruments and means of production, a system of free enterprise and hired labor.
Class- a large group of people whose role in the economic system of society and in relation to property is similar.
Communism- a social system that rejects private ownership of the means of production. The theory was developed by K. Marx, f. Engels, V.I. Lenin. An attempt to build such a system was made in 1917-1991. in USSR.
Conservatism- adherence to the old, established, distrust of everything new and rejection of changes in society.
A constitutional monarchy- a system of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by law (usually the constitution).
Constitution is the fundamental law of the state.
Counterintelligence - activities of special services to suppress intelligence (espionage) activities of the relevant bodies of other countries on their own territory.
Confederation- a form of association of countries in which they fully retain their independence, but have common (joint) bodies to coordinate certain actions. As a rule, these are foreign policy, communications, transport, and the armed forces. An example is the Swiss Confederation.
A crisis- a period of acute difficulties in the economy. It is characterized by an increase in unemployment, mass bankruptcies, impoverishment of the population, etc.
Cro-Magnon- primitive; an ancient representative of the modern human species (Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens). He was preceded by a Neanderthal.
Liberal - supporter of individual freedom and freedom of enterprise.
Matriarchy- the structure of society, characterized by the dominant position of women. Kinship and inheritance were considered maternal. It was distributed in the initial period of the tribal system.
Monarchy - a state headed by a king, tsar, emperor, etc., whose power is usually inherited.
People- the entire population of one country (less often - a part of the population, homogeneous in ethnic composition).
NATO- The North Atlantic Alliance, a military-political bloc of European states, as well as the United States and Canada.
National Socialism - ideology of the German Nazis. It is characterized by blind obedience to the "Fuhrer", a sense of superiority over other peoples, permissiveness in relation to the "lower", the desire for world domination.
National symbols - a set of symbols, images, color combinations inherent in certain national, ethnic or territorial communities. It is used in the coats of arms and flags of states and other entities.
National Liberation Movement - Struggle for Independence ethnic group or the entire population of the colony, as well as the struggle for the economic and political independence of part of the population of a multinational country.
Nation - the historical community of people that has developed due to the commonality of their territory, economic ties, literature, language, culture and character.
quitrent - natural or monetary duty of the peasants to the feudal lord.
Common Market - the same as the EEC (an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of removing all restrictions on trade between its members).
Oprichnina - the system of measures taken by Ivan IV the Terrible to combat the boyar opposition (mass repressions, executions, land confiscations, etc.).
Axis (“Axis Berlin-Rome”)- military alliance of aggressive fascist regimes (1936) to prepare and wage war for world domination. Japan soon joined the Axis.
Patriarchy - a society dominated by men. It arose during the period of decomposition of the tribal system.

Parliament - representative (elected) body of power in the state. First formed in the 13th century. in England.
Plebiscite- survey of the population on the most important issues: the integrity of the state, the form of government, reforms, etc. As a rule, it has no legislative force.
Tribe- association of several clans under the control of the leader.
The president- elected head of state or organization.

Policy city-state in the ancient world.
Slave - a person whose life and work belong to the slave owner.
Radical- a supporter of decisive, extreme, cardinal measures in matters of transforming society.
Intelligence service - a set of measures for collecting data on an actual or potential enemy.
Racism- the theory of the original superiority of people with certain color skin, eyes and other external differences. In practice, it leads to humiliation, conflicts, pogroms, bloody wars, etc.
Reactionary- resisting social progress, striving to preserve obsolete social orders.
Republic - a form of government in which the highest power belongs to an elected representative body (parliamentary) or an elected president (presidential republic).
Revolution- qualitative leap; violent change in social relations.
referendum - popular vote on the most important issues of the life of the country. Has legislative power.
Genus - a group of people related by blood (derived from a common ancestor) and possessing common property.
Free enterprise- a system for encouraging private initiative in the organization of enterprises, banks, trade, etc.
Slavs - the largest group of peoples in Europe: eastern (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.), southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).
Smerdy- Peasants in Ancient Rus'.
Socialism- a social system based on state or public ownership of tools and means of production and the absence of exploitation of man by man (in accordance with the theory of Marxism-Leninism).
Social protection- support by the state or society of low-income segments of the population (old people, children, etc.).
State sovereignty- his independence in external and supremacy in internal affairs.
Suzerain- feudal lord, to whom other, smaller feudal lords (vassals) are subordinate. The king is always overlord.
Terrorism- criminal encroachment on the lives of innocent people in order to achieve political or other goals.
Fascism- terrorist dictatorship using extreme forms of violence. Combined with nationalism and racism.
Federation- the structure of the state, in which the entire territory is divided into administrative divisions, and part of the powers of the supreme power is delegated to local authorities (local laws are issued, local taxes are levied, etc.).
Forum- a square in ancient Rome, the center of political life. Currently - a representative assembly, congress.
Tsar- monarch, king. The title comes from the name of Gaius Julius Caesar. The title of sovereigns of all Rus', starting with Ivan IV the Terrible.
Official- an executor of state regulations and laws of the state, a civil servant. Evolution is a gradual, smooth (unlike a revolution) transition to a new quality, a new social formation.

Below is a glossary of terms in history, which will be needed when passing the exam.

The terms are in alphabetical order from A to Z.

For a quick search, click ctrl+f.

• Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the highest degree of centralization is achieved, a standing army and police are created, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus is created. The activities of estate-representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia fell on the XVIII-XIX centuries.
• Autonomization- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin's proposal to include independent Soviet republics in the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.
• excise tax(lat. trim) - a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced in domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the item. existed in Russia until 1917.
• Anarchism(Greek anarchy) - a socio-political trend advocating the destruction of all state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Later, Russian anarchism manifested itself during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.
• Annexation(lat. accession) - the forcible seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.
• antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.
• "Arakcheevshchina"- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I. Named after the confidant of the emperor - A.A. Arakcheev. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of Russian society: planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, intensifying persecution of education and the press. Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

• Corvee- gratuitous forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvée has already been recorded in Russkaya Pravda. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th century. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a labor system.
• Baskak- Representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled the local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. - Horde tribute collector.
• white guard- military formations that spoke out after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. White color was considered a symbol of "lawful order". The military force of the white movement - the White Guard - is an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of the officers of the Russian army, headed by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.
• white matter- Ideology and politics of the White Guard. It was an independent trend in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The beginning of the movement was in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated "restoring order" in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​"one and indivisible" Russia, the primacy of the Orthodox Church, loyalty to the historical "principles", but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the "democratic counter-revolution" in the person of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but in the future, the monarchist tendency with the idea of ​​​​restoring the monarchy became more and more clearly manifested. The White movement failed to offer a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces in the whitest movement, the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.
• "Bironovshchina"- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of "Bironism": political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, strict taxation, drill in the army.
• Middle thought- advice close to the Grand Duke, and then to the king. Under Vasily III, the Middle Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the XVI century. The Near Duma was in fact the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the 17th century. especially trusted persons began to favor “in the room” (hence the name - Secret Thought, Room Thought). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many respects opposed the Boyar Duma.
• Bolshevism- an ideological and political trend in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of the governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the XX century. rejected many provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.
• Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the XV century. - the highest rank among service people "in the fatherland" in the Russian state. The boyars occupied the highest positions, headed the orders, were governors. The rite was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma is in Russia the highest council under the prince (since 1547 under the tsar) in the X-XVIII centuries. Legislative body, discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.
• "Bulyginskaya Duma"- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of the Interior A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative advisory body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convocation of the "Bulygin Duma" was disrupted by the revolutionary events in October 1905.
• Bureaucracy(Greek domination of the office) - 1) The control system, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

• Varangians(Normans, Vikings) - this is how participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes) were called in Rus'.
• "Great Menaion"(monthly readings) - Russian ecclesiastical and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a monthly collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian hagiographies, writings of the "fathers of the church", as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.
• rope- a territorial community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs.
• Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution of Russia in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.
• Veche(old word Bern - council) - a people's assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. The first chronicle references to the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development was in the Russian cities of the second half of the XI-XII centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded agreements with other lands, etc.
• Governor- military leader, ruler of the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term "voivode" meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people's militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. the post of city governor appeared, who headed the military and civil administration of the city and county. From the beginning of the 17th century governors were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719. governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775 the post of voivode was abolished.
• Courts-martial- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out expedited trials and immediate reprisals for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.
• Military Industrial Committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.
• military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the planting of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruiting sets. "Settled troops" settled on state (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both military service and agricultural work. In 1817-1826. Count Arakcheev was in charge of the military settlements. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.
• "War Communism"- a kind of economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the resources of the country in the hands of the state. "War Communism" was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features are: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer of defense plants and transport to martial law, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of food surplus and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the face of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor service (since 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some of the features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society dreamed of by Marxists. In 1921, "war communism" showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the country's peaceful development, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.
• Volosteli- in the Russian principalities from the 11th century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the XVI century. official in rural areas - volosts. Volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.
• "Free Plowmen"- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for release could be: a one-time redemption, a redemption with installment payment, working off corvee. The landlords could release the peasants without a ransom. By the middle of the XIX century. about 100 thousand male souls were released. In 1848, the free cultivators were renamed into state peasants, settled on their own lands.
• Eastern question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries that arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the Eastern question. The Eastern question escalated during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Russia was losing its position in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured the dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878) and the signing of the victorious peace at San Stefano, it was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. From the end of the 19th century and before Turkey's participation in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was an integral part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After the surrender of Turkey in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire took place, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the powers of the Entente established new borders of the Turkish state.
• Votchina(fatherland - passed from the father, sometimes from the grandfather) - the oldest type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant form of land ownership. From the 15th century existed alongside the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually faded away. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by a decree of 1714 on single inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.
• Temporarily liable peasants- a category of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants carried duties (share-cropping or dues) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship has not been established. Having redeemed the allotment, the temporarily liable were transferred to the category of landowners. But until that moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was issued on the mandatory redemption of allotments of temporarily liable peasants. In some regions of Russia, temporarily liable relations remained until 1917.
• All-Russian market- the economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of the economies of certain regions of the country in the production of certain types of products and the strengthening of the exchange of goods between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of a single market.
• Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the allies of the USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 by landing in Normandy.
• Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. To buy land plots from landowners, peasants were provided with a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of the redemption payments depended on the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased from 1907.

• Guard- privileged (i.e., enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the "amusing" troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it turned into a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. Since the beginning of the XIX century. loses its importance as a political force, retaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. In the Great Patriotic War, from September 1941, the rank of guard units for the Armed Forces of the USSR was introduced.
• Hetman- Selected head of the registered Cossacks in the XVI-XVII centuries. Since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army. From 1708 the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. For a long time there were no such appointments, and in 1764 the hetmanship was abolished.
• Vowels- elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia since the second half of the 19th century.
• City Council- a non-estate body of city self-government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in landscaping, health care and other city affairs. Headed by the mayor.
• City government- the executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). Elected by city council. The mayor headed the council.
• living hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, the second in wealth and nobility after the "guests". With the knowledge of the tsar, merchants from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Living Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.
• The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation, and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after approval by the State Council and approval by the emperor. Elected for a term of 5 years. In total, during the existence of this authority there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - to October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, naming the lower house of the Federal Assembly as such. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislative bodies of modern Russia with pre-revolutionary ones. Since 1999 the State Duma of the third convocation has been working.
• State peasants- a special estate in Russia in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. Decorated by decrees of Peter I from the black-haired peasants, odnodvortsev, ladles and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. Considered personally free. From 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the XIX century. they accounted for 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886, they received the right to buy out land allotments into their property.
• State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Indispensable Council in 1810, and in 1906 became the upper legislative chamber. Considered bills submitted by ministers before they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some members of the Council were elected. Abolished December 1917
• GOELRO(State Electrification of Russia) - the first unified long-term plan for the restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10-15 years, adopted in 1920. It provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Completed mostly by 1931.
• Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.
• Lip- in North-Western Rus', a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. - a territorial district ruled by a provincial headman. The province has been an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into counties. Some provinces united into governor-generals. At the head were governors or governors-general. In 1914 Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the XX century. instead of provinces, krais and oblasts were formed.
• Gulag- the main directorate of the camps of the NKVD (MVD) of the USSR. The abbreviation GULAG is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.
• "People Walking"- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. the general name of freed serfs, fugitive peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation and place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or work for hire. Didn't have any duties.

• Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax from subjects. Known in Rus' since the 9th century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a kind of tribute was the "exit" - a collection of money in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became an obligatory state tax from black-haired, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called data money. Data people - in Russia in the 15th-17th centuries. persons from the taxed urban and rural population, given to lifelong military service. From the middle of the XVI century. included in the regiments of the "new order". Under Peter I, they were replaced by recruits.
• "Twenty-five thousand"- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks for economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.
• Palace peasants- feudal-dependent peasants in Russia, who lived on the lands of the great princes, kings and persons of the royal family and carried duties in their favor. Since 1797, they began to be called appanage peasants.
• Palace coups era- the name of the period 1725-1762, adopted in historiography, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, the supreme power passed from hand to hand through palace coups, which were carried out by noble groups with the support of guards regiments.
• Nobility- the ruling privileged class, part of the feudal lords. in Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility - these are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 13th century nobles began to be endowed with land for service. In the XVIII century. changed from a servant to a privileged class.
• Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, laws and resolutions issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies were called decrees. Thus, the Decree "On Peace" and the Decree "On Land" were adopted by the II Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.
• Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the Great Patriotic War, this measure affected many peoples. Eviction in 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others were subjected to. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, and others. .
• tithe- tax in favor of the church. It was a tenth of the harvest or other incomes of the population.
• "Wild Field"- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously mastered in the XVI-XVII centuries. fugitive peasants and serfs, settled by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.
• Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other layers of workers. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must take place after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transitional period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is connected with the exercise of violence against "foreign" classes and strata of society.
• dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.
• Volunteer army- the white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. Headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by the Red Army under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.
• Duma ranks- in the Russian state, officials - boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles, duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century led orders. They were governors of the largest cities.

• sole inheritance- Established by decree of Peter I in 1714, the procedure for the transfer of land ownership by heredity, directed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.
• heresy- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and worship. They were most widespread in the Middle Ages.

• Gendarmerie, gendarmerie- The police, which has a military organization and performs security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827-1917. in Russia there was a separate corps of gendarmes, which performed the functions of a political police.

• Pawnbrokers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered bondage, "laid down". Having lost their personal freedom, they were exempted from paying taxes. They existed from the 13th to the 17th centuries.
• Procurement- in Ancient Rus', smerds (see Smerdy), who worked on the feudal lord's farm for a "kupa" - a loan. After paying off the debt, they were released. Unlike serfs (see serfs), they had their own household.
• Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the XIX century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society "from above". They constantly argued with the Slavophiles on the problems of the development of Russia. “Reserved Summers” - at the end of the 16th century. this was the name of the years in which the peasants were forbidden to move from one landowner to another on St. George's Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of the peasants.
• Land redistribution- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by a rural gathering on the basis of leveling land use.
• Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government, created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. At the end of the XVI-XVII century. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the XVIII century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.
• Zemsky Sobors- central state-wide class-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral headed by the metropolitan (from 1589 patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who had the right of the boyar court by virtue of their position. In addition, zemstvo sobors included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants elected from the nobility and the top citizens. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.
• Zemstvo movement- liberal opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of the rights of the zemstvo and the spread of the principles of zemstvo self-government to the highest state institutions.
• Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with a center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. It had its own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.
• Zubatovshchina- the policy of "police socialism" implemented by SV. Zubatov - head of the Moscow Security Department (since 1896) and the Special Department of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under the control of the police (for example, the organization of GA. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

• Elected Rada- a narrow circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makary, A.M. Kurbsky and others, in fact, an unofficial government in 1546-1560. The elected council united supporters of reaching a compromise between various groups and strata of the feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region, the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local state apparatus and carried them out.
• "The Chosen Thousand"- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, roundabouts, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were to receive an increment to their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.
• Sharecropping- a type of land lease, in which the rent is paid to the owner of the land in shares of the harvest (sometimes up to half or more).
• Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. It was carried out in Russia at the end of the 19th century. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the lag behind the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen the defense capability. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.
• International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Association of Workers), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876, its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international association. III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and was a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for realizing the idea of ​​a world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "had fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.
• Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and the religious trend in the Russian state (end of the 15th - mid-16th centuries). The name was given by the name of the hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky. In the struggle against non-possessors, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogma, and the inviolability of the church's possessions. They were supported by the grand ducal authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory "Moscow is the third Rome." In the second half of the XVI century. lost their influence in ecclesiastical and political affairs.
• Usefulness- a kind of sharecropping, in which the rent for the land is half the crop.

• Cadets(constitutional democrats) - "Party of People's Freedom" - one of the largest political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. It existed from October 1905 to November 1917. It represented the left wing in Russian liberalism. She advocated a constitutional monarchy, democratic reforms, the transfer of landlord lands to peasants for redemption, and the expansion of labor legislation. They headed the party of cadets P.P. Milyukov, A.I. Shingarev, V.D. Nabokov and others dominated the I and II Dumas, supported tsarism in the First World War, in August 1915 created the Progressive Bloc to achieve victory in the war and prevent revolutionary uprisings, demanded participation in the government and liberal reforms. The party was banned after the October Revolution of 1917
• Cossacks- the military class in Russia, which included the population of a number of southern regions of Russia. The Cossacks enjoyed special rights and privileges on the terms of compulsory and universal military service. It develops from the 14th century, when free people settled on the outskirts of the Russian principalities, carrying out guard and border service for hire. In the XV-XVI centuries. self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks arise and develop, the bulk of which were fugitives and townspeople. The government sought to use the Cossacks to protect the borders, in wars, and by the end of the 18th century. totally subjugated him. The Cossacks turned into a privileged military class. In 1920, the Cossacks were abolished as an estate.
• State factories- in Russia, state-owned, most often military and mining and metallurgical enterprises. They emerged in the 17th century. as manufactories, they became widespread from the beginning of the 18th century, especially in the Urals. The workers of state-owned factories were mainly state peasants. After the peasant reform of 1861, they became hired workers.
• Cartel- a form of monopoly in which the participants retain their production independence, but at the same time jointly resolve issues of production volume, sales of products, etc. Profit in cartels is distributed according to the share in production and sales of products. Cartels appeared in Russia at the end of the 19th century.
• Cyrillic- the ancient Slavic alphabet, named after the Slavic enlightener Cyril. Until the XI-XII centuries. used in parallel with the Glagolitic. Later it replaced the Glagolitic alphabet and became the basis of modern systems of Slavic writing.
• Princess- the name of the descendants of Russian specific princes (Rurikovich and Gedimi-novichi). By the beginning of the XVII century. in terms of economic and political situation, most of the princes equaled other service people. Since the 18th century became a titled part of the Russian nobility.
• Boards- central state institutions formed by Peter I in the course of public administration reforms in 1717-1722. and existed until the beginning of the 19th century. The collegial principle of discussing and solving cases, as well as the uniformity of the organizational structure, was put at the basis of the activities of the collegiums; competence is more clearly defined than in orders.
• Collectivization- the transfer by the state of formal ownership of the means of production to groups of citizens or collective farms controlled by it. In the USSR, collectivization was called the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms), carried out in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Collectivization was accompanied by the elimination of individual farms and the widespread use of violent methods. Terror fell on all sections of the peasantry - kulaks, middle peasants and even poor peasants. Collectivization changed the fundamental way of life of the bulk of the population of Russia.
• Committees of the poor (combeds)- organizations of the rural poor in the European part of Russia, created by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars in June 1918. In many areas, they actually performed the functions of state power. Disbanded in late 1918/early 1919.
• Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by members of the Supreme Privy Council in order to limit the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.
• Contribution- cash payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.
• Counter-reforms in Russia- the name of the events of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s. Preliminary censorship was restored, class principles were introduced in primary and secondary schools, the autonomy of universities was abolished, and bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo and city self-government was established.
• Concern- one of the forms of monopolies, a diversified association (finance, industry, transport, trade, etc.) with the preservation of independence in management, but with the complete financial dependence of the enterprises included in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.
• Concession- an agreement on leasing to foreign firms enterprises or plots of land owned by the state, with the right to production activities.
• Cooperation- a form of organization of labor and production, based on the group ownership of the members of the cooperative. The main forms of cooperation: consumer, supply and marketing, credit, production.
• Feeding- the system of maintaining officials (governors, volostels, etc.) at the expense of the local population in Rus'. It was used by the great and specific princes as a way to reward princes, boyars and other close associates for their service. "Feed" was levied two or three times a year in the form of food, fodder, part of various duties from auctions and shops. Initially, feeding was not limited to anything. Only from the end of the 15th century. their sizes and terms began to be regulated. They were liquidated in the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible.
• Kornilovshchina- rebellion on August 25-31, 1917 with the aim of establishing the dictatorship of General L.G. Kornilov, who in July 1917 was appointed Supreme Commander. He sent troops to Petrograd, demanded the resignation of the Provisional Government, left A.F. Kerensky, head of government. The rebellion was liquidated by the revolutionary troops, detachments of the Red Guard. The Bolsheviks played an active role in the suppression of the Kornilov region.
• Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of their originality, the isolation of their national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to bait "rootless cosmopolitans" who were accused of "groveling" before the West. In 1949, a wave of denigration of cultural figures resulted in a struggle for "communist ideology", persecution, repression, rampant nationalism, etc., intensified.
• Red Guard- armed detachments, which were formed from March 1917 and consisted mainly of the workers of the industrial cities of Russia. It became the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution, numbered up to 200 thousand people, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - RKKA, the official name of the Soviet Armed Forces from 1918 to 1943).
• Serfdom- a form of feudal dependence of the peasants: attaching them to the land and subordinating the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a nationwide scale, serfdom was formalized by the Sudebnik of 1497, decrees on “reserved” and “lesson” years, and finally enshrined in the Cathedral Code of 1649. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. all categories of the dependent population merged into the serfs. Abolished by the peasant reform of 1861
• Peasants- the bulk of rural producers, farmers. The word “chresti-anin” (the “peasant” etymologically goes back to it) was known in Rus' from the turn of the 10th-11th centuries. It denoted a person professing the Christian faith. From the end of the XIV century. the content of the word expanded, and by the 16th century. the whole taxed population of the village, the community members, was already called peasants.
• Cult of personality- admiration for someone, veneration, exaltation of someone. In the USSR in 1929-1953. existed is defined as a cult of personality I.V. Stalin. A dictatorial regime was established, democracy was abolished, Stalin during his lifetime was credited with a decisive influence on the course of historical development. Elements of the cult of personality were preserved under N.S. Khrushchev and L.I. Brezhnev.
• cultural revolution- a number of measures carried out in the 20-30s in the USSR, aimed at changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia and at breaking with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage through the ideologization of culture. The main task was considered to be the creation of the so-called proletarian culture based on the Marxist-class ideology, "communist education", mass culture. It provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a new Soviet school, the training of personnel for the "people's intelligentsia", the restructuring of life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control. Along with positive results (elimination of illiteracy, development of education, etc.), it contributed to the strengthening of the dictatorial regime of I.V. Stalin.

• Left communists- a group of members of the RSDLP (b) headed by N.I. Bukharin, who actively opposed the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.
• life guard- personal protection of the monarch and the name of selected military units. In Russia, it was established by Peter I at the end of the 17th century. Later, many guards units of the Russian army were called the Life Guards.
• lendlease(English to lend and lease) - a policy carried out by the United States during the Second World War. It included the transfer on loan and lease of weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food to the allied countries in the anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-lease deliveries to the USSR amounted to $9.8 billion.
• Livonian Order- Catholic state and military organization of the German knights-crusaders in the Baltics. Arose in 1237. Actively waged wars of conquest. It was destroyed during the Livonian War and liquidated in 1561.
• The League of nations- International Organization for the Cooperation of Peoples for Peace and Security (1919-1946). In 1934, the USSR joined the League of Nations, but in 1939, due to the Soviet-Finnish war, it was excluded from it. She pursued a policy of connivance towards the countries of the fascist bloc. In fact, it ceased to exist since the beginning of the Second World War. The dissolution was officially announced in 1946.

• Manufactory- a large enterprise based on the division of labor and predominantly manual production. It appeared in Russia in the 17th century.
• Menshevism- a trend in Russian social democracy, which was formed at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903) from a part of the delegates who received a minority during the elections of governing bodies. Leaders -G.V. Plekhanov, Yu.O. Martov, I.O. Axelrod and others. The Mensheviks denied the strict centralism of the party and the vesting of the Central Committee with great powers, in the bourgeois-democratic revolution they considered the liberal bourgeoisie an ally of the proletariat, did not recognize the revolutionary role of the peasantry, advocated legal methods of struggle, and opposed the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. In 1908-1910. split into liquidators (in favor of legal work and liquidation of the illegal party) and Menshevik Party members (in favor of illegal struggle). During the First World War, three currents arose - defencists, internationalists and mezhrayontsy. After the February Revolution, they supported the Provisional Government, did not recognize the October Revolution, believing that Russia was not ripe for socialism. Part of the Mensheviks became Bolsheviks.
• Localism- a special procedure for appointment to military, administrative and court service, taking into account the nobility of origin and personal merits of ancestors. It arose at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. and canceled in 1682. Month - in Russia XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. a six-day corvée of serfs, primarily yard people, deprived of land allotments. Remuneration for work was carried out in kind, issued monthly. The most severe form of serfdom.
• ministries(lat. I serve, I manage) - the central government bodies that were in charge of individual sectors of the economy and the life of the state. The first ministries were formed in 1802 and existed until 1917. In 1946 the name "ministry" was restored.
• Monopoly- the exclusive right to produce or sell something. With the introduction at the end of the XIX century. capitalism into the monopoly stage, the unions of capitalists seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods in order to dominate the market. The main forms of monopolies: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. Monopolies arose in Russia in the 1980s. Syndicates were the most common here. "Society for the sale of products of Russian metallurgical plants" ("Prodamet") by 1908 sold 90% of the metallurgical products of the South and 45% of the entire production of the empire. Syndicates were created in the coal industry ("Pro-dugol" in 1904), in the car building and oil industries.

• Viceroy- in the Russian state in the XII century. governors - officials who ruled individual territories. Appointed by the princes for "feeding". They were in charge of the administrative-territorial units of the empire, consisting of two or three provinces. In the 19th century Viceroyalty existed in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Caucasus. Populism was the leading direction in the liberation movement of post-reform Russia in the 19th century. It was based on a system of views on the original path of development of Russia, capable, bypassing the stage of capitalism, to create, relying on the peasant community, a socialist society. This ideology is a social utopia. At the end of the 60s of the XIX century. three currents are formed in populism: rebellious, or anarchist (M.A. Bakunin), propaganda (P.L. Lavrov), conspiratorial (P.N. Tkachev). They differed in matters of tactics. In 1860-1880. The main organizations of the populists were the "Chaikovites" (organizers of going to the people), "Land and Freedom", which split in 1879 into "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". Since the second half of the 80s. Populism is in crisis due to the negative reaction of society to the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party became the successor of the populist ideology.
• People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats)- in the Soviet state in 1917-1946. central government bodies of a separate branch of the national economy or a sphere of state activity. They were headed by people's commissars. Transformed into ministries.
• Natural economy- a type of economy in which products and things are produced for their own use, and not for sale.
• Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises and other private property to state ownership, both through expropriation and on the basis of redemption transactions.
• Nonpossessors- religious and political movement in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. They preached asceticism, withdrawal from the world. They demanded that the church give up land ownership. The main ideologist of non-acquisitiveness was the elder of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Nil Sorsky. The Josephites opposed the nonpossessors. Non-acquisitiveness was condemned by church councils in 1503 and 1531. The New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced by the Soviet leadership in March 1921 at the X Congress of the RCP (b). It envisaged a way out of the economic and political crisis by returning to state-controlled and regulated private property in industry, replacing food appropriation with a food tax, proclaiming freedom of trade, using foreign capital in the form of concessions and the labor of farm laborers in the countryside. At the same time, the monetary reform of 1922-1924 was carried out, Soviet enterprises and cooperation developed, and the national economy was restored. However, as a result of the contradictions that arose at the end of the 1920s, the NEP was completely abandoned.
• Nomenclature(lat. list) - a list of officials, the appointment or approval of which falls within the competence of any body. In the USSR, such bodies were party committees of various levels. The ruling elite in the USSR was called the nomenklatura.
• "Norman Theory"- originated in the second quarter of the 18th century. Its supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) the creators of the state in Ancient Rus'. Based on the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians.

• "Secularization of Culture"- the acquisition of a secular character by culture: an increasing variety of secular themes and plots in literature and art.
• quitrent- a form of feudal rent. In Russia - the annual collection of money and products from serfs by landowners. The food quitrent was abolished by the reform of 1861, the cash quitrent remained until 1863.
• Community- a form of association of people that arose in antiquity. Distinctive features of the community - common ownership of the means of production, full or partial self-government. In Russia, the community was a closed class unit used for tax collection and police control. After the reform of 1861, the community became the owner of the land. It was destroyed by Stolypin's reforms.
• Philistines- the official name of the class of townspeople in the Russian Empire.
• Octobrists- members of the right-liberal party "Union of October 17", created after the publication of the Manifesto by Nicholas II on October 17, 1905. According to the Octobrists, this document marked Russia's transition to a constitutional monarchy. The party considered its main task to be assistance to the government, if it takes the path of social reforms. The program of the Octobrists: a constitutional monarchy, a single and indivisible Russian state, the solution of the agrarian question without the alienation of landowners' lands, a limited right to strike and an 8-hour working day. The party represented the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, liberal-minded landlords, part of the officials and the wealthy intelligentsia. The leaders of the Octobrists - A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, D.N. Shipov and others.
• Opposition(lat. opposition) - a party or social group that opposes the opinion of the majority or the dominant point of view, putting forward its own way of solving problems.
• Oprichnina(oprich - Old Russian except) - in 1565-1572. the name of the inheritance of Ivan IV, in which a number of lands were allocated, as well as part of Moscow. The oprichnina introduced its own administration: the Boyar Duma, orders, and the army. It is also customary to call the oprichnina the entire system of measures of Ivan the Terrible - mass repressions, land confiscations, etc. - which was used by the tsar to combat alleged treason and the remnants of specific separatism.
• Horde exit- tribute, dues paid by Russian princes to the khans of the Golden Horde.
• buyout- the exclusive right granted by the state for a fee to private individuals (farmers) to collect taxes or sell certain types of goods (wine, salt, etc.). In Russia, the farming system existed until 1863.
• Segments- plots of land cut off from the allotments that were in use by the peasants during the peasant reform of 1861 and transferred to the landowners. The sections were interspersed with peasant lands, creating a patchwork and forcing the peasants to rent them from the landowner for various working off. The cuts accounted for a total of about 20% of the pre-reform land use of the peasants.
• Cut in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. a land plot allocated to a peasant in exchange for the communal lands allocated to him earlier, located in various places. The estate, however, remained within the boundaries of the village. The creation of cuts was the result of the implementation of the Stolypin agrarian reform
• "Thaw"- a common designation of changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that emerged after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by I. Ehrenburg. The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s and early 1950s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult. "Thaw" contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive developments of the mid-1950s were not further developed.
• Otkhodnichestvo- in Russia, the temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or for agricultural work in other areas. It was common among the landlord quitrent peasants.
• "Official nationality theory"- the national state doctrine of the Russian Empire, put forward during the reign of Nicholas I. The main principles of the theory were formulated by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov in 1832: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.
• Security departments, guards- local bodies of the police department, created to protect public safety and order. They were in charge of political investigation, had secret agents sent to political parties and opposition organizations. First appeared in St. Petersburg (1866) and Moscow (1880). By 1907 they already existed in 27 industrial and cultural centers of the country. Abolished after the February Revolution of 1917

• Patriarchate- a form of church government in Orthodoxy, in which the patriarch is at the head of the church. It originated in the early Middle Ages. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the patriarchate was established in 1589, abolished in 1721, and revived in early 1917.
• resettlement- the movement of the (peasant) population of the central regions of Russia to a new place of residence in sparsely populated outlying areas - Siberia, the Far East, etc. Resettlement was the main means of internal colonization and solving the problem of peasant land shortages. It was an integral part of the Stolypin agrarian reform.
• "Perestroika"- transformations carried out in the USSR from the mid-1980s to 1991 under the slogan of overcoming obsolete forms of social life and methods of work. The most important direction of this policy was democratization, including the expansion of glasnost. The other side of "perestroika" was economic transformations. The system of international security and non-violent peace has been established in foreign policy. The reform of society within the framework of the existing socialist system ended unsuccessfully.
• Plan "Barbarossa"- the code name of the plan of aggressive war of fascist Germany against the USSR. It began to be developed in July 1940. The plan provided for the defeat of the USSR in a quick campaign, while the main forces of the Red Army were supposed to be destroyed west of the Dnieper-Western Dvina line, preventing them from retreating into the interior of the country. In the future, it was planned to capture Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Donbass and reach the line Astrakhan - Volga - Arkhangelsk. The Barbarossa plan was thwarted by the heroic struggle of the Soviet people.
• Pogost- originally the center of a rural community in the north-west of Ancient Rus'. From the second half of the X century. place of tribute collection, later - the center of the administrative-tax district.
• Household taxation- in Russia in the 17th - early 18th centuries. system of layout of direct taxes on taxable population. Changed the land tax. The state determined the amount of the tax, and the urban and rural communities distributed it to each household. Replaced by poll tax.
• Poll tax- the main direct tax in the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Replaced in 1724 household taxation. This tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80-90s of the XIX century.
• "Elderly"- in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries. collection of money from the peasants when they leave the landowner on St. George's Day. Introduced by the Sudebnik in 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants.
• "Police socialism"- the name accepted in historiography of one of the methods for implementing domestic policy, in which workers' organizations controlled by the government were created. At the beginning of the XX century. such organizations appeared in Russia, a gendarmerie colonel, head of the Moscow security department and the Special Department of the Police Department S.V. played an important role in their creation and distribution. Zubatov. The Russian version of "police socialism" is also called "Zubatovism" in the literature.
• Regiments of the "foreign system", or regiments of the "new system"- military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Used by Peter I to form a regular army.
• polyudie- a detour by a Russian prince with a squad of his vassal possessions in order to collect tribute.
• Estate- a form of conditional land tenure in the Russian state at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The estate was not subject to sale, exchange and inheritance. In the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually approached the patrimony, and in 1714 merged with it completely.
• Landlord peasants(serfs) - peasants who belonged to the landowners before the peasant reform of 1861.
• Posadnik- an elected official in the ancient Russian city, the head of the executive branch. Together with the prince, he was in charge of management and court issues, commanded the army, led the veche assembly and the boyar council.
• Posad people- the commercial and industrial population of Russian cities, who carried the state tax - trade taxes, trade duties, participation in citywide works, natural duties, etc. They were divided into hundreds - the Living Room, Cloth, Black. In 1775 they were divided into merchants and philistines.
• Possession peasants- in Russia XVIII-XIX centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked. The category of possessive peasants was introduced under Peter I by a decree of 1721 on the purchase of people for factories in connection with the need to provide growing manufactories with working hands. The position of the possessive peasants was somewhat different from the position of the serfs: they were not allowed to be transferred to agricultural work, to be recruited, etc. They were released by the peasant reform of 1861. Pososhnoe - in the Russian state of the 16th-17th centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.
• Privatization- transfer of state or municipal property to private ownership.
• Order control system- developed in the middle of the XVI century. a system of permanent government bodies - orders. It arose on the basis of the performance by the boyars of certain state functions on behalf (order) of the tsar. The system of orders reached its peak in the 17th century. Abolished at the beginning of the 18th century. Peter I.
• Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace and economic peasants, instead of paying a poll tax, worked in state and private factories, that is, attached (assigned) to them. Released by the peasant reform of 1861
• Tax in kind(food tax) - introduced in 1921 to replace the surplus appropriation, marked the beginning of the NEP. The amount of the tax in kind was established before the spring sowing, depending on the prosperity of the farm, and was much less than the food requisition, the surplus was allowed to be sold, which stimulated the growth of production. Active until 1923
• "Food Dictatorship"- the system of emergency measures of the Soviet government (1918-1921), taken in the context of a food crisis to supply the Red Army, the population of cities, and the poor in the countryside with bread. It provided for the centralization of the procurement and distribution of food, the steady implementation of the grain monopoly, the fight against bagging and speculation, and the suppression of the resistance of the kulaks. The Soviet government declared enemies of those who hid surpluses of grain, did not take them out to bulk points. The guilty were sentenced to imprisonment, execution, and their property was confiscated. The food dictatorship aroused the discontent of the peasants. Canceled with the introduction of the New Economic Policy.
• food squads(food detachments) - armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918-1920. They were created by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food, trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets. Conducted surplus appraisal in the countryside; acted jointly with the committees and local Soviets.
• Prodrazverstka(food allocation) - the system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism" (1919-1921), established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (except for those necessary for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. It was carried out by the bodies of the People's Commissariat for Food, food detachments, committees of the poor, local Soviets. Plan assignments were deployed by counties, volosts, villages, and peasant households. Prodrazverstka caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and in 1921 was replaced by a food tax.

• Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes, cut off from their class environment (clergy, petty bourgeois, merchants, petty bureaucracy). Legally, this category has not been formalized in any way. Raznochintsy were mainly engaged in mental work. "Detente" is a period in the relationship between the world systems of capitalism and socialism, which began at the turn of the 60-70s of the XX century. It arose on the basis of the military-strategic parity (equality of the sides) achieved by the USSR and the USA. It ended in 1979 with the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
• Split- separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of part of the believers who did not accept the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653-1656. Opponents of the official church began to be called schismatics, or Old Believers.
• Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, the economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.
• Recruitment duty- the method of manning the Russian regular army in the XVIII-XIX centuries. The taxable estates (peasants, philistines, etc.) were obliged to provide a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by universal military service.
• "Rail War"- the name of a major operation of Soviet partisans in August - September 1943 to disable the railways in the territories occupied by the Nazis.
• Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the official name of the united Polish-Lithuanian state from the time of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin (1569) to the partition of Poland in 1795.
• Russian Orthodox Church- the largest of the Orthodox churches. Founded in the X century. From the end of the XI century. it was headed by the Metropolitan of Kiev, from the end of the 13th century. - Metropolitan of Vladimir, who since 1328 lived in Moscow. Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1448 she became independent. The patriarchate was established in 1589 and abolished in 1721, restored in 1917.
• Ryadovichi- a category of dependent people in Kievan Rus. Ryadovich - a person who has concluded a certain contract - a number and is obliged to perform work under this contract.

• Seimas- the body of estate representation in some states of Eastern Europe, for example, in Poland.
• Secret Committees in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary state institutions created by the emperor to discuss reform projects, and in 1857-1858. - to discuss the preparation of projects for the abolition of serfdom. Secularization - the transformation of church property into state property. In Russia, large-scale secularization was carried out during the reign of Catherine II in 1764 and after 1917.
• "Seven Boyars"- the government of the Russian state during the Time of Troubles (1610-1613). It was formed after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. Consisted of seven boyars headed by F. Miloslavsky. This government agreed to the calling to the Russian throne of the Polish prince Vladislav. It also let Polish troops into Moscow.
• Senate- the highest body of state administration in the Russian Empire from 1711 to the beginning of the 19th century. After 1810 - the highest judicial and administrative body. Abolished in 1917
• Separate peace- a peace treaty with the enemy, concluded by one of the states that are members of the coalition, without the knowledge and consent of the allies.
• Syndicate- one of the forms of monopolistic associations. The syndicate undertakes the implementation of all commercial activities, while maintaining the industrial and legal independence of the enterprises included in it.
• Synod- the highest legal advisory administrative and judicial institution for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church. Existed from 1721 to 1917.
• Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 40-70s of the XIX century. A feature of their views was their commitment to the original development of Russia, the model of which was pre-Petrine Russia. Service people - in the Russian state of the XIV - early XVIII centuries. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" (Cossacks, archers, gunners, etc.). Service "in the fatherland" was hereditary. "According to the instrument" was recruited, as a rule, from the townspeople. Service people were exempted from state taxes and duties.
• Smerdy- the general name of the rural population of Ancient Rus'.
• Adviсe- authorities that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. According to V.I. Lenin, the Soviets were to concentrate in their hands the functions of all branches of power and become "full-powered" bodies. In fact, from the very first months of the proclamation of Soviet power in October 1917, they turned into an appendage of the Bolshevik Party.
• Estate-representative monarchy- a form of the feudal state, in which the power of the monarch is combined with the organs of estate representation. In Russia, class representation existed in the form of zemstvo sobors (XVI-XVII centuries).
• Land socialization- the main requirement of the agrarian program of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which implied the destruction of private ownership of land and its transfer to the use of the community.
• Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)- the largest party in Russia (1901-1923). They advocated the elimination of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the transfer of land to the peasants, democratic reforms, etc. They used the tactics of terror. Leaders - V.M. Chernov, A.R Gots and others.
• archers- in the XVI - end of the XVII century. the category of service people "according to the instrument", which constituted a permanent irregular army. They received state salaries, but the main source of income was crafts and trade.

• Totalitarianism- a form of government that is characterized by the complete subordination of the life of society to the interests of power and control over it, the actual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repression against political opposition and any manifestations of dissent.
• traditional society- a society in which a person does not think of himself outside of nature; age-old traditions and customs (ceremonies, prohibitions, etc.) completely dominate it. Such a society is not inclined to accept any innovations.
• Trusts- one of the forms of monopolistic associations, in which the participants lose their industrial, commercial and legal independence. Power in them is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. Most often, trusts arose in industries that produce homogeneous products.
• June 3 coup d'état(Third June Monarchy) - the dissolution of the Second State Duma on June 3, 1907 and the publication of a new electoral law in violation of the Manifesto on October 17, 1905. It was the end of the revolution of 1905-1907, after which the Third June Monarchy was established - an alliance of the tsar, nobles and the big bourgeoisie, united State Duma, which pursued a policy of maneuvering.
• Trotskyism- a direction in the Russian and international revolutionary movement, named after its ideologist L.D. Trotsky. Trotsky put forward the theory of "permanent revolution" (in the revolution of 1905-1907 he advocated skipping the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, denied the revolutionary role of the peasantry). In Soviet times, Trotsky advocated the nationalization of trade unions, questioned the possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the help of developed countries. In the conditions of an acute inner-party struggle, Trotsky's ideas were called Trotskyism. The views of Trotsky and his supporters were characterized as a "petty-bourgeois deviation" in the RCP(b) and crushed at the 15th Party Congress. In 1929 he was expelled from the USSR, in 1938 he created the Fourth International, waged a stubborn struggle in the press against Stalin, on whose instructions he was killed in 1940 in Mexico. In the USSR, the merits of Trotsky as an active participant in the October Revolution, the creator of the Red Army, the organizer of victory in the Civil War, etc., were diminished.
• Trudoviks- The "Labour Group" in the I and IV State Duma of deputies-peasants and populist intelligentsia, who acted in a bloc with leftist forces for the nationalization of land and its transfer to the peasants according to the labor norm, for democratic freedoms (1906-1917).
• Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousands") in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected at the veche and was the closest assistant to the posadnik - he was in charge of trade, tax collection, and the merchant court.
• tax- in the Russian state of the XV-beginning of the XVIII century. monetary and in-kind state duties of peasants and townspeople. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. a tax was a unit of taxation of peasants by duties in favor of the landowners.

• lot, specific principality - in Rus' in the XII-XVI centuries. an integral part of large grand principalities, ruled by a member of the grand ducal family.
• Ulus- camp of nomads, settlement. In a broad sense - a tribal association with a certain territory, subject to a khan or leader among the peoples of Central and Central Asia and Siberia. After the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan, an ulus was a country or region subordinate to one of the Genghis Khans.
• "Lesson Summers"- established by royal decrees from the end of the 16th century. terms of investigation and return of fugitive peasants to their owners (from 5 to 15 years). Abolished in the middle of the 17th century, when the investigation became indefinite, by the Council Code of 1649.
• constituent Assembly- a representative, parliamentary institution in Russia, first convened on the basis of universal suffrage to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. The convocation of the Constituent Assembly is a program requirement of all revolutionary, democratic, liberal parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, including the Bolsheviks. The government created after the February Revolution was called Provisional until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Elections were held in November - December 1917. The Bolsheviks received only 24% of the vote. This meant the impossibility of implementing the decisions of the Bolsheviks through this authority. The Constituent Assembly was opened on January 5 (18), 1918 in the Tauride Palace in Petrograd. The majority of the elected deputies were Socialist-Revolutionaries (59%). The assembly did not recognize the legitimacy of the Council of People's Commissars and the decrees of the Soviet government. The Bolsheviks left the meeting room, and at 5 am on January 6 (19), 1918, the Constituent Assembly was dispersed. Officially, the decree on its dissolution was adopted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets on the night of January 6 (19) to January 7 (20), 1918.

• feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor rent (corvée), food rent ( quitrent in kind) and cash rent (monetary rent).
• Fiscal- in the Russian Empire in 1711-1729. a civil servant who supervised the activities of state institutions (mainly financial ones) and officials. He collected information about violations of laws, bribery, embezzlement, etc. He headed the fiscals of the chief fiscal, which was part of the Senate.

• "Journey to the People"- a unique phenomenon in Russian history: a spontaneous mass movement of radical youth, inspired by the ideas of revolutionary populism, in 1873-1874. More than 2,000 propagandists rushed to the village in the hope of rousing the people to a "general rebellion." "Going to the people" failed. Over a thousand people were arrested, 193 of the most active participants in the movement were brought to trial.
• "Cold War"- the state of confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States with their political partners, on the other. It lasted from 1946 until the end of the 80s. It was called the "cold war" because, unlike "hot wars" (open military conflicts), it was carried out by economic, ideological and political methods.
• serfs- the category of dependent population in Ancient Rus', known since the 10th century. Kholops were close in status to slaves. In the 17th century gradually merged with the serf peasantry.
• Farm- a rural settlement, consisting most often of one yard. As a result of the agrarian reform carried out by the government of P.A. Stolypin, - a separate peasant estate, located outside the community.

• Black Hundred organizations- extreme right socio-political associations in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. They acted under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism, anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian people”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, etc.).
• Black-nose peasants- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries. free peasants who owned communal lands and carried state duties. In the XVIII century. became state peasants.
• Pale of Settlement- in 1791-1917. limited territories of the Russian Empire, outside which Jews were forbidden to live permanently.

• nobility- in Poland, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, the name of secular feudal lords, corresponding to the nobility.

• expropriation I (lat. deprivation of property) - compulsory deprivation of property, free of charge or paid.

• Paganism- the general name of polytheistic religions ("polytheism").
• Label- a preferential charter issued by the Golden Horde khans to secular and spiritual feudal lords of subject lands.
• Trade fairs- trades and markets periodically organized in a specified place.
• Yasak- in Russia XV-XX centuries. tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, which was levied mainly in furs.

Solve with history answers.

A

Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the highest degree of centralization is achieved, a standing army and police are created, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus is created. The activities of estate-representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia fell on the XVIII-XIX centuries.

Autonomization- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin's proposal to include independent Soviet republics in the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.

excise tax(lat. cut) is a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced by domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the item. existed in Russia until 1917.

Anarchism(gr. anarchy) - a socio-political movement that advocates the destruction of all state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Later, Russian anarchism manifested itself during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.

Annexation(lat. accession) - the forcible seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.

antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.

"Arakcheevshchina"- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815–1825) of the reign of Alexander I. It was named after the confidant of the emperor - A.A. Arakcheev. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life in Russian society: the planting of military settlements, the tightening of discipline in the army, and the intensification of persecution of education and the press.

Assembly(fr. meeting) - meetings-balls in the homes of the Russian nobility, introduced in 1718 by Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

B

Corvee- gratuitous forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvée has already been recorded in Russkaya Pravda. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th century. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a labor system.

Baskak- Representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled the local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. - Horde tribute collector.

white guard- military formations that spoke out after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. White color was considered a symbol of "lawful order". The military force of the white movement - the White Guard - is an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of the officers of the Russian army, headed by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.

white matter Ideology and politics of the White Guard. It was an independent trend in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The beginning of the movement was in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated "restoring order" in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​"one and indivisible" Russia, the primacy of the Orthodox Church, loyalty to the historical "principles", but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the "democratic counter-revolution" in the person of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but in the future, the monarchist tendency with the idea of ​​​​restoring the monarchy became more and more clearly manifested. The White movement failed to offer a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces in the whitest movement, the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.

"Bironovshchina"- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of "Bironism": political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, strict taxation, drill in the army.

Middle thought- advice close to the Grand Duke, and then to the king. Under Vasily III, the Middle Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the XVI century. The Near Duma was in fact the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the 17th century. especially trusted persons began to favor "in the room" (hence the name - Secret Thought, Room Thought). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many respects opposed the Boyar Duma.

Bolshevism- an ideological and political trend in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of the governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the XX century. rejected many provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.

Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the XV century. - the highest rank among service people "in the fatherland" in the Russian state. The boyars occupied the highest positions, headed the orders, were governors. The rite was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma.

Boyar Duma- in Russia, the supreme council under the prince (since 1547 under the tsar) in the X-XVIII centuries. Legislative body, discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.

"Bulyginskaya Duma"- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of the Interior A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative representative body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convocation of the "Bulygin Duma" was disrupted by the revolutionary events in October 1905.

Bureaucracy(gr. office dominance) - 1) The control system, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

IN

Varangians(Normans, Vikings) - so in Rus' they called the participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes).

"Great Menaion" (monthly readings) - a Russian church and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a monthly collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian hagiographies, writings of the "fathers of the church", as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.

rope- a territorial community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs.

Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution of Russia in 1726–1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.

Veche(old-timer Vet - advice) - a national assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. The first chronicle references to the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development was in the Russian cities of the second half of the XI-XII centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded agreements with other lands, etc.

Governor- military leader, ruler of the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term "voivode" meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people's militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. the post of city governor appeared, who headed the military and civil administration of the city and county. From the beginning of the 17th century governors were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719, governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775 the post of voivode was abolished.

Courts-martial- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out expedited trials and immediate reprisals for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.

Military Industrial Committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.

military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the planting of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruiting sets. "Settled troops" settled on state (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both military service and agricultural work. In 1817–1826 Count Arakcheev was in charge of the military settlements. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.

"War Communism"- a kind of economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state under the conditions of the Civil War (1918–1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the resources of the country in the hands of the state. "War Communism" was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features are: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer of defense plants and transport to martial law, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of surplus appropriation and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the context of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor service (since 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some of the features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society dreamed of by Marxists. In 1921, "war communism" showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the country's peaceful development, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.

Volosteli- in the Russian principalities from the XI century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the XVI century. official in rural areas - volosts. Volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.

"Free Plowmen"- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for release could be: a one-time redemption, a redemption with installment payment, working off corvee. The landlords could release the peasants without a ransom. By the middle of the XIX century. about 100 thousand male souls were released. In 1848, the free cultivators were renamed into state peasants, settled on their own lands.

Eastern question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the Eastern question. The Eastern question escalated during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Russia was losing its position in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured the dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in the Russian-Turkish war (1877–1878) and the signing of the victorious peace at San Stefano, it was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. From the end of the 19th century and before Turkey's participation in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was an integral part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After the surrender of Turkey in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire took place, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the powers of the Entente established new borders of the Turkish state.

Votchina(fatherland- passed from the father, sometimes from the grandfather) - the oldest type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant form of land ownership. From the 15th century existed alongside the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually faded away. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by a decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.

Temporarily liable peasants- a category of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants carried duties (share-cropping or dues) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship has not been established. Having redeemed the allotment, the temporarily liable were transferred to the category of landowners. But until that moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was issued on the mandatory redemption of allotments of temporarily liable peasants. In some regions of Russia, temporarily liable relations remained until 1917.

All-Russian market- an economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of the economies of certain regions of the country in the production of any specific types of products and the strengthening of the exchange of goods between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of a single market.

Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the allies of the USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 by landing in Normandy.

Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. To buy land plots from landowners, peasants were provided with a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of the redemption payments depended on the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased from 1907.

G

Guard- privileged (i.e., enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the "amusing" troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it turned into a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century. loses its importance as a political force, retaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. In the Great Patriotic War, from September 1941, the rank of guard units for the Armed Forces of the USSR was introduced.

Hetman- Elected head of the registered Cossacks in the XVI-XVII centuries. Since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army. From 1708 the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. For a long time there were no such appointments, and in 1764 the hetmanship was abolished.

Vowels- Elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia since the second half of the 19th century.

City Council- a non-estate body of city self-government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in landscaping, health care and other city affairs. Headed by the mayor.

City government- the executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). Elected by city council. The mayor headed the council.

living hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, the second in wealth and nobility after the "guests". With the knowledge of the tsar, merchants from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Living Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.

The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation, and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after approval by the State Council and approval by the emperor. Elected for a term of 5 years. In total, during the existence of this body of power, there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, naming the lower house of the Federal Assembly as such. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislative bodies of modern Russia with pre-revolutionary ones. Since 1999 the State Duma of the third convocation has been working.

State peasants- a special estate in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Decorated by decrees of Peter I from the black-haired peasants, odnodvortsev, ladles and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. Considered personally free. From 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the nineteenth century. they accounted for 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886, they received the right to buy out land allotments into their property.

State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Indispensable Council in 1810, and in 1906 became the upper legislative chamber. Considered bills submitted by ministers before they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some members of the Council were elected. Abolished December 1917

GOELRO(State Electrification of Russia) - the first unified long-term plan for the restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10–15 years, adopted in 1920. Provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Completed mostly by 1931.

Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.

Lip- in North-Western Rus', a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. - a territorial district, governed by the headman.

Province- an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into counties. Some provinces united into governor-generals. At the head were governors or governors-general. In 1914 Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the twentieth century. instead of provinces, krais and oblasts were formed.

Gulag- the main directorate of the camps of the NKVD (MVD) of the USSR. The abbreviation GULAG is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.

"People Walking"- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. the general name of freed serfs, fugitive peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation and place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or work for hire. Didn't have any duties.

D

Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax on subjects. Known in Rus' since the ninth century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a kind of tribute was the "exit" - a collection of money in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became an obligatory state tax from black-haired, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called given money.

Data people- in Russia XV-XVII centuries. persons from the taxed urban and rural population, given to lifelong military service. From the middle of the XVI century. included in the regiments of the "new order". Under Peter I, they were replaced by recruits.

"Twenty-five thousand"- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks for economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.

Palace peasants- feudal dependent peasants in Russia, who lived on the lands of the great princes, kings and persons of the royal family and carried duties in their favor. Since 1797, they began to be called appanage peasants.

Palace coups era- the name of the period 1725–1762, adopted in historiography, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, the supreme power passed from hand to hand through palace coups, which were carried out by noble groups with the support of guards regiments.

Nobility- the ruling privileged class, part of the feudal lords. in Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility - these are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the thirteenth century nobles began to be endowed with land for service. In the XVIII century. changed from a servant to a privileged class.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, laws and resolutions issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies were called decrees. Thus, the Decree "On Peace" and the Decree "On Land" were adopted by the II Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the Great Patriotic War, this measure affected many peoples. Eviction in 1941–1945 Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others were subjected to. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, and others. .

tithe- tax in favor of the church. It was a tenth of the harvest or other incomes of the population.

"Wild Field"- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously mastered in the XVI-XVII centuries. fugitive peasants and serfs, settled by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.

Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other sections of the working people. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must take place after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transitional period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is connected with the exercise of violence against "foreign" classes and strata of society.

dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.

Volunteer army- the white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. Headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by the Red Army under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.

Duma ranks- in the Russian state, officials - boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles, duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century led orders. They were governors of the largest cities.

E

sole inheritance- Established by the decree of Peter I in 1714, the procedure for the transfer of land ownership by heredity, directed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.

heresy- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and worship. They were most widespread in the Middle Ages.

AND

Gendarmerie, gendarmerie- the police, which has a military organization and performs security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827–1917 in Russia there was a separate corps of gendarmes, which performed the functions of a political police.

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Pawnbrokers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered bondage, "laid down". Having lost their personal freedom, they were exempted from paying taxes. They existed from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries.

Procurement- in ancient Rus' smerdy (see. Smerdy), who worked in the household of the feudal lord for a "kupa" - a loan. After paying off the debt, they were released. In contrast to the serfs (cf. serfs), had their own farm.

Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the nineteenth century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society "from above". They constantly argued with the Slavophiles on the problems of the ways of Russia's development.

"Reserved Summers"- at the end of the XVI century. this was the name of the years in which the peasants were forbidden to move from one landowner to another on St. George's Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of the peasants.

Land redistribution- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by a rural gathering on the basis of leveling land use.

Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government, created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. The zemstvo hut consisted of the zemstvo elder, the deacon, and kissers, who were elected by the taxable population of the city or volost, who headed it. At the end of the XVI-XVII century. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the XVIII century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.

Zemsky Sobors- Central state-wide estate-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral headed by the metropolitan (from 1589 patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who had the right of the boyar court by virtue of their position. In addition, zemstvo sobors included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants elected from the nobility and the top citizens. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.

Zemstvo movement- liberal opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of the rights of the zemstvo and the spread of the principles of zemstvo self-government to the highest state institutions.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with a center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. It had its own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.

Zubatovshchina- the policy of "police socialism", introduced by S.V. Zubatov - head of the Moscow Security Department (since 1896) and the Special Department of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under the control of the police (for example, the organization of G.A. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

AND

Elected Rada- a narrow circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makary, A.M. Kurbsky and others, in fact, an unofficial government in 1546–1560. The elected council united supporters of reaching a compromise between various groups and strata of the feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region, the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local state apparatus and carried them out.

"The Chosen Thousand"- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, roundabouts, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were supposed to receive an increment to their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.

Sharecropping- a type of land lease, in which the rent is paid to the owner of the land in shares of the crop (sometimes up to half or more).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. It was carried out in Russia at the end of the 19th century. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the lag behind the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen the defense capability. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.

International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Association of Workers), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876, its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international association. III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and was a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for realizing the idea of ​​a world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "had fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and religious trend in the Russian state (late XV - mid-XVI century). The name was given by the name of the hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky. In the struggle against non-possessors, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogma, and the inviolability of the church's possessions. They were supported by the grand ducal authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory "Moscow is the third Rome." In the second half of the XVI century. lost their influence in ecclesiastical and political affairs.

Usefulness- a type of sharecropping in which the rent for the land is half the crop.

TO

Cadets (Constitutional Democrats)- "Party of People's Freedom" - one of the largest political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. It existed from October 1905 to November 1917. It represented the left wing in Russian liberalism. She advocated a constitutional monarchy, democratic reforms, the transfer of landlord lands to peasants for redemption, and the expansion of labor legislation. They headed the party of cadets P.P. Milyukov, A.I. Shingarev, V.D. Nabokov and others dominated the I and II Dumas, supported tsarism in the First World War, in August 1915 created the Progressive Bloc to achieve victory in the war and prevent revolutionary uprisings, demanded participation in the government and liberal reforms. The party was banned after the October Revolution of 1917

Cossacks- the military class in Russia, which included the population of a number of southern regions of Russia. The Cossacks enjoyed special rights and privileges on the terms of compulsory and universal military service. It develops from the 14th century, when free people settled on the outskirts of the Russian principalities, carrying out guard and border service for hire. In the XV-XVI centuries. self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks arise and develop, the bulk of which were fugitives and townspeople. The government sought to use the Cossacks to protect the borders, in wars, and by the end of the 18th century. totally subjugated him. The Cossacks turned into a privileged military class. In 1920, the Cossacks were abolished as an estate.

State factories- in Russia, state-owned, most often military and mining and metallurgical enterprises. They emerged in the 17th century. as manufactories, they became widespread from the beginning of the 18th century, especially in the Urals. The workers of state-owned factories were mainly state peasants. After the peasant reform of 1861, they became hired workers.

Cartel- a form of monopoly in which participants retain production independence, but at the same time jointly resolve issues of production volume, sales of products, etc. Profits in cartels are distributed according to their share in production and sales of products. Cartels appeared in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Cyrillic- the ancient Slavic alphabet, named after the Slavic enlightener Cyril. Until the XI-XII centuries. used in parallel with the Glagolitic. Later it replaced the Glagolitic alphabet and became the basis of modern systems of Slavic writing.

Princess- the name of the descendants of Russian specific princes (Rurikovich and Gediminovich). By the beginning of the XVII century. in terms of economic and political situation, most of the princes equaled other service people. Since the 18th century became a titled part of the Russian nobility.

Boards- central state institutions formed by Peter I in the course of public administration reforms in 1717–1722. and existed until the beginning of the nineteenth century. The collegial principle of discussing and solving cases, as well as the uniformity of the organizational structure, was put at the basis of the activities of the collegiums; competence is more clearly defined than in orders.

Collectivization- the transfer by the state of formal ownership of the means of production to groups of citizens or collective farms controlled by it. In the USSR, collectivization was called the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms), carried out in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Collectivization was accompanied by the elimination of individual farms and the widespread use of violent methods. Terror fell on all sections of the peasantry - kulaks, middle peasants and even poor peasants. Collectivization changed the fundamental way of life of the bulk of the population of Russia.

Committees of the poor (combeds)- organizations of the rural poor in the European part of Russia, created by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars in June 1918. In many areas, they actually performed the functions of state power. Disbanded in late 1918 - early 1919.

Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by members of the Supreme Privy Council in order to limit the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.

Contribution- monetary payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

Counter-reforms in Russia- the name of the events of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s. Preliminary censorship was restored, class principles were introduced in primary and secondary schools, the autonomy of universities was abolished, and bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo and city self-government was established.

Concern- one of the forms of monopolies, a diversified association (finance, industry, transport, trade, etc.) with the preservation of independence in management, but with the complete financial dependence of the enterprises included in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.

Concession- an agreement on the lease to foreign firms of enterprises or plots of land owned by the state, with the right to production activities.

Cooperation- a form of organization of labor and production, based on the group ownership of the members of the cooperative. The main forms of cooperation: consumer, supply and marketing, credit, production.

Feeding- the system of maintaining officials (governors, volostels, etc.) at the expense of the local population in Rus'. It was used by the great and specific princes as a way to reward princes, boyars and other close associates for their service. "Feed" was levied two or three times a year in the form of food, fodder, part of various duties from auctions and shops. Initially, feeding was not limited to anything. Only from the end of the 15th century. their sizes and terms began to be regulated. They were liquidated in the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible.

Kornilovshchina- rebellion on August 25–31, 1917 with the aim of establishing the dictatorship of General L.G. Kornilov, who in July 1917 was appointed Supreme Commander. He sent troops to Petrograd, demanded the resignation of the Provisional Government, left A.F. Kerensky, head of government. The rebellion was liquidated by the revolutionary troops, detachments of the Red Guard. The Bolsheviks played an active role in the suppression of the Kornilov region.

Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of their originality, the isolation of their national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to bait "rootless cosmopolitans" who were accused of "groveling" before the West. In 1949, a wave of denigration of cultural figures resulted in a struggle for "communist ideology", persecution, repression, rampant nationalism, etc., intensified.

Red Guard- armed detachments, which were formed from March 1917 and consisted mainly of workers from the industrial cities of Russia. It became the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution, numbered up to 200 thousand people, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - RKKA, the official name of the Soviet Armed Forces from 1918 to 1943).

Serfdom- a form of feudal dependence of the peasants: attaching them to the land and subordinating the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a nationwide scale, serfdom was formalized by the Sudebnik of 1497, decrees on "reserved" and "lesson" years, and finally enshrined in the Cathedral Code of 1649. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. all categories of the dependent population merged into the serfs. Abolished by the peasant reform of 1861

Peasants- the bulk of rural producers, farmers. The word “chrestianin” (the “peasant” etymologically goes back to it) was known in Rus' from the turn of the 10th-11th centuries. It denoted a person professing the Christian faith. From the end of the fourteenth century the content of the word expanded, and by the 16th century. the whole taxed population of the village, the community members, was already called peasants.

Cult of personality- admiration for someone, veneration, exaltation of someone. In the USSR in 1929-1953. existed is defined as a cult of personality I.V. Stalin. A dictatorial regime was established, democracy was abolished, Stalin during his lifetime was credited with a decisive influence on the course of historical development. Elements of the cult of personality were preserved under N.S. Khrushchev and L.I. Brezhnev.

cultural revolution- a series of measures carried out in the 20-30s in the USSR, aimed at changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia and at breaking with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage through the ideologization of culture. The main task was considered to be the creation of the so-called proletarian culture based on the Marxist-class ideology, "communist education", mass culture. It provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a new Soviet school, the training of personnel for the "people's intelligentsia", the restructuring of life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control. Along with positive results (elimination of illiteracy, development of education, etc.), it contributed to the strengthening of the dictatorial regime of I.V. Stalin.

L

Left communists- a group of members of the RSDLP (b) headed by N.I. Bukharin, who actively opposed the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.

life guard- personal protection of the monarch and the name of selected military units. In Russia, it was established by Peter I at the end of the 17th century. Later, many guards units of the Russian army were called the Life Guards.

lendlease(English) lend and lease) is a policy pursued by the United States during World War II. It included the transfer on loan and lease of weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food to the allied countries in the anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-lease deliveries to the USSR amounted to $9.8 billion.

Livonian Order- Catholic state and military organization of the German knights-crusaders in the Baltics. Arose in 1237. Actively waged wars of conquest. It was destroyed during the Livonian War and liquidated in 1561.

The League of nations- International Organization for the Cooperation of Peoples for Peace and Security (1919-1946). In 1934, the USSR joined the League of Nations, but in 1939, due to the Soviet-Finnish war, it was excluded from it. She pursued a policy of connivance towards the countries of the fascist bloc. In fact, it ceased to exist since the beginning of the Second World War. The dissolution was officially announced in 1946.

M

Manufactory- a large enterprise based on the division of labor and predominantly manual production. It appeared in Russia in the 17th century.

Menshevism- a trend in Russian social democracy, which was formed at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903) from a part of the delegates who received a minority during the elections of governing bodies. Leaders - G.V. Plekhanov, Yu.O. Martov, I.O. Axelrod and others. The Mensheviks denied the strict centralism of the party and the vesting of the Central Committee with great powers, in the bourgeois-democratic revolution they considered the liberal bourgeoisie an ally of the proletariat, did not recognize the revolutionary role of the peasantry, advocated legal methods of struggle, and opposed the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. In 1908–1910 split into liquidators (in favor of legal work and liquidation of the illegal party) and Menshevik Party members (in favor of illegal struggle). During the First World War, three currents arose - defencists, internationalists and mezhrayontsy. After the February Revolution, they supported the Provisional Government, did not recognize the October Revolution, believing that Russia was not ripe for socialism. Part of the Mensheviks became Bolsheviks.

Localism- a special procedure for appointment to military, administrative and court service, taking into account the nobility of origin and personal merits of ancestors. It arose at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. and abolished in 1682.

month- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th century. a six-day corvée of serfs, primarily yard people, deprived of land allotments. Remuneration for work was carried out in kind, issued monthly. The most severe form of serfdom.

ministries(lat. serve, manage) - the central government bodies in charge of individual sectors of the economy and life of the state. The first ministries were formed in 1802 and existed until 1917. In 1946 the name "ministry" was restored.

Monopoly- the exclusive right to produce or sell something. With the introduction at the end of the XIX century. capitalism into the monopoly stage, the unions of capitalists seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods in order to dominate the market. The main forms of monopolies: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. Monopolies arose in Russia in the 1980s. Syndicates were the most common here. "Society for the sale of products of Russian metallurgical plants" ("Prodamet") by 1908 sold 90% of the metallurgical products of the South and 45% of the entire production of the empire. Syndicates were created in the coal industry (Produgol in 1904), in the car building and oil industries.

H

Viceroy- in the Russian state in the XII century. governors - officials who ruled individual territories. Appointed by the princes for "feeding". They were in charge of the administrative-territorial units of the empire, consisting of two or three provinces. In the 19th century Viceroyalty existed in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Caucasus.

Populism- the leading direction in the liberation movement of post-reform Russia of the XIX century. It was based on a system of views on the original path of development of Russia, capable, bypassing the stage of capitalism, to create, relying on the peasant community, a socialist society. This ideology is a social utopia. At the end of the 60s of the XIX century. three currents are formed in populism: rebellious, or anarchist (M.A. Bakunin), propaganda (P.L. Lavrov), conspiratorial (P.N. Tkachev). They differed in matters of tactics. In 1860–1880 The main organizations of the populists were the "Chaikovites" (organizers of going to the people), "Land and Freedom", which split in 1879 into "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". Since the second half of the 80s. Populism is in crisis due to the negative reaction of society to the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party became the successor of the populist ideology.

People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats)- in the Soviet state in 1917–1946. central government bodies of a separate branch of the national economy or a sphere of state activity. They were headed by people's commissars. Transformed into ministries.

Natural economy- a type of economy in which products and things are produced for their own use, and not for sale.

Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises and other private property into the ownership of the state, both through expropriation and on the basis of redemption transactions.

Nonpossessors- religious and political movement in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. They preached asceticism, withdrawal from the world. They demanded that the church give up land ownership. The main ideologist of non-covetousness was the elder of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Nil Sorsky. The Josephites opposed the nonpossessors. Non-acquisitiveness was condemned by church councils in 1503 and 1531.

New Economic Policy (NEP)- introduced by the Soviet leadership in March 1921 at the Tenth Congress of the RCP (b). It envisaged a way out of the economic and political crisis by returning to state-controlled and regulated private property in industry, replacing food appropriation with a food tax, proclaiming freedom of trade, using foreign capital in the form of concessions and the labor of farm laborers in the countryside. At the same time, the monetary reform of 1922–1924 was carried out, Soviet enterprises and cooperation developed, and the national economy was restored. However, as a result of the contradictions that arose at the end of the 1920s, the NEP was completely abandoned.

Nomenclature(lat. scroll) - a list of officials whose appointment or approval falls within the competence of a body. In the USSR, such bodies were party committees of various levels. The ruling elite in the USSR was called the nomenklatura.

"Norman Theory"- originated in the second quarter of the 18th century. Its supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) the creators of the state in Ancient Rus'. Based on the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians.

ABOUT

"Secularization of Culture"- the acquisition of a secular character by culture: an increasing variety of secular themes and plots in literature and art.

quitrent- a form of feudal rent. In Russia - the annual collection of money and products from serfs by landlords. The food quitrent was abolished by the reform of 1861, the cash quitrent remained until 1863.

Community- a form of association of people that arose in antiquity. The distinctive features of the community are the common ownership of the means of production, full or partial self-government. In Russia, the community was a closed class unit used for tax collection and police control. After the reform of 1861, the community became the owner of the land. It was destroyed by Stolypin's reforms.

Philistines- the official name of the class of townspeople in the Russian Empire.

Octobrists- members of the right-liberal party "Union of October 17", created after the publication of the Manifesto by Nicholas II on October 17, 1905. According to the Octobrists, this document marked Russia's transition to a constitutional monarchy. The party considered its main task to be assistance to the government, if it takes the path of social reforms. The program of the Octobrists: a constitutional monarchy, a single and indivisible Russian state, the solution of the agrarian question without the alienation of landowners' lands, a limited right to strike and an 8-hour working day. The party represented the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, liberal-minded landlords, part of the officials and the wealthy intelligentsia. The leaders of the Octobrists - A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, D.N. Shipov and others.

Opposition(lat. opposition) - a party or social group that opposes the opinion of the majority or the dominant point of view, putting forward its own way of solving problems.

Oprichnina(besides- Old Russian. except) - in 1565–1572. the name of the inheritance of Ivan IV, in which a number of lands were allocated, as well as part of Moscow. The oprichnina introduced its own administration: the Boyar Duma, orders, and the army. It is also customary to call the oprichnina the entire system of measures of Ivan the Terrible - mass repressions, land confiscations, etc. - which was used by the tsar to combat alleged treason and the remnants of specific separatism.

Horde exit- tribute, dues paid by Russian princes to the khans of the Golden Horde.

buyout- the exclusive right granted by the state for a fee to private individuals (farmers), to collect taxes or sell certain types of goods (wine, salt, etc.). In Russia, the farming system existed until 1863.

Segments- plots of land cut off from the allotments that were in use by the peasants during the peasant reform of 1861 and transferred to the landowners. The sections were interspersed with peasant lands, creating a patchwork and forcing the peasants to rent them from the landowner for various working off. The cuts accounted for a total of about 20% of the pre-reform land use of the peasants.

Cut in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. a land plot allocated to a peasant in exchange for the communal lands allocated to him earlier, located in various places. The estate, however, remained within the boundaries of the village. The creation of cuts was the result of the implementation of the Stolypin agrarian reform.

"Thaw"- a common designation of changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that emerged after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by I. Ehrenburg. The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s and early 1950s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult. "Thaw" contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive developments of the mid-1950s were not further developed.

Otkhodnichestvo- in Russia, the temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or for agricultural work in other areas. It was common among the landlord quitrent peasants.

"Official nationality theory"- the national state doctrine of the Russian Empire, put forward during the reign of Nicholas I. The main principles of the theory were formulated by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov in 1832: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.

Security departments, guards- local bodies of the police department, created to protect public safety and order. They were in charge of political investigation, had secret agents sent to political parties and opposition organizations. First appeared in St. Petersburg (1866) and Moscow (1880). By 1907 they already existed in 27 industrial and cultural centers of the country. Abolished after the February Revolution of 1917

P

Patriarchate- a form of church government in Orthodoxy, in which the head of the church is the patriarch. It originated in the early Middle Ages. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the patriarchate was established in 1589, abolished in 1721, and revived in early 1917.

resettlement- the movement of the (peasant) population of the central regions of Russia to a new place of residence in sparsely populated outlying areas - Siberia, the Far East, etc. Resettlement was the main means of internal colonization and solving the problem of peasant land shortages. It was an integral part of the Stolypin agrarian reform.

"Perestroika"- transformations carried out in the USSR from the mid-1980s to 1991 under the slogan of overcoming obsolete forms of social life and methods of work. The most important direction of this policy was democratization, including the expansion of glasnost. The other side of "perestroika" was economic transformations. The system of international security and non-violent peace has been established in foreign policy. The reform of society within the framework of the existing socialist system ended unsuccessfully.

Plan "Barbarossa"- the code name of the plan of aggressive war of fascist Germany against the USSR. It began to be developed in July 1940. The plan provided for the defeat of the USSR in a quick campaign, while the main forces of the Red Army were supposed to be destroyed west of the Dnieper-Western Dvina line, preventing them from retreating into the interior of the country. In the future, it was planned to capture Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Donbass and reach the Astrakhan-Volga-Arkhangelsk line. The Barbarossa plan was thwarted by the heroic struggle of the Soviet people.

Pogost- originally the center of a rural community in the north-west of Ancient Rus'. From the second half of the tenth century place of tribute collection, later - the center of the administrative tax district.

Household taxation- in Russia in the 17th - early 18th centuries. system of layout of direct taxes on taxable population. Changed the land tax. The state determined the amount of the tax, and the urban and rural communities distributed it to each household. Replaced by poll tax.

Poll tax- the main direct tax in the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Replaced in 1724 household taxation. This tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80-90s of the nineteenth century.

"Elderly"- in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries. collection of money from the peasants when they leave the landowner on St. George's Day. Introduced by the Sudebnik in 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants.

"Police socialism"- the name accepted in historiography of one of the methods for implementing domestic policy, in which workers' organizations controlled by the government were created. At the beginning of the twentieth century. such organizations appeared in Russia, a gendarmerie colonel, head of the Moscow security department and the Special Department of the Police Department S.V. played an important role in their creation and distribution. Zubatov. The Russian version of "police socialism" is also called "Zubatovism" in the literature.

Regiments of the "foreign system", or regiments of the "new system"- military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Used by Peter I to form a regular army.

polyudie- a detour by a Russian prince with a squad of his vassal possessions in order to collect tribute.

Estate- a form of conditional land tenure in the Russian state at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The estate was not subject to sale, exchange and inheritance. In the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually approached the patrimony, and in 1714 merged with it completely.

Landowners (serfs)- peasants who belonged to the landowners before the peasant reform of 1861.

Posadnik- an elected official in the ancient Russian city, the head of the executive branch. Together with the prince, he was in charge of management and court issues, commanded the army, led the veche assembly and the boyar council.

Posad people- the commercial and industrial population of Russian cities, who carried the state tax - trade taxes, trade duties, participation in citywide works, natural duties, etc. They were divided into hundreds - the Living Room, Cloth, Black. In 1775 they were divided into merchants and philistines.

Possession peasants- in Russia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked. The category of possessive peasants was introduced under Peter I by a decree of 1721 on the purchase of people for factories in connection with the need to provide growing manufactories with working hands. The position of the possessive peasants was somewhat different from the position of the serfs: they were not allowed to be transferred to agricultural work, to be recruited, etc. They were released by the peasant reform of 1861.

Pososhnoe- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.

Privatization transfer of state or municipal property to private ownership.

Order control system- Established in the middle of the 16th century. a system of permanent government bodies - orders. It arose on the basis of the performance by the boyars of certain state functions on behalf (order) of the tsar. The system of orders reached its peak in the 17th century. Abolished at the beginning of the 18th century. Peter I.

Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace and economic peasants, instead of paying a poll tax, worked in state and private factories, that is, attached (assigned) to them. Released by the peasant reform of 1861

Tax in kind (food tax)- Introduced in 1921 to replace the surplus appraisal, marked the beginning of the NEP. The amount of the tax in kind was established before the spring sowing, depending on the prosperity of the farm, and was much less than the food requisition, the surplus was allowed to be sold, which stimulated the growth of production. Active until 1923

"Food Dictatorship"- a system of emergency measures of the Soviet government (1918–1921), taken in the context of a food crisis to supply bread to the Red Army, the population of cities, and the poor in the countryside. It provided for the centralization of the procurement and distribution of food, the steady implementation of the grain monopoly, the fight against bagging and speculation, and the suppression of the resistance of the kulaks. The Soviet government declared enemies of those who hid surpluses of grain, did not take them out to bulk points. The guilty were sentenced to imprisonment, execution, and their property was confiscated. The food dictatorship aroused the discontent of the peasants. Canceled with the introduction of the New Economic Policy.

Food detachments (food detachments)- armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918–1920. They were created by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food, trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets. Conducted surplus appraisal in the countryside; acted jointly with the committees and local Soviets.

Prodrazverstka (food appropriation)- the system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism" (1919-1921), established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (except for those necessary for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. It was carried out by the bodies of the People's Commissariat for Food, food detachments, committees of the poor, local Soviets. Plan assignments were distributed by counties, volosts, villages, and peasant households. Prodrazverstka caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and in 1921 was replaced by a food tax.

R

Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes, cut off from their class environment (clergy, petty bourgeois, merchants, petty bureaucracy). Legally, this category has not been formalized in any way. Raznochintsy were mainly engaged in mental work.

"Discharge"- a period in the relationship between the world systems of capitalism and socialism, which began at the turn of the 60-70s of the twentieth century. It arose on the basis of the military-strategic parity (equality of the sides) achieved by the USSR and the USA. It ended in 1979 with the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

Split- separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of part of the believers who did not accept the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653-1656. Opponents of the official church began to be called schismatics, or Old Believers.

Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, the economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to the leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.

Recruitment duty- a method of manning the Russian regular army in the 18th-19th centuries. The taxable estates (peasants, philistines, etc.) were obliged to provide a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by universal military service.

"Rail War"- the name of a major operation of the Soviet partisans in August - September 1943 to disable the railways in the territories occupied by the Nazis.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the official name of the united Polish-Lithuanian state from the time of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin (1569) to the partition of Poland in 1795.

Russian Orthodox Church- the largest of the Orthodox churches. Founded in the tenth century. From the end of the 11th century it was headed by the Metropolitan of Kiev, from the end of the thirteenth century. - Metropolitan of Vladimir, who since 1328 lived in Moscow. Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1448 she became independent. The patriarchate was established in 1589 and abolished in 1721, restored in 1917.

WITH

Seimas- the body of estate representation in some states of Eastern Europe, for example, in Poland.

Secret Committees in Russia in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. temporary state institutions created by the emperor to discuss reform projects, and in 1857-1858. - to discuss the preparation of projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Secularization- the transformation of church property into state property. In Russia, large-scale secularization was carried out during the reign of Catherine II in 1764 and after 1917.

"Seven Boyars"- the government of the Russian state during the Time of Troubles (1610-1613). It was formed after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. Consisted of seven boyars headed by F. Miloslavsky. This government agreed to the calling to the Russian throne of the Polish prince Vladislav. It also let Polish troops into Moscow.

Senate- the highest body of state administration in the Russian Empire from 1711 to the beginning of the 19th century. After 1810 - the highest judicial and administrative body. Abolished in 1917

Separate peace- a peace treaty with the enemy, concluded by one of the states that are members of the coalition, without the knowledge and consent of the allies.

Syndicate- one of the forms of monopolistic associations. The syndicate undertakes the implementation of all commercial activities, while maintaining the industrial and legal independence of the enterprises included in it.

Synod- the highest legislative advisory administrative and judicial institution for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church. Existed from 1721 to 1917.

Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 40-70s of the nineteenth century. A feature of their views was their commitment to the original development of Russia, the model of which was pre-Petrine Rus'.

Service people- in the Russian state of the XIV - early XVIII century. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" (Cossacks, archers, gunners, etc.). Service "in the fatherland" was hereditary. "According to the instrument" was recruited, as a rule, from the townspeople. Service people were exempted from state taxes and duties.

Smerdy- the general name of the rural population of Ancient Rus'.

Adviсe- authorities that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. According to V.I. Lenin, the Soviets were to concentrate in their hands the functions of all branches of power and become "full-powered" bodies. In fact, from the very first months of the proclamation of Soviet power in October 1917, they turned into an appendage of the Bolshevik Party.

Estate-representative monarchy- a form of the feudal state, in which the power of the monarch is combined with the organs of estate representation. In Russia, class representation existed in the form of zemstvo sobors (XVI-XVII centuries).

Land socialization- the main requirement of the agrarian program of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which implied the destruction of private ownership of land and its transfer to the use of the community.

Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)- the largest party in Russia (1901-1923). They advocated the elimination of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the transfer of land to the peasants, democratic reforms, etc. They used the tactics of terror. Leaders - V.M. Chernov, A.R. Gotz and others.

T

Totalitarianism- a form of government that is characterized by the complete subordination of the life of society to the interests of power and control over it, the actual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repression against political opposition and any manifestations of dissent.

traditional society- a society in which a person does not think of himself outside of nature; age-old traditions and customs (ceremonies, prohibitions, etc.) completely dominate it. Such a society is not inclined to accept any innovations.

Trusts- one of the forms of monopolistic associations, in which participants lose their industrial, commercial and legal independence. Power in them is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. Most often, trusts arose in industries that produce homogeneous products.

June 3rd Coup d'état (June 3rd Monarchy)- the dissolution of the Second State Duma on June 3, 1907 and the publication of a new electoral law in violation of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. It was the end of the revolution of 1905–1907, after which the Third June Monarchy was established - an alliance of the tsar, nobles and the big bourgeoisie, united by the State Duma, which carried out maneuvering policy.

Trotskyism- a direction in the Russian and international revolutionary movement, named after its ideologist L.D. Trotsky. Trotsky put forward the theory of "permanent revolution" (in the revolution of 1905-1907 he advocated skipping the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, denied the revolutionary role of the peasantry). In Soviet times, Trotsky advocated the nationalization of trade unions, questioned the possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the help of developed countries. In the conditions of an acute inner-party struggle, Trotsky's ideas were called Trotskyism. The views of Trotsky and his supporters were characterized as a "petty-bourgeois deviation" in the RCP(b) and crushed at the 15th Party Congress. In 1929 he was expelled from the USSR, in 1938 he created the Fourth International, waged a stubborn struggle in the press against Stalin, on whose instructions he was killed in 1940 in Mexico. In the USSR, the merits of Trotsky as an active participant in the October Revolution, the creator of the Red Army, the organizer of victory in the Civil War, etc., were diminished.

Trudoviks- The "Labour Group" in the 1st and 4th State Dumas of deputies-peasants and the populist intelligentsia, which acted in a bloc with leftist forces for the nationalization of the land and its transfer to the peasants according to the labor norm, for democratic freedoms (1906-1917).

Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousands") in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected at a veche and was the closest assistant to the mayor - he was in charge of trade, tax collection, and the merchant court.

tax- in the Russian state of the 15th - early 18th centuries. monetary and in-kind state duties of peasants and townspeople. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. a tax was a unit of taxation of peasants by duties in favor of the landowners.

At

Appanage, appanage principality- in Rus' in the XII-XVI centuries. an integral part of large grand principalities, ruled by a member of the grand ducal family.

Ulus- camp of nomads, settlement. In a broad sense - a tribal association with a certain territory, subject to a khan or leader among the peoples of Central and Central Asia and Siberia. After the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan, an ulus was a country or region subordinate to one of the Genghis Khans.

"Lesson Summers"- established by royal decrees from the end of the 16th century. terms of investigation and return of fugitive peasants to their owners (from 5 to 15 years). Abolished in the middle of the 17th century, when the investigation became indefinite, by the Council Code of 1649.

constituent Assembly- a representative, parliamentary institution in Russia, first convened on the basis of universal suffrage to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. The convocation of the Constituent Assembly is a program requirement of all revolutionary, democratic, liberal parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, including the Bolsheviks. The government created after the February Revolution was called Provisional until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Elections were held in November - December 1917. The Bolsheviks received only 24% of the vote. This meant the impossibility of implementing the decisions of the Bolsheviks through this authority. The Constituent Assembly was opened on January 5 (18), 1918 in the Tauride Palace in Petrograd. The majority of the elected deputies were Socialist-Revolutionaries (59%). The assembly did not recognize the legitimacy of the Council of People's Commissars and the decrees of the Soviet government. The Bolsheviks left the meeting room, and at 5 am on January 6 (19), 1918, the Constituent Assembly was dispersed. Officially, the decree on its dissolution was adopted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets on the night of January 6 (19) to January 7 (20), 1918.

F

feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor rent (corvée), food rent ( quitrent in kind) and cash rent (monetary rent).

Fiscal- in the Russian Empire in 1711-1729. a civil servant who supervised the activities of state institutions (mainly financial ones) and officials. He collected information about violations of laws, bribery, embezzlement, etc. He headed the fiscals of the chief fiscal, which was part of the Senate.

X

"Journey to the People"- a unique phenomenon in Russian history: a spontaneous mass movement of radical youth, inspired by the ideas of revolutionary populism, in 1873–1874. More than 2,000 propagandists rushed to the village in the hope of rousing the people to a "general rebellion." "Going to the people" failed. Over a thousand people were arrested, 193 of the most active participants in the movement were brought to trial.

"Cold War"- the state of confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States with their political partners, on the other. It lasted from 1946 until the end of the 80s. It was called the "cold war" because, unlike "hot wars" (open military conflicts), it was carried out by economic, ideological and political methods.

Farm- a rural settlement, consisting most often of one yard. As a result of the agrarian reform carried out by the government of P.A. Stolypin, - a separate peasant estate, located outside the community.

H

Black Hundred organizations- extreme right socio-political associations in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. They acted under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism, anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian people”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, etc.).

Black-nose peasants- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries. free peasants who owned communal lands and carried state duties. In the XVIII century. became state peasants.

Pale of Settlement- in 1791-1917. limited territories of the Russian Empire, outside which Jews were forbidden to live permanently.

W

nobility- in Poland, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, the name of secular feudal lords, corresponding to the nobility.

E

Expropriation(lat. dispossession) - compulsory deprivation of property, gratuitous or paid.

I

Paganism- the general name of polytheistic religions ("polytheism").

Label- a preferential letter issued by the Golden Horde khans to secular and spiritual feudal lords of subject lands.

Trade fairs- trades and markets periodically organized in a specified place.

Yasak- in Russia XV-XX centuries. tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, which was levied mainly in furs.

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1. Absolutism- a form of state in some countries of Western Europe and the East in the 16-18 centuries, in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. In a strictly centralized state, an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army, police, tax service, and courts were created. The most characteristic example of absolutism is France in the reign of the king Louis XIV who considered himself the vicar of God on Earth.

2. Autonomy- self-government, the right to independently exercise certain functions of state power or government, granted by the constitution of any part of the state.

4. Anarchy could mean the following:

• Lack of legislation and enforcement apparatus.
• Lack of centralized control.
• The theoretical social structure of a state in which there are no rulers or groups of rulers, but everyone has absolute freedom.
• Freedom, independence from rules and authorities.

5. Annals- record historical events in chronological order from year to year.

6. Annexation- a violent act of annexation by a state of all or part of the territory of another state unilaterally.

7. Entente- the military-political bloc of England, France and Russia, created as a counterweight to the "Triple Alliance"; formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the delimitation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War.

8. antisemitism- a form of national and religious prejudice and intolerance, a hostile attitude towards Jews.

9. Anty- an association of ancient Slavic tribes found in Byzantine and Gothic sources of the 6th and 7th centuries (until 602 AD), which settled the lands from the Dniester to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov.

10. Assembly- a form of business communication and secular entertainment, introduced by Peter I in the course of the transformation of the social life of Russia.

11. Baroque - style of European art and architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries.

12. Corvee- the duty, which consisted in the obligation of a peasant who had his own allotment, to work on the master's field for a certain number of days a week.

13. Baskak- a Mongolian official who was in charge of collecting tribute and accounting for the population in the conquered territories. Appeared in the middle of the 13th century. until the middle of the 14th century.

14. White settlements (white lands)- lands of feudal lords in rural areas and cities of the Russian state of the 14th-17th centuries, partially or completely exempted from state taxes.

15. Airborne beekeeping, beekeeping(from the word " board"- tree hollow), the oldest form of beekeeping, in which bees live in the hollows of trees. Bortnichestvo was known in Rus' until the 19th century and was then one of the important branches of its economy.

16. Boyars- the upper class of the feudal lords. In the Old Russian state - the descendants of the tribal nobility, senior combatants - vassals and members of the princely duma. During the formation of independent principalities - the richest and most influential feudal lords.

17. Boyar Duma- the highest council of the nobility under the Grand Duke, and from the 16th century. with the king. It was abolished in 1711.

18. Bureaucracy- designation of the layer of employees in management, administration, which is characterized by hierarchy, strict regulation, division of labor and responsibility.

19. Varangians- warrior warriors from the Scandinavian peoples, who were called Vikings in Europe.

20. rope- the name of the community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs. Mentioned in Russian Pravda.

21. Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution of Russia in 1726-30 (7-8 people). Created by Catherine I as an advisory body, in fact, it resolved the most important state issues.

22. Veche - national assembly in medieval Rus' to discuss general matters. It arose from the tribal assemblies of the Slavs.

23. military settlements- the system of organization of troops in Russia in 1810-1857, which combined military service with employment in productive labor, primarily agricultural.

24. war communism- a system of socio-economic relations based on the elimination of commodity-money relations and the concentration of all resources in the hands of the Bolshevik state in the context of the Civil War.

25. Free Plowmen (or Free Plowmen)- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by Decree 1803, on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners.

26. Economic voluntarism- arbitrary decisions in economic practice, neglecting objective conditions and scientifically sound advice(in this sense, this word was officially used in the USSR in 1964-1985 to assess the activities of N. S. Khrushchev).

27. East Slavs- cultural and linguistic community of the Slavs who spoke East Slavic languages. They made up the main population of Kievan Rus.

28. Votchina- the oldest type of landed property in Russia, passed by inheritance. Appeared in the 10-11 centuries.

29. Temporarily obligated peasants- a category ("category") of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom by the Regulations of February 19, 1861, but not transferred for redemption.

30. Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousands") in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected from the boyars at the veche and was the closest assistant to the posadnik.

31. unitary state- a form of government, in which its parts are administrative-territorial units and do not have the status of a state entity.

32. Utopian socialism- accepted in the historical and philosophical literature, the designation that preceded Marxism, the doctrine of the possibility of transforming society on socialist principles, of its fair structure. The main role in the development and implementation in society of ideas about the construction of socialist relations in a non-violent way, only by the power of propaganda and example, was played by the intelligentsia and layers close to it. The forerunners of the ideas of utopian socialism in Russia at the end of XVIII - early XIX centuries were A. N. Radishchev and P. I. Pestel. These ideas became especially widespread in the 1930s and 1940s.

33. Lesson summers- Fixed years, in Rus', the period during which the owners could bring a claim for the return of fugitive peasants to them.

34. Favoritism- a socio-cultural phenomenon that existed at the royal (imperial, royal) courts of the era of absolutism and aimed to exalt a specific person (or group of persons) in connection with the personal affection of the monarch for the favorite.

35. Fascism- a generalized name for specific extreme right-wing political movements, ideologies and the corresponding form of government of a dictatorial type, the characteristic features of which are the personality cult, militarism, totalitarianism.

36. Federation- a form of government in which parts of a federal state are state entities with legally defined political independence.

37. Charisma- exceptional talent; a charismatic leader is a person endowed in the eyes of his followers with authority based solely on the qualities of his personality - wisdom, heroism, holiness.

38. Censorship- system of state supervision over the press and mass media. It originated in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.

39. Civilization- a synonym for the concept of culture; the totality of the material and spiritual achievements of society in its historical development, the level of social development and material culture achieved in a particular society; the degree and nature of the development of culture of certain eras and peoples.

40. landowner- a nobleman-landowner who owns an estate, an patrimonial in Russia in the late XV - early XX centuries.

41. Estate- type of feudal land tenure in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Granted for carrying military service without the right to be inherited.

42. Posadnik- 1) Viceroy of the prince in Ancient Rus' 10-11 centuries; 2) The highest state position in Novgorod in the 12th-15th centuries. and Pskov in the 14th - early 16th centuries. He was elected from the noble boyars at the veche.

43. post-industrial society- designation of a new stage of social development, emerging from the second half of the 20th century in developed countries.

44. Possession peasants- peasants belonging to factories and plants.

45. Orders- 1) Bodies of central government in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. They mainly had a judicial function; 2) Local bodies of palace administration in the 16th-17th centuries; 3) The name of the archery regiments in the 16-17 centuries.

46. jurors- non-professional judges participating in litigation. They render a verdict (decision) on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. In Russia, the Institute of P. z. (jury trial) introduced Judicial Reform of 1864.

47. industrial revolution- this is the transition from manual labor to machine, from manufactory to factory. The transition from a predominantly agrarian economy to industrial production, which results in the transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one.

48. Enlightened absolutism- a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries of Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations.

49. Protectionism- the policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition through a system of certain restrictions: import and export duties, subsidies and other measures. Such a policy contributes to the development of national production.

50. Pud- an outdated unit of measurement of the mass of the Russian system of measures. 1 pood = 16.38 kg.

51. Revolution- a radical, fundamental, deep, qualitative change, a leap in the development of society, nature, or knowledge, associated with an open break with the previous state

52. Repression- punishment, a punitive measure applied by state bodies in order to protect and preserve the existing system. Any repression is a manifestation of political violence.

53. nobility- in Russia (the time of Peter the Great), Belarus and Ukraine (gentry), the nobility in general is called the gentry.

54. Expropriation- alienation by legal means, by a court verdict or for the sake of public benefit, of property from the person to whom it belonged; in the latter case with a reward.

55. Extensification- the process and organization of the development of production, in which an increase in productivity is achieved through a quantitative increase in production capacity. That is, more labor and technology.

56. Escalation- expansion, buildup (of armaments, etc.), gradual intensification, spread (of a conflict, etc.), aggravation (of situations, etc.). The concept became widely used during the Cold War era.

57. Yuriev day- November 26, according to the old style, a church holiday dedicated to St. George (Egory, Yuri) the Victorious. According to tradition, on St. George's Day, the transition of peasants from feudal lord to feudal lord was carried out, because. by this time, the annual cycle of agricultural work was completed and there was a settlement of the monetary and natural obligations of the peasants in favor of their owners and state taxes.

58. Paganism- a term accepted in Christian theology and partly in historical literature, denoting pre-Christian and non-Christian religions. In a narrower sense, paganism is a polytheistic religion

59. Label- diploma Tatar Khan

60. His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery(abbreviated Own E.I.V. office) - the personal office of the Russian emperors, eventually modified into one of the central authorities. It was created under Peter I, reformed under Catherine II, abolished by Alexander I when creating ministries; however, in 1812 it was re-established to deal with cases that required the personal participation of the sovereign.

61. Soviets of Workers' Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies- elected bodies of state power of the Soviet Republic after the victory of the October Revolution of 1917. With the adoption of the decree on the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army on January 15 (28), 1918, they began to be called the Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Red Army Deputies.

62. estate- social stratum; a group whose members differ in their legal status from the rest of the population.

63. Stagnation- the state of the economy, characterized by the stagnation of production and trade over a long period. Stagnation is accompanied by an increase in the number of unemployed, a decrease in wages and standard of living of the population.

64. Old Believers- a part of Orthodox Christians who departed from the dominant Church in Russia after the reforms of the Moscow Patriarch Nikon.

65. archers- in the Russian state in the 16-18 centuries. the people who made up the standing army; infantry armed with firearms.

66. Code of Laws- the most common form of legal acts during the formation of the Russian centralized state.

67. Table of ranks ("Table of ranks of all military, civil and court ranks") - the law on the order of public service in the Russian Empire (the ratio of ranks by seniority, the sequence of rank production).

68. Totalitarianism- form social structure characterized by complete (total) control of the state and the ruling party over all aspects of society.

69. Trudoviks- (labor group), a Russian political organization that existed in 1906-1917.

70. Oprichnina- the policy of Ivan the Terrible, directed against the boyar aristocracy.

71. Horde exit- a tribute that the Russian lands paid to the Golden Horde in the 13-15th centuries. The tribute was worn by the entire population, except for the clergy.

72. Cut- in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, a land plot allocated from communal land (as a result of the Stolypin agrarian reform of 1906) into individual peasant property (unlike a farm, without transferring the estate).

73. "Thaw"- a period in the life of Soviet society that began after the death of Stalin and meant a weakening of dictate in political and spiritual life.

74. Parliament- the highest representative and legislative body in states where the separation of powers is established.

75. Political Party- special public organization(association), directly setting itself the task of seizing political power in the state or taking part in it through its representatives in state authorities and local self-government. Most parties have a program: a spokesman for the ideology of the party, a list of its goals and ways to achieve them.

76. Patriarch- the highest rank in the church hierarchy. Elected by the church council. In the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589 - 1700, restored on November 5 (18), 1917.

77. Plan "Barbarossa"- a plan for the German invasion of the USSR in the Eastern European theater of World War II and military operation carried out in accordance with this plan at the initial stage of the Great Patriotic War.

78. Pogost- administrative-territorial unit in Rus'.

79. Undercut- a cut down, cleared place for arable land in the middle of the forest.

80. Poll tax- tax introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1724.

81. Elderly- a duty in Russia at the end of the 15th-17th centuries, which was paid by the peasant when leaving his owner a week before and a week after St. George's Day in autumn.

82. Polovtsy- Turkic-speaking people, in the 11th century. - in the southern Russian steppes. They raided Rus' in 1055 - the beginning of the 13th century. Defeated and subjugated by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century. (part went to Hungary).

83. polyudie- in Ancient Rus', initially the annual detour by the prince and the retinue of the subject population (“people”) to collect tribute.

84. Localism- in medieval Rus': the procedure for distributing official places, taking into account the origin and official position of the person's ancestors. Localism was abolished by the verdict of the Zemsky Sobor in 1682.

85. mentality- a way of thinking, a set of mental skills and spiritual attitudes inherent in an individual or a social group.

86. Modernization- the process of reconstruction of the social system, complete or partial, with the aim of accelerating development.

87. Mongol-Tatar yoke- in Rus' (1243-1480), the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian principalities by the Mongol conquerors. It approved the vassal dependence of the Russian princes on the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde.

88. Monopoly- the exclusive right of production, trade, etc., belonging to one person, a certain group of persons or the state; generally the exclusive right to something.

89. Machine Tractor Station (MTS)- in the USSR, a state agricultural enterprise that provided technical and organizational assistance to collective farms with agricultural machinery.

90. People's Commissariat (people's commissariat) - in the Soviet state (in the RSFSR, in other union and autonomous republics, in the USSR) in 1917-1946 - the central executive authority in charge of managing a separate sphere of state activity or a separate branch of the national economy; analogue of the ministry.

91. Populism- ideological a trend among the intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, whose representatives spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (the so-called revolutionary populists) or for the implementation social transformation through reforms (the so-called liberal populists). Ancestors - A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, ideologists - M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov.

92. Nomenclature- a list of the most important positions, the appointment and removal of which was carried out by party committees different levels. The ruling elite in the USSR.

93. Normans- the name by which the peoples of Scandinavia were known in Western Europe during their expansion in the 8th - mid-11th centuries. In Scandinavia itself, the participants in the campaigns were called Vikings.

94. quitrent- one of the duties of dependent peasants, which consists in paying tribute to the landowner in food or money.

95. OGPU (GPU) - state political department, created in 1922 under the NKVD of the RSFSR on the basis of the reorganized VChK (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) - the political police of the Bolshevik regime.

96. Oligarchy- a political regime in which power is concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of citizens (for example, representatives of large monopolized capital) and, at times, serves their personal and / or group interests, and not the interests of all citizens.

97. Classicism- an education system based on the predominance of the study of Latin and Greek languages ​​​​before the study of the exact sciences.

98. Collectivization- this is the process of uniting individual peasant farms into collective farms (collective farms in the USSR). It was held in the USSR in the late 1920s - early 1930s (1928-1933).

99. Consensus- decision-making in parliament and its commissions, at conferences and meetings on the basis of common consent without a vote and in the absence of formally declared objections.

100. Conservatism- ideological adherence to traditional values ​​and orders, social or religious doctrines.

101. Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state; during the war it is paid by the population of the occupied territory, at the end of the war - by the government of the defeated country.

102. Cooperation- an association of mutual assistance of workers, small producers, including peasants, created for the centralized acquisition and sale of products and goods. Joint performance of a number of production operations, financial mutual assistance, etc.

103. Feeding- a type of award of the great and specific princes to their officials, according to which the princely administration was maintained at the expense of the local population during the period of service.

104. Legitimation- recognition or confirmation of the legitimacy of state power, any social institution, status, powers, based on the values ​​accepted in this society.

105. Liberalism- a philosophical, political and economic ideology based on the fact that the rights and freedoms of an individual are the legal basis of the social and economic order.

106. "People"- the population in Ancient Rus', subject to the prince, obliged to pay tribute.

107. lumpen - declassed sections of the population (tramps, beggars, etc.).

108. Manufactory- a large enterprise, where the manual labor of hired workers was mainly used and the division of labor was widely used.

109. Marginal- a person who is in an intermediate, borderline position between any social groups, who has lost his former social ties and has not adapted to new living conditions; a person who is on the periphery of society; lumpen, vagabond, vagabond.

110. freemasonry- an ethical movement that arose in the 18th century in the form of a closed organization.

111. Restalinization- a process that means "rehabilitation of Stalin and Stalinism", a return to the main provisions of his domestic and foreign policy.

113. Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate (Rabkrin, RCT) - a system of authorities that dealt with issues of state control

114. Repair- compensation for war-caused losses paid to the victorious country by the defeated state that is guilty of the war.

115. Romanticism- attitude, which is characterized by the idealization of reality, daydreaming.

116. Sacred - designation of the sphere of phenomena of objects, people related to the divine, religious, associated with them.

117. Secularization- withdrawal of something from church, spiritual knowledge and transfer to secular, civil knowledge.

118. Seven Boyars- the name of the transitional government of seven boyars accepted by historians in the summer of 1610.

119. Senate- one of the highest bodies of state power, often the upper house legislative assembly(parliament).

120. SENTIMENTALISM- a trend in European literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, formed within the framework of the late Enlightenment and reflecting the growth of democratic sentiments in society.

121. Separate separate, separate from others.

122. Symbolism- direction in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focused primarily on artistic expression through the symbol.

123. Synod- one of the highest state bodies in Russia in 1712-1917.

124. Smerd- in Ancient Rus', the category of people with no rights. The life of a smerd in Russkaya Pravda was protected by a minimum vira - 5 hryvnias. Perhaps this was the name of the inhabitants of the recently annexed territories, subject to increased tribute. There is an opinion that all farmers were called smerds, among whom were both dependent and free.

125. TROUBLES - historical era in the life of Muscovite Rus'. The Time of Troubles began after the death of Fedor Ivanovich, the last tsar of the Rurik family (January 6, 1598), and continued until Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was elected tsar (February 21, 1613).