When pronouncing a combination of letters h And n mistakes are often made. This is due to a change in the rules of the old Moscow. pronunciation, acc. with a cat in many words this combination was pronounced as [shn]. According to the standards of modern Russian letters. language combination -ch- usually pronounced as [ch], especially in words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as in words that appeared. in the recent past (camouflage, landing, etc.).

However, trad. pronunciation [sn] saved in the next. words: of course, on purpose, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse. In addition, the pronunciation [sn] instead of spelling. "ch" is required in female patronymics, ending. on -ichna: Ilyinichna, Lukinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna, etc.

Some words with combination -n- acc. with modern the norms of letters. languages ​​are pronounced in two ways - or both [shn], or how [h]: bakery, laundry, penny, decent, dairy, creamy, etc.

In the department cases of diff. combination pronunciation -n- serves to make sense. word differentiation:

heart attack - heart friend;

midnight serenade - night owl, midnight.

According to Staromosk. combination -T- pronounced like [PCS] in the word "what" and in words, prod. from him: "nothing", "something", etc. In present. while this rule is preserved for all decree. words, except for the word "something" - [Th]. In all other words, spelling - th - is always pronounced as [th]: "mail", "dream", etc.

58. Pronunciation of foreign words

The Russian language is characterized by a tendency towards sound adaptability. form of loans. words to Russian phonet. laws. acc. with this one. loans. words with letters e after the primordially hard consonant "russified" and are pronounced with a soft consonant before e. For example: museum [z "e], academy [d" e]. However, a number of words retain a hard consonant before e. For example: business [ne], test [te].

Notes

1. The sign "" " denotes the softness of the consonant.

2. The sign ":" denotes the longitude of the consonant.

Russian language. Crib

Ticket 1

Russian language in modern world. Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication

If you look around, you can find a lot of things created by the mind and hands of man: radio, telephone, car, ship, plane, rocket ... But the most amazing and wise thing that mankind has created is language. Almost all people on Earth can speak. They speak in different languages, but all languages ​​have one task - to help people understand each other when communicating, when common work. Without language, the life of a person, people, society is impossible; development of science, technology, art. The meaning of language (speech, words) is noted by many Russian proverbs.

· The human word arrows are sharper.

Good speech is good to listen to.

· A bullet will hit one, and a well-aimed word - a thousand.

· The wind destroys the mountains, raises the word of the people.

On this topic, there is also whole line I know statements. figures of literature, philosophy, art

· Language is the key to all knowledge and all nature (G. R. Derzhavin).

· Writing gives strength to the flying word, conquers space and time (Ya. K. Grot).

It is impossible for him to glorify himself, who does not know the properties and rules of grammar (A.P. Sumarokov).

The language belongs to those common. phenomena, cat. operate throughout the existence of people. society. The main purpose (or function) of language is serve as a means of communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking, human consciousness, serves as a means of forming and expressing our thoughts and feelings.

There are over 2000 languages ​​on our planet. Among them, the Russian language is one of the most common. It includes all the variety of language. funds, isp. in communication between people. Despite the fact that the languages ​​differ from each other, nevertheless, each of them has "relatives" among other languages. The Russian language, like Ukrainian and Belarusian, belongs to Vostochnoslav. languages. The languages ​​of this group have the same source of origin - the Old Russian language. Hence - a number of close features (in particular, the similarity of words. Composition: nouns - Russian "protein", Ukrainian "bilok", Belarusian "byalok"; adjectives - Russian "white", Ukrainian "bily", Belarusian "white"; verbs - Russian "whiten", Ukrainian "bility", Belarusian "belets").

The Russian language exists and develops only because it simultaneously fulfills all universal properties. any function language. With the help of language, people communicate, transmit thoughts, feelings, knowledge about the environment to each other. us the world. Any word of our language is not just a set of sounds: it has its own meaning. And we think with the help of the same meanings. Therefore, language is closely connected with thinking and cognition. All human knowledge about the environment. reality are fixed in the language and expressed in words, phrases and sentences that are generally accepted and understandable. This allows people to pass on knowledge from generation to generation.

In the modern world, the Russian language performs, in addition to those mentioned, three more functions.

Firstly, the Russian language is nat. the language of the Russian people. Notes are created on it. monuments of art and literature, it is the language of science and culture. In the arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their compounds, that information is embedded, a cat. gives us knowledge about the world and people, attaching to the spirit. wealth, creation many generations of ancestors.

Secondly, Russian is the state language. the language of Ros. Federation. When the USSR existed, the Russian language was not such - too many nationalities inhabited the territory of the Soviets. Union. Now he is the language of service. not only the needs of people at home and at work, but also ofits. the language of the state, the language of science, production and, of course, culture.

Third, Russian is one of the international. languages.

In the international relations of the state enjoy peace. languages, legally proclaimed. United Nations as an official and slave. UN languages. These languages ​​are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. Any of the 6 languages ​​can be carried out interstate. political, economic, scientific and cult. contacts, held international. meetings, forums, etc.

The study of the Russian language at school is designed to reveal the richness, beauty and greatness of the Russian nat. language, strengthen and make more conscious pride in it and love for it. The Russian language is the language of the great Russian people, which has a heroic history, vol. achievements in culture, science, general. thought, literature, etc. In all these achievements, there is a great contribution of the Russian language as a means of communication, as a form of nat. culture.

The study of the native language should begin with the study of statements about it by those who were fluent in the Russian word.

· Our unusual language is still a mystery. It has all the tones and shades, all the transitions of sounds - from the hardest to the most tender and soft N.V. Gogol.

· We have been given possession of the richest, most accurate, powerful and truly magical Russian language. True love for one's country is unthinkable without love for one's language. Language we learn and must learn continuously until last days of his life K. G. Paustovsky.

· The Russian language in skillful hands and experienced lips is beautiful, melodious, expressive, flexible, obedient, dexterous and roomy AI Kuprin.

Linguistics as the science of language. Sections of linguistics

The science of language is called linguistics(linguistics, linguistics). Schools grammar studies the basics. sections of the science of the Russian language: phonetics (speech sounds), morphemics (word composition), vocabulary (words, language composition), morphology (words as parts of speech), syntax (phrases and sentences).

IN linguistics there are several sections.

Lexicology(its subject is the word) - the doctrine of words. composition of the language. Lexicology establishes the meaning of the word and the rules for its use in speech.

One of the main sections of lexicology is semantics(from the Greek "sema" - sign), cat. examines all issues, communications. with the meaning of the word, as well as changing the meaning of the word.

Lexicology is the study of words. the composition of the language in its modern condition, as well as the ways of its development and the reasons for changing the meaning of the word and words. composition of the language as a whole. Specialist. branch of lexicology is etymology - science, study origin of the word.

Phraseology considers issues, communications. with meaning, morphological-syntax. and stylist. features of phraseological units, as well as their classification and main. ways of education.

Phraseologisms- mouth. combinations of words close in lex. the meaning of one word (at the end of the world - far away; soaping your neck - teach a lesson, punish; walks under the table - small, etc.).

Phonetics The branch of science that studies sound. language structure. Phonetics occupies a special place among other linguists. Sciences. If lexicology and grammar study meaning. side of the language, the meaning of sentences, words and parts of words, then phonetics deals with mater. side of the language, with such means, cat. have no semantic meaning.

Prakt. phonetics finds application in orthoepy- the science of law. pronunciation.

Closely connected. with phonetics section charts studies letters, i.e., the image of sounds in writing, the relationship between letters and sounds.

Word formation - branch of the science of language, study. ways and means of forming new words, as well as the structure of existing words.

In some textbooks this section is called morphemics(from the Greek "morphe" - form). Morphemes- meaning. parts of a word: prefix, root, suffix, ending. They form a morph. word composition.

Grammar studies the features of language construction. In present time grammar - one of the most significant. sections of the science of language, cat. includes two subsections - morphology and syntax.

Morphology(from the Greek "morphe" - form, "logos" - science, word), studies inflection and parts of speech available in given language e. Words can change by gender, number, cases, persons, etc. Although there are some cat. do not change (conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs). Morphology is closely related to spelling, therefore, in this section of the textbook, various kinds of spelling are often found. rules.

Parts of speech is a morphologist. word classes. According to their role in the language, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary parts.

Independent parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun. Service parts of speech: preposition, conjunction, particle. In self-speech. and service words perform different functions. In the proposal self. words, naming objects, their signs, actions, etc., play the role of members of the sentence, and service ones often serve to connect the self. words.

Syntax learns phrases and sentences.

Sentence and phrase- syntax. units for different purposes, each of them has its own noun. signs. The sentence serves to express the statement, is the main unit of syntax. The phrase is one of the components of the sentence, it is an auxiliary. unit. In syntax, grammar rules are studied. framing sentences and phrases.

Spelling(from the Greek "orfo" - correct, "grapho" - I write) - a section of the science of language, studied. spelling rules.

There are many cases in Russian where it is not clear which spelling is correct. Select right. writing is possible only based on def. rule. Such a spelling in the word, cat. corresponds to def. spelling rule is called spelling.

Punctuation Learns how to use punctuation marks.

Punctuation is closely related to syntax. School grammar gives an idea of ​​10 punctuation marks:

· question mark;

· Exclamation point;

· comma;

· semicolon;

a colon;

· brackets;

quotation marks

ellipsis.

The place in a sentence or text where punctuation should be applied. rule is called punctogram.

Stylistics- the doctrine of speech styles and means of language. expressiveness, as well as the conditions for using them in speech.

A culture of speech- a section of linguistics that studies pract. implementation of the norms of letters in speech. language.

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Basic linguistic dictionaries

There is a special branch of science, zan. theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. It is called lexicography. All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic.

Encyclopedia presents in a condensed form modern. the state of scientific knowledge in any area, i.e., describes the world, explains concepts, gives a biographer. information about signs personalities, etc. Explained. part of the encyclopedia. dictionaries and terminology. reference books are much more informative. parts of the lingu. dictionaries.

To the encyclop. and terminal. dictionaries include the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia", "Small Soviet Encyclopedia", "Children's Encyclopedia", "Medical Encyclopedia", etc.

IN linguistic Dictionaries contain information about a word.

There are different linguistic types. dictionaries: explanatory, foreign dictionaries. words, etymological, orthographic, orthoepic, phraseological, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, dictionaries of lingua. terms, syntax. dictionaries, etc.

explanatory dictionaries describe the meaning of words. Widespread and well-known is the "Dictionary of the Russian language" by S.I. Ozhegov, sod. more than 50 thousand words, each of the cat. interpretations are given. grammatical, stylistic marks, illustrations of use are given.

The Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (the so-called Small Academic) is also very popular. There is the Big Academic Dictionary in 17 volumes and the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D. N. Ushakov. A special place among the crowd. dictionaries is occupied by the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl, comp. from 4 volumes and sod. more than 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs, sayings, sayings, riddles, cat. are given as illustrations to clarify the meanings of words.

Compilation of a dictionary is fraught with great difficulties, since vocabulary is the most unused. level of language structure, poorly under. systematization. Meaning. multi-knowledge structure. words are constantly updated. When describing meaning. structures, it is important to take into account the semantic. and meaning. signs of lex. values. If the first indicate the originality of the meaning of the sense. words, then the second - emphasize the similarity of words, rel. to def. subject. row. Explanation. part of the dictionary must be different. completeness, completeness.

Related to the problem of polysemy is the question of which of the values ​​is polysemantic. to consider words as the main ones, in what sequence to place the existing meanings. The lexicographer should also take into account that in addition to polysemy, there is such a thing as homonymy. It is not always easy to determine when dec. polyvalent values. words diverge, forming new words.

The word with the whole system of its meanings, gram. and style. litter, with necessary illustrations material is dictionary entry. Word structure. articles depends on the dictionary type. Usually words. the article contains a title, an accent. and grammar. characterization of the word, stylist. qualification, interpretation formula, selection of citations-illustrations, reference of historical etymology. character, bibliographer. help. Word, open words. article, commonly referred to as heading, or headword.

In dictionaries, rights are indicated. stress, are given basic. gram. sense forms. words. Such instructions are called grammatical marks.

At the end dictionary entry usually placed diff. phraseological units.

A necessary element of any dictionary is dictionary- a list of words to be clarified, interpreted. Between the glossary and the interpretation, a definition is established. addiction. The more complete the vocabulary, the more obvious that the words included in it will also be included in the development. definition, in explanation. part of the dictionary, and vice versa.

The origin of the word, its path in the language, ist. changes in its composition are fixed historical And etymological dictionaries (for example, "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" M. Fasmera, "Etymological dictionary of the Russian language "N. M. Shansky).

In phraseological Dictionaries can be found descriptions of the mouth. revolutions, learn about their origin and use. In 1967, edited by A. I. Molotkova the first special was published. "Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language", in the cat. explained over 4000 phraseological units. In 1980, V.P. Zhukov's School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language was published, sod. explanations of about 1800 most common phraseological units.

Rights information. spelling of the word can be obtained in spelling dictionary, but oh right. pronunciation - in orthoepic. There are dictionaries grammatical, sod. information about morfol. properties of the word. There are also dictionaries dedicated to description vocabulary groups: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

Outstanding Russian scholars

The formation and development of linguistics as a science of language is associated with the names of such scientists as Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov, Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov, Vladimir Ivanovich Dal, Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya, Alexei Alexandrovich Shakhmatov, Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov, Alexander Matveevich Peshkovsky, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov , Sergey Ivanovich Ozhegov, Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky, Leonard Yuryevich Maksimov.

WITH M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) started ser. learning Russian. One of the best poets of the 18th century, note. philologist, writer and teacher. Lomonosov created the first scientific grammar ("Russian Grammar", 1757). In this work, the scientist determined speech. norms of his time and laid the foundations of style. Installing gram. and orthoep. rules, Lomonosov proceeds from his own. observation of live speech.

Lomonosov is credited with developing a scientific classification of parts of speech and creating the theory of "three calms". Last played important role when creating a new character. language. The scientist divided the language into three styles: high, mediocre (medium) and low. High style was intended for writing odes, heroic. poems, torzh. "words about important matters." The middle one is theater for the language. plays, satires, poems. friend letters. Low style - the style of comedies, songs, descriptions of "ordinary affairs." When using it, it was forbidden to use clergy. words, preference was given to Russian proper, often prostonar. words.

The merit of another prominent Russian linguist, poet and translator - A. Kh. Vostokova (1781-1864)- is the creation of educational books on the Russian language, such as "Abridged Russian grammar for use in lower educational institutions"(1831), which was reprinted 15 times, and" Russian grammar ... more fully stated "(1831), reprinted 11 times. In the "Russian Grammar" the scientist carried out "enumeration of the entire Russian language", examined its gram. features at the level of science of its time.

A. A. Potebnya (1835-1891)- vyd. Russian and Ukrainian philologist, prosl. wrong erudition. Being quite young, the scientist wrote the monograph "Thought and Language" (1862), in the cat. considered the relationship between language and thought. His main work - "From Notes on Russian Grammar" in 4 volumes - is dedicated to comp. analysis of the Ukrainian and Russian languages, the history of the main. gram. categories, comp. the study of the syntax of Eastern Slavs. languages ​​- Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

A. A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920)- one of the most prominent philologists of the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Their scientific interests he mainly concentrated in the field of history and dialectology of Slavs. languages. Shakhmatov devoted more than 20 works to the problem of the origin of the Eastern Slavic languages. groups. In the last During the years of his life, he taught at St. Petersburg University a course on the syntax of the Russian language, according to rukop. cat materials. after the death of the author, a sign was issued. "Syntax of the Russian language". To this work go back many modern. syntax. theories.

A. M. Peshkovsky (1878-1933) first in the history of Russian linguistics showed that intonation is gram. means that it helps where other gram. means (prepositions, conjunctions, endings) are unable to express meaning. One of the best works of Peshkovsky is considered "Russian syntax in scientific coverage" (1914) - a witty and full of subtle observations monograph, in the cat. The author seems to be talking to his students. Together with them, he observes, reflects, experiments, forcing the reader to become conscious. Russian language user.

L. V. Shcherba (1880-1944)- vyd. Russian linguist and teacher - called for observations on the living facts of language and speech, for reflection on them. His work "On Parts of Speech in the Russian Language" (1928), in cat. he singled out a new part of speech - the words of the category of state - clearly showed what kind of gram. phenomena are hidden behind the familiar terms "noun" and "verb".

Shcherba is the creator of Leningrad. Phonologist. schools. He was one of the first to turn to a linguist. language analysis. works. He wrote two experiences of lingua. interpretation of the poems "Recollection" by Pushkin and "Pine" by Lermontov.

V. V. Vinogradov (1895-1969)- vyd. Russian philologist and teacher. His name entered the history of culture not only in our country, but throughout the world. He is credited with creating two lingua. Sciences: the history of Russian letters. language and the science of language art. literature. His books "Pushkin's Language", "Gogol's Language", "Pushkin's Style", "Lermontov's Prose Style" represent an ogre. interest for both the specialist philologist and the applicant.

Significant are the merits of Vinogradov in the field of lexicology and phraseology. He created a classification of types of lex. meanings of the word and types of phrases. units, cat. are still used in universities. Vinogradov is known to many as the creator and editor-in-chief of the journal "Problems of Linguistics", as the president of the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature.

The scientific heritage of the scientist is extremely extensive and diverse in terms of issues. He created more than 250 works. One of the centre. places among them is occupied by the monograph "Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word." This is the deepest. study of the morphology of modern. Russian language. The work was awarded the State. prizes in 1951 Many zarub. Academies of Sciences elected Vinogradov as their member.

A. A. Reformatsky (1900-1978)- note. philologist. He gained fame in wide circles thanks to the banners. textbook for university students "Introduction to Linguistics". His scientific interests are extremely diverse, and his works are devoted to various problems of language: phonetics, word formation, vocabulary, theory of writing, history of linguistics, correlation of language and speech. Together with other vyd. linguists - Kuznetsov, Sidorov and Avanesov - Reformed was the founder of Moscow. phonol. schools, ideas cat. are being developed today.

Names Russian linguists are not known in the same way as, for example, the names of great physicists. However, each of them contributed to the science of language deputy. contribution. To remember these names and to know about the theories and discoveries of Russian scientists is the duty of anyone, even the beginning. philologist.

Ticket 5

Sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech

Vocabulary is a collection of words in a given language. words. The composition of the Russian language has tens of thousands of words. In words. stocks embodied processes and results posn. human activity, reflects the development of the culture of the people.

words. the composition of the language is in the post. movement: some words go out of use, others appear, as new realities arise in the environment. us life, cat. name is required. Science, study. words. the composition of the language is called lexicology. Its subject is primarily lex. the meaning of the word, i.e. content, closed. follow him in society. Lexicology allows you to realize how rich and expressive Russian speech is.

Lex. the system of the Russian language is changeable, mobile, dynamic. Some words leave together with that reality, a cat. they denoted, or are replaced by others (the word neck has replaced "vyyu", hand - "right hand"). Some words disappeared because they could not withstand competition with others, more common: thief - thief, cheeks - cheeks, etc. This archaisms. They give speech solemnity, elation. Sometimes not the whole word becomes obsolete, but only one of its meanings. For example, the word vulgar has lost its meaning "ordinary, battered" and acquired in modern. the language is completely different.

At the same time, new objects appear in our life, new concepts arise, and this entails the need to define them. This is how new words are born. They are usually called neologisms. For example, spaceport, honorik (a mix of mink and ferret), bionics.

words. the stock of the Russian language is enriched in different ways, important. of them - word formation, i.e., the emergence of new words by constructing them from the morphemes available in the language according to known. models. A widespread way of the emergence of new words through the development of existing nouns. new meaning (semantic derivation). Def. some words appear as a result of borrowings from other languages. This process has become very active in recent years due to numerous zarub. contacts. Examples: voucher, leasing, broker, clearing, barter, dealer, investment, etc. All Russian words can be divided into 2 groups: primordial, exalted on Russian soil, and borrowed, adv. from other languages.

Many words came into the Russian language from other languages: Greek (lamp, icon, sexton, bible), Latin (school, revolution, exam, linguistics), Turkic (pencil, sundress, chest), German, Dutch (soldier, officer, headquarters , bill), etc.

However, the main source of words. The composition of the language is not borrowing, but the formation of new lex. units based on the native language, by using dec. ways of word formation.

In Russian there is a trace. ways of forming words:

1) suffix:

fly - pilot, educator - educator, scatter - scatter-yva-n-s, cold - cold-ovate;

2) prefixal:

to swim - to swim, to swim, you to swim; dark - over-dark; sleepy - sleepless; friend - non-friend;

3) prefixed-suffixal(a prefix and a suffix are added to the generating stem at the same time):

beard - under-beard-ok, scream-ra-shout-sya;

4) unsuffixed:

cross - transition ?, blue - blue ?, deaf - wilderness ?, fly - flight ?;

5) addition:

a) no connections vowel: raincoat, sofa bed, booster;

b) with connection. vowel: dry fruits - dried fruits, wagon repair - wagon repair, factory + bird - poultry farm;

c) addition with suffix: mow hay - sen O mower;

d) merging words based on the phrase: evergreen, long-playing;

e) merging words based on the sentence: tumbleweed;

6) abbreviation(formation of compound words).

Wherein:

a) initial letters can be combined - MGU, MPGU;

b) sounds can be combined - university, traffic police;

c) only the first word can be abbreviated - salary, savings bank;

d) parts of two words can be abbreviated - prodmag;

7) words can also be formed by transition from one part of speech to another:

Sick(adj.) baby crying . Sick(n.) groaned softly. He left, thanks to(germ.) doctor for help. Thanks to(pretext) the doctor's help made him feel better;

8) new words can appear as a result of the development of new meanings for nouns. already long in the language. time of words (shell or bread box to denote garages).

The richness and expressiveness of Russian speech determines the presence in the vocabulary of the language dec. word groups.

The first of them - synonyms(words similar in lex. meaning: brave - brave, courageous, courageous, daring). Synonyms belong to the same part of speech. They may vary:

a) stylistically: potatoes (colloquial) - potatoes (neutral);

b) by compatibility with other words: brown hair, brown wool, brown eyes;

c) by frequency of use: postman - letter carrier, thermometer - thermometer.

Synonyms form a synonym. ranks: pilot- pilot, aviator; motherland- fatherland, fatherland. The word, stylistically neutral and most commonly used, is the main one in this series.

Synonyms allow you to diversify speech, avoid using the same words. And writers skillfully use them, not mechanically replacing repetition. word, but given the meaning. and express. shades of Spanish words.

Another group of words antonyms(words related to one part of speech, but having an opposite meaning: friend - enemy, heavy - light, sad - fun, love - hate). Not all words have antonyms. If the word is ambiguous, then each meaning can have its own antonym: a bad bucket is a whole bucket, a bad deed is a good deed. The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speeches. expressions, amplification emotionality of speech: at home new and prejudice old(A. Griboyedov); To me sad because funny you (M. Yu. Lermontov), ​​etc.

antithesis- stylist. welcome, cat. consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, states. The phenomenon of antonymy is used to create a new concept by connecting counter. according to the meaning of the words "Living corpse", "Optimistic tragedy", "Bad good man", etc. This stylist. reception is called oxymoron.

Another group of words homonyms(words, one in sound, but different in meaning: key (spring) and key (for a castle), mink (animal) and mink (burrow), bow (plant) and bow (weapon)).

Homonyms can be complete(e.g. key, mink) or incomplete, coinciding in any form: glass (genus case from glass) and glass (3rd person of the verb to drain). Homonymy is often used in humor. works to achieve com. effect.

Knowledge of the sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech allows not only to speak correctly and beautifully, but also to express your thoughts in writing, for example, in essays.

Ticket 6

Figurative means of phonetics of the Russian language

Speech is a stream of sounds. They are studied by a branch of the science of language called phonetics. Sound is min. unit, cat. speak or hear. Sound does not possess itself. meaning, but with the help of sounds it is possible to distinguish the words: lamp-ramp, house - catfish, ox - led.

All sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels And consonants. Vowel sounds are formed by air. jet, cat. passes through the mouth and does not meet the nickname. obstacles. They are made up of tone. In Russian there are 6 vowel sounds, meetings. under stress, it is - a, o, and, s, u, uh.

Consonant sounds are formed when for air. jets in the mouth. the cavity has no free passage. The tongue may touch the teeth or the palate, the lips may close. Air the jet has to overcome these obstacles, and then formed acc. sounds. There are quite a few of them in Russian: solid sounds are hard and soft, sonorous and deaf, some of them form pairs.

Sounds in the language are needed in order to distinguish words. This is the most important duty of sounds. If two sounds can independently distinguish words, then we have phoneme, i.e. diff. language unit. For example: house - volume, d And T- phonemes; house - ladies, O And A- also phonemes, since they distinguish a given pair of words.

Words are created with sounds. Sounds, if they are not words (conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections), mean nothing, have no meaning. However, sometimes the meaning of the word is assigned to otd. sound input. into this word. Let's take sound as an example. R, which is included in the words thunder, thunder, thunderstorm, peals, roar. Enum. words have long been used by word artists to convey resp. them phenomena of nature. So, the poet Tyutchev in the poem "Spring Thunderstorm" intentionally includes words containing this sound:

I love the storm in early May,

When the first spring thunder

As if frolicking and playing,

Rumbles in the blue sky.

Thunder rumbles...

Sound recording is one of the properties of expressions. speech. Musicality of the poet. texts involves penetration into the features of sounds. speech, in its ability to impress not only the meaning of words, but also their sound.

Russian phonet. the system is flexible and expressive. Sound. speech is the main form of the existence of language, and in thin. In the text, each word is "larger than the same word in the general language text" (Yu. Lotman). In thin work, more often - in poetry, are used decomp. phonet amplification techniques. expressiveness of speech. One of the main images. means of phonetics is a stylist. reception, comp. in the selection of close-sounding words.

For example:

Peter feasts. And he is proud and clear, And his eyes are full of glory. And his royal feast is beautiful.

(A. Pushkin)

The vowels [o] and [a] and the consonants [p], [p], [t] are repeated here. This makes the verse musical and vivid. Depending on the quality of repetition. sounds are distinguished alliteration And assonance. Alliteration is the repetition of acc. sounds. For example: A roar of thunder passed through the blue sky (S. Marshak). A voiced trembling [p] in combination with [g] creates the impression of a thunderclap.

Assonance called the repetition of vowels: It's time, it's time, the horns blow. (A. Pushkin). Assonance is based on stressed vowels, as in bezud. vowel positions often change. Examples of assonance: I quickly fly along cast-iron rails, I think of my own thought. (N. Nekrasov). The sound [y] is repeated, giving the impression of a humming rushing train.

Another method of sound recording is onomatopoeia- the use of words, cat. their sound is reminiscent of hearing. image impressions. phenomena. For more than 2 centuries, the lines of A. Sumarokov have been a model of onomatopoeia, where the croaking of frogs is depicted as follows: Oh, how, how can we not speak to you, gods!

Rhyme, this striking feature of the verse, is also built on the phonet. the possibilities of Russian sound. systems for sound. repetitions:

Mountain peaks Sleep in the darkness of the night. Quiet valleys Are full of fresh haze.

(M. Lermontov)

An important means of organizing the poet. speech is stress It rhythmically organizes the poem.

So, sound recording- one of the most powerful poet. receptions, conclusion in care. selection of a combination of sounds, the use of words, a cat. their sound is reminiscent of hearing. image impression. phenomena. The repetition of consonants is called alliteration, and vowels - assonance.

The main elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, increase - decrease in voice, tone of speech, etc.)

Words are divided into syllables. Not all syllables have one. longitude and strength. One of the syllables in the word stands out naib. the strength and duration of the pronunciation of a vowel sound. It's called percussion. The Russian language is peculiar power accent.

stress- this is the music. tone, on a cat. the word is adjusted, that "voice", according to the cat. we learn the word. All words, yavl. self. parts of speech are usually stressed. Assimilation of rights. stress is associated with a number of difficulties, explained. its features.

The first is that the stress in Russian words is not attached to def. syllable in a word (as, for example, in most Turkic languages, in French (where the stress falls on the last syllable), in Polish (the stress is on the pre-positive syllable), in Czech and Hungarian (the stress is on the first syllable)). This accent is called free, it can be on any syllable of the word.

The second feature of Russian stress is its mobility, its ability to change its place depending on the form of the word. For example, the verb understand in neopr. form has an accent on the second syllable, in the past. tense in the masculine gender it moves to the first syllable - p'onyal, and in the feminine - to the last one - understood'a.

Large groups of words, men. stresses, depending on the form, are also among verbs. These are the verbs to live, be, twist, pour, give, drink and their prefix. education. The scheme of their stress is bizarre and, moreover, changes over time. Only the form remains unchanged female past time - with an emphasis on the ending.

The mobility of Russian stress leads to the need, along with the formation of forms, declension, conjugation of words, to be attentive and to stress, which, apparently, does not remain constant. This is the difficulty of the language, but also one of its colors, when a word in different forms sounds in a new way.

These two properties of Russian stress are taken into account in Russian versification, cat. is based on the number of syllables and the number of stresses, as well as the ratio of stressed syllables to unstressed ones. Such a verse is called syllabotonic (syllable-stressed). In sillabotonic versification, there are 5 fundamentals. sizes: iambic, trochee, amphibrach, dactyl, anapaest.

The third feature of Russian stress is its variability over time. Language serves society, it develops, improves, changes.

Any statement is pronounced with some intonation. Differences in intonation depend on the change of 4 acoustics. components:

sound intensity;

The duration of the sound (the more sounds are pronounced per unit of time, the shorter their duration, the faster the pace of speech);

The degree of distinctness of the timbre, i.e. the quality of the sounds.

Changes to these first intonation components are caught by ear and more accurately calculated on the special. equipment: oscilloscopes, intotonographs, sonographs.

Each speaker has his own average tone of speech. But in some places of the phrase there is an increase or decrease in tone. Such a movement of tone up or down from the middle level is called intonation. In scientific linguistics, the concept of intonation also includes changes in the intensity, duration, timbre of a speech tact and phrase.

In Russian, 6 intonations can be distinguished. structures (abbreviated as IC). Each of them has a center - a syllable, on a cat. the main stress falls (bar, phrasal or logical), pre- and post-center parts (in some cases they may be absent). That part, the cat. is in front of the center, usually pronounced on a medium tone. One IR is distinguished from another by the direction of movement of the tone in the center and after the center:

First IC: on the vowel of the center there is a decrease in tone, the tone of the post-center part is below average;

· second IC: the center vowels are pronounced almost the same as the pre-center vowels, and the tone of the post-center part is below average;

third IC: on the center vowel, the tone rises sharply, and in the post-center part it is below average;

fourth IC: on the vowel of the center, the tone rises sharply, the tone of the post-center part is also above average;

Fifth IC: has two centers: on the vowel of the first center, an ascending tone movement, on a vowel of the second center or on the next vowel - descending, the tone between the centers is above the middle, the tone after the center is below the middle;

sixth IC: on the vowel of the center, the tone rises, the tone of the post-center part is higher than the middle one.

Intonation distinguishes sentences of different types, reflects neutral. or subject. the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement, conveys a variety of shades of emotion. Intonation is closely related to punctuation, although, of course, punctuation cannot be based on it alone.

For example, in the sentence: "Tired children quickly fell asleep", a comma can be placed after the word tired, if the definition is given ext. the situation the meaning of the cause, and then it should be highlighted intonationally.

So, any statement is pronounced with intonation. Intonation- a complex phenomenon, it consists of several. components:

1) in each phrase there is a logical. stress, it falls on the word that is the most important in the meaning of the phrase. With the help of logical stress, you can clarify the meaning of the statement, for example:

A) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (and not next week);

b) Tomorrow We(our class, not another) let's go to the theater;

c) Tomorrow we let's go to the theater (but we won’t go);

d) Tomorrow we will go to theater(and not to the circus);

2) intonation consists of rises and falls of the voice - this is the melody of speech. It has its own in every language;

3) speech is accelerated or slowed down - this forms its pace;

4) intonation is characterized by the timbre of speech, depending on the target setting;

5) a pause - a stop, a break in the movement of tone - always happens on the border of phrases, but it can also be inside a phrase.

It is very important to pause in the right place, since the meaning of the statement depends on this: How surprised his words / brother! How surprised him / his brother's words! There are pauses logical(semantic) and psychological(dictated by feelings).

The use of words in figurative meaning to create trails

Many words in Russian have several meanings at the same time. This phenomenon is called multiplicity or polysemy. For example, the word golden has a trace. values:

1) made of gold (gold jewelry);

2) the colors of gold, yellow (golden hair, golden field);

3) very good, valuable (gold worker), happy, joyful (golden time of youth); dear, beloved (my golden girl).

The connection between these meanings is obvious: the name of one concept is, as it were, transferred to another. The first meaning is direct, the rest are figurative. Peren. values ​​can be related to a direct one on the basis of similarity (for example, appearance, color), but these relationships can be more complicated - on the basis of adjacency (gold is a valuable metal, and on the basis of value, three last values ​​are associated with the first).

Words and expressions, use. in trans. meaning, created figurative representations of objects and phenomena are called paths. Among the tropes, metaphor, metonymy, personification, etc. are distinguished.

One of the tropes of the artist. speech is metaphor- a word or expression, use. in trans. value based on similarity. Even Aristotle noted that "to compose good metaphors means to notice the similarities ..."

At the heart of every metaphor lies the unnamed. comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature, but a cat. in our view are associated with a completely different range of phenomena. In a metaphor (as opposed to a comparison), the object, the cat, is not called. figuratively characterized by a trope. For example, Pushkin calls his youth spring: "You have reconciled yourself, my spring high-flown dreams," using translation. the meaning of this word: it's time to flourish, youth. Often he metaphorically calls the end of life a sunset, using the figurative meaning of this word (end, outcome):

Then the romance in the old way will take my cheerful sunset;

And, perhaps, on my sad sunset, love will shine with a farewell smile.

In a metaphor, a writer or poet creates an image - an artist. idea of ​​objects, phenomena, cat. he describes, and the reader catches, understands, on what similarity the meaning is based. connection between trans. and the direct meaning of the word. The endowment of the inanimate. objects signs and properties of a person is called personification.

One of the poet. tropes is comparison, i.e., the convergence of two phenomena in order to clarify one through the other. In any comparison, one can single out the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.

Comparisons are different in structure. Most often they appear in the form of comparison. turnover, connection with the help of unions like, exactly, as if, as if, that, etc. Often there is a form of comparison, expression. noun in creates. case: Letters smolder like ants on sheets (E. Bagritsky). There are comparisons. transmitted in the form of comparison. degree of adverb or adjective: A bush creeps out of the darkness, a furry bear cub (V. Lugovskoy); The earth was fluffier than the carpet under him (N. Tikhonov). There are comparisons, a cat. are included in sentences using the words similar, similar, reminiscent: There, the ocean burns with fire like hell, and jellyfish look like lace skirts of ballerinas (K. Paustovsky).

A special form of figurative comparison are negative. comparisons, in the cat. one object is opposed to another:

It is not the wind that rages over the pine forest, It is not the streams that run from the mountains, The frost-voivode on patrol Bypasses his possessions.

(N. Nekrasov)

Such comparisons are especially characteristic of the works of oral folk. creativity. Like any other tropes, comparisons can be general language and individual author's: blue as the sky, green as the grass, fast as the wind, bald as the knee. General language. there are many comparisons in the mouth. phrases: spinning like a squirrel in a wheel, stuck like a bath leaf, stupid as a cork.

Epithet- one of the types of trails. The epithet is called thin. definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, cat. emphasizes in op. word any of its excellent. property. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition to another:

1) noun (tramp wind; maiden rose);

2) adjective (silver birch, fatal clock);

3) adverb and participle (Looks eagerly, rushing sparkling), but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives, use. in trans. meaning.

Epithets are one of the most widespread. and the paths beloved by the authors, with the help of a cat. they concretize phenomena or their properties. For oral folk. creativity is characterized by the so-called. permanent epithets. It's hard not to agree that the best definition of the sea is immediately a challenge. in the imagination, its appearance is the epithet blue, which cannot be better conveyed by the vast expanse of the steppe than by the epithet of a vastly open field. The girl in Russian fairy tales is characterized by the epithet red, and the good fellow is kind. In epics, the name of the enemy is inextricably linked, always associated with the epithets dog, thief. Mother earth is cheese - the heroes of epics and fairy tales affectionately call their homeland.

Ticket 9

Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. Archaisms and historicisms

The Russian language is in the post. movement and change. words. the composition of the language changes by updating the vocabulary, the accumulation of new expressions. funds. Some from obsolete words cease to be used, i.e., they become obsolete and enter the pass. fund of Russian vocabulary.

Comparing, for example, lex. modern system Russian language with the "ancient. Dictionary", we find not only the number. changes, but also deeper, quality. These changes are divided into several types.

Changes in the way items are named. Before, in times Ancient Rus', objects were named based on the characteristics of their shape, material, by proximity to other objects. Nowadays, the principle of naming an object according to its function, purpose is becoming predominant.

Changes in the genus. relationships between concepts and their reflections in the dictionary. In the ancient language there were such words as a table, a bench, a bench, an armchair, a bed, etc. However, the words furniture or some other cat. would unite the whole species. name was not.

The tendency to organize words into similar sets with the same gender. name increases in the last. stages of language development. Today it becomes especially obvious.

Change in synonymous relations between words, increase in synonymic rows.

Passing from the general to the particular, let us turn to concret. evidence of changes in the lex. Russian language systems - historicism and archaism. Both of them are outdated. words. Examples: halberd, pischal, axe, this, zelo, etc.

Names of objects, cat. were known only to our ancestors and fell into disuse - these are historicisms (halberd, pishchal, ax- old names types of weapons).

It may be so: the thing or concept remained, but their names left the language, were replaced by others. Such lost words archaisms: this - this one, green - very, lad - teenager, young man, thoughtful - reasonable. Archaisms may differ from modern. words not entirely, but only some. sounds (or even one): piit is a poet, fire is fire, vran is a raven. This phonetic archaisms. If in the past the word had a different stress, then they speak of accents, or accents. archaisms: symbol, judge, ghost Another type of archaism - morphological; they are archaic in their morphemic structure: ferocity - instead of modern. ferocity, nervous - instead of nervous, collapse - instead of collapse.

It happens that the appearance of a word is quite modern - its meaning is archaic. This semantic archaisms. Yes, the word "a shame", cat. we now use in the sense "disgrace" in the old days meant "spectacle". « ordinary» about 150 years ago meant "made in one day", not at all "ordinary, ordinary" as it is now. There are more phraseological archaisms. These are called obsolete. mouth combinations of words, sayings, idioms.

The reason for the appearance in the language of historicisms- in the change of life, customs, in the development of technology, science, culture. In place of one thing and relationships come others. For example, with the disappearance of such types of clothing as armyak, camisole, caftan, the names of these types of clothing have left the Russian language. They can now only be found in history. descriptions.

Many historicisms are used by writers in their works, thus helping to "hear the feedback of a distant era." Take, for example, the "Bogatyr poem" by N. Aseev: The princes rode on horseback in patterned cones; kmets in bast shoes repulsed the enemies in those stubborn battles.

Obsolete can be called a certain. category of words, appearing not so long ago - in owls. era. Remember words like educational program, dispossession of kulaks, kulak, middle peasant, surplus appropriation, tax in kind, socialist-revolutionary, Supreme Economic Council National economy), STO (Council of Labor and Defense), Rabkrin (Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate), etc.

But despite the fact that historicisms belong to the pass. vocabulary, their role is very important even in modern. texts. The fact is that these words are necessary where it is necessary to display the color of the era, to talk about objects and phenomena of the past.

The main reason for the appearance of archaisms- in the development of the language, in updating its vocabulary - one word is replaced by another. Displaced archaisms do not disappear without a trace from use: they, like historicisms, are preserved in history. novels and essays - to recreate life and language. color of the era. Sometimes outdated. words are used in a new sense. So, in modern Russian language returned the word "dynasty". Previously, it could only be combined with such definitions as royal, monarchical. Now they talk and write about the slave. dynasties, dynasties of miners, lumberjacks, meaning families with an "inherited" profession. So, if historicisms often disappear without a trace from use, then archaisms have in modern. Russian synonyms: this - this one, the mirror - a mirror, green - very, cheeks - cheeks, eyes - eyes, etc.

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The main sources of replenishment of vocabulary. Neologisms

New objects constantly appear in our life, new concepts arise, and this entails the need to name them. This is how new words are born. They are usually called neologisms. It happens that neologisms are created by concr. a person when he feels the need to name some kind of reality. As a rule, new words are invented by writers and scientists. More often already nouns. words, a new meaning appears, a semantic arises. neologism. Often neologisms arise on the basis of phrases according to the law of speech. savings.

One of the main ways to enrich the vocabulary of the Russian language is word formation- the emergence of new words by constructing them from the morphemes available in the language according to Izv. templates. The method of semantics is widespread. derivations - giving of beings. new meaning words.

Most neologisms are associated with the development of science, technology, culture. Many of these words are firmly established in our lives, lose their novelty and turn into an act. words. stock. For example, in the 50-70s. a large number of terms appear, connected. with the development of astronautics: cosmonaut, cosmodrome, cosmic vision, telemetry, spacecraft, etc.; most of these words, due to their relevance, very quickly became common and entered the act. words. stock.

New words, as already noted, appear in different ways: some are formed according to models from the elements available in the language: mobile shop, snowmobile, cinema panorama, microdistrict, etc. Others are borrowed, for example, sports. terms underdog, dribbling, stopper. Based on loans. words in Russian, the formation and emergence of new words is also possible - rally, biathlete, lifter.

The first two groups of neologisms are called properly lexical, the last group is semantic neologisms. Language. neologisms can perform not only nominative, but also express. function.

Express. - stylist. the saturation of a word in most cases is associated with its semantics. updating and expanding the context of its use. From language. neologisms should be distinguished contextual neologisms, or individually-author's. Individual - auth. neologisms are words, a cat. are formed by word artists, publicists, etc. in order to enhance the expressiveness of the text. Unlike language. neologisms such neologisms perform not nominative, but express. function, rarely pass into letters. language and receive a common language. use.

As is the language. neologisms, individual - auth. neologisms are formed according to the laws of the language, according to models from morphemes, them. in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: high-rise, dismount, chamberlain (Mayakovsky); prosin, divination (herbs), ringing, cone-finned, loosen, pannost (Yesenin), etc.

As a rule, each new word in the language is formed by some word image. diagram or model. The most common is foundation. One of the components of such new words are: cosmo-, radio-, electro-, glass-, etc. For example: radio astronomer, electromusic, film university, super-powerful, ultra-long-range, radio emission, TV review, super lightning, spaceport, TV review, etc.

There are others, also quite common. ways of forming neologisms - suffix and prefix: dock, antimatter, unmanned, antiparticle, organize, engage, etc.

Also, neologisms can be formed by adding will reduce. or increase. suffixes. For example: transports, careless, acmeists, futurists, huge, etc.

According to the composition, neologisms can be divided into several groups:

1) names of new branches of knowledge (aeronomy, interoscopy, exobiology, etc.);

2) names of new mechanisms and devices (driver, chemotron, mosquito, etc.);

3) names of new substances and materials (glass fiber, kormobacterin, benzene, etc.).

Some words from passive vocabulary moved into the category of active and became neologisms. These words include the following: democratization, citizenship, priority, publicity, social justice, etc.

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Origin of words: native Russian and borrowed words. Old Church Slavonicisms

Vocabulary of the Russian language- the system is changeable. Lex. its layer is constantly replenished with new words, this is the most changeable. part language. systems.

In words. The composition of the Russian language can be divided into 2 main. layer of words depending on their origin: original Russian vocabulary and borrowed vocabulary. Under the original Russian vocabulary are understood those words, cat. formed immediately. in the Russian language in different periods of its development.

There are several groups of native Russian words:

1. Common Slavic words, cat. entered the Russian language from Slavs. base language. These are, for example, the names of persons by kinship (brother, sister, mother, father); names of some tools and home items. household ( plow, plow, pitchfork, chisel); names of persons according to their occupation (weaver, reaper); dwelling names (house, yard) and so on.

2. East Slavic(or Old Russian) words, cat. originated in Russian approx. in the XI-XIV centuries. There are a lot of such words, they are common for Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, comp. united East Slav. language.

3. Actually Russian words, appeared starting from the 14th century. after the division of the East. language into Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian. This includes all words except borrowed ones.

A special group of loans. words make up Old Slavonicisms. So it is customary to call words, adv. from Staroslav. language, ancient the language of the Slavs. Old Slavonicisms have some. distinguish. features. Here are some of them:

1) disagreement, i.e. combinations of ra, la, re, le in place of Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - enemy, sweet - malt, milky - milky, breg - coast);

2) combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of a word in place of Russian ro-, lo- (work - a grain grower, boat - a boat);

3) a combination of railway in place w (alien - alien, clothes - clothes, driving - I drive);

4) u in place of the Russian h (lighting is a candle, power is power, burning is hot);

5) initial a, e, u instead of Russian I, o, y (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - take away);

6) in Russian there are quite a lot of morphemes staroslav. origin: suffixes - eni-, -enstv-, -zn-, -tel-, -yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride); suffixes of adjectives and participles: - eysh-, -aysh-, -ash-, -usch-, -om-, -im-, -enn- (kindest, bitterest, burning, running, led, kept, blessed); prefixes: voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre- (repay, regurgitate, overthrow, excessively, despise, prefer), etc.

Getting into the composition of the Russian vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms were distributed according to 3 main. groups. The first group includes words that, having entered the Russian language, completely replaced their Russian equivalents, for example, cloud, good, between, before, vegetables, enemy, good, captivity, burden, time, etc. The second group includes those Old Slavonicisms, cat. exist together with Russian variants of words, for example, head (head), power (volost), seduce (turn), dust (gunpowder). As for the third group, those words, cat. are in the language of the so-called. style reserve, for example: vran (raven), blato (swamp), etc.

In addition to Old Slavonicisms, words from other languages ​​also entered the Russian language. From Greek in ancient times came many names from the field of religion (lamp, angel, demon, kliros, etc.), scientific terms (geography, mathematics, philosophy), names from the field of science and art (anapaest, comedy, trochee) . From Latin in Russian there are many scientific and general. - polit. terms: revolution, constitution, evolution, vertical, etc. Borrowings from Western Europe. languages ​​are significant and are explained by numerous. contact with these peoples. Many words came from German and Dutch in the era of Peter I in connection with his reforms (from German - guardhouse, camp, freight; from Dutch - harbor, pilot, flag). From English borrowings actively penetrate into our language in present. time: briefing, clearing, etc. There is a lot of everyday life from French. names, from the field of art: bracelet, medallion, coat, etc.

There is also a special type of borrowing, cat. was named "tracing paper". Translated from French language it means words. copy. As for the Russian language, there are two types of it: derivational tracing paper and semantic tracing paper.

Word-building tracing paper- these are the words that are formed in foreign language. schemes, but with the help of Russian roots and a word image. elements. For example, from the Greek language (anomia - lawlessness, simfonia - consent, autocrateia - autocracy, etc.); from lat. language (insectum - insect, intelligentia - intelligence, oxigenium - oxygen, 1agricultura - agriculture, etc.).

In addition to cripples, there are varieties of them, called.. semi-tracing paper- words, one part cat. is not translated into Russian, but can be transmitted through their morphemes. Some words are both tracings and semi-tracings, such as antisocial, antisocial, intramuscular, etc.

Ticket 12

Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units. Idioms

Before you start talking about the phraseologist. units, define what phraseology is. Phraseology is the science of the mouth. phrases. Phraseology can be called mouth. phrases in a given language.

In order to understand what phraseologisms are, consider a few examples. For comparison, let's take the following phrases: "red scarf" and "red corner". The first phrase can be called free, because instead of the adjective "red" you can use any other adjective, for example, green, yellow, white, black, etc. As for the second phrase, its meaning will be lost if the adjective "red" is tried replace with any other. Such a phrase. the combination can be called non-free or stable.

There is a phraseological classification. phrases, developed academician V. V. Vinogradov. According to it, there are phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations. Thus, phraseological units differ in the degree of cohesion of the components. If it is maximum, then it is a phraseologist. adhesions, for example, to get into a mess, to beat the buckets, without hesitation. Phraseologist. adhesions are also called idioms. They cannot be divided, decomposed or translated into other languages. There are also quite a few such phraseologists. adhesions, in the composition of the cat. includes both archaisms and historicisms, for example:

· a goal like a falcon, which means "a ram, a smoothly planed pillar";

· as the apple of an eye - "pupil";

· get into a mess, i.e. "into the machine for weaving ropes";

turuses on wheels - "a mobile tower for the siege of fortresses", etc.

If the connection between the components is smaller, it is phraseological units(pull the strap, lather the neck). Here, the total value is the sum of the values ​​of its components. For example, holding a stone in your bosom, dancing to someone else's tune, making an elephant out of a fly, etc.

Thus, neither in the phraseologist. fusions, nor in phraseology. unities there are no words with free. value. In phraseology. combinations, one member of the phraseological unit has the so-called. limited, bound use, and the second - free: a sensitive issue, fraught with consequences, pitch darkness.

Sometimes idioms are referred to as phraseological expressions. These include proverbs, sayings, wings. words and expressions. The composition of the Russian language includes a large number figurative phraseology. It is characterized by high degree of expression. In this regard, a large number of it can be found in art., As well as in the public. literature.

The sources of phraseological units of the Russian language are diverse. The main part of phraseological units of the Russian language is of native Russian origin. Sources include: Prof. speech (to sharpen lyasy, to beat bucks), jargon (to rub glasses, a bit card, to go all-in - with gamblers) and talking. speech.

The source of the claim. phraseologies become turns from the works of writers: happy hours are not observed (A. Griboyedov); affairs of bygone days (A. Pushkin); and the chest just opened (I. Krylov); knight for an hour (N. Nekrasov); living corpse (L. Tolstoy), etc. Such lips. expressions from art. literature and journalism is usually called popular expressions.

Phraseologisms are almost always bright, figurative expressions. Therefore, they are an important express. means of language, isp. writers as ready arr. definitions, comparisons, how emots. - image. characteristics of heroes, approx. reality, etc. For example, K. Paustovsky in the novel "Smoke of the Fatherland", characterizing the action of one of the heroes, instead of words, without hesitation, thoughtlessly uses phraseologism headlong: She was attracted to him by childishness, a tendency to get carried away headlong, chivalry, irony. attitude towards oneself.

Sometimes writers use phraseological units in a modified, reformulated form. form. In these cases, the phraseological unit receives new aesthetics. quality. For example, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin uses the phraseologism to poke his nose somewhere, expanding it: Censorship is used to sticking its stinking nose into the very sanctuary of the writer's thought.

Phraseologisms are almost always bright, figurative expressions. Therefore, they are an important express. means of language, isp. writers like Goth. figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotions. - image. characteristics of heroes, approx. reality, etc. In modern. Russian language has bol. the number of wings. expressions, cat. entered our speech from the works of artists. literature.

One of the most important features of phraseology. turnover is his post. lexical compound. For example: "stumbling block", "live on knives", "Kuzkin's mother", etc. But nevertheless, the Russian language is rich in such phraseologists. revolutions, in cat. lex. composition varies.

Ticket 13

Lexical means of expressive speech

Vocabulary occupies the center. place in the system arr. means of language. The word, as you know, is the main. unit of language, the most deputy. element of his art. funds. And the expressiveness of speech is associated primarily with the word. Many words have the ability to be used in several. values. This property is called ambiguity, or polysemy. Writers find in ambiguity a source of vivid emotionality, liveliness of speech.

The imagery of speech is created through the use of words in translation. meaning. Words and expressions used in translation. meaning and creation. figurative representations of objects and phenomena are called tropes. The following trails stand out: metaphor- a word or expression, use. in trans. meaning, main on similarity.

Another type of trail metonymy. This word, use. in trans. meaning, main on adjacency.

Epithet- is an artist. definition: When would you know how lonely, languidly sweet, insanely happy, I am drunk with grief in my soul ... (A. Fet)

Comparison It is a comparison of two phenomena in order to determine one by means of the other.

personification- transferring the properties of living beings to inanimate. items:

Polysemy should not be confused homonyms, i.e. match. in sound and spelling, but the words are completely different in meaning: the key is “spring” and the key is “master key”. Different types of homonyms (homophones, homographs, homophores) are also a source of expressive speech.

Homonymous rhymes- bright means of sound game. I. Brodsky brilliantly owned it:

Flickered on the slope of the bank Near the bushes of bricks. Above the pink spire of the jar, the Crow writhed, screaming.

(Hills, 1962)

The expressiveness of speech enhances the use synonyms- words, symbols the same concept, but different. add. meaning. shades or stylist. coloring. The beauty and expressiveness of a native speaker's speech can be judged by how he uses synonyms. Not owning a synonym. richness of the native language, it is impossible to make your speech bright, expressive.

Expresses a special place in the system. Lex. means are occupied by antonyms. Antonyms are different words, rel. to one part of speech, but having an opposite sex. meanings: friend - enemy, heavy - light, sad - fun, love - hate. Not all words have antonyms.

Antonyms are constantly used in antithesis- stylist. welcome, cat. consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, states.

has a powerful emotional impact on the reader. lexical repetition, when by repeating a word a key is extracted. concept in the text. In the poetic works as a means of expression used such types of lexical. repeat like anaphora and epiphora. Anaphora

Epiphora- repetition of words or phrases at the end of lines.

The words of the Russian language differ in the scope of distribution. Some are used freely, unlimitedly and form the basis of Russian letters. language. Such words refer to common vocabulary. These are, for example, the names of phenomena, concepts of general. - polit. life (state, society, development, etc.); economy concepts (finance, credit, bank, etc.); cult phenomena. life (theater, performance, actor, premiere, exhibition, etc.); life. names (house, apartment, family, children, school, etc.).

The other part of the vocabulary is used to a limited extent. Here are the following groups.

Dialectisms - words, cat spread. restricted to one area or another. Russian writers and poets skillfully (and moderately) used dial. words as one of express. funds.

To the vocabulary of limited. use also applies to the so-called. special vocabulary, i.e. words, use. and understood preim. representatives of the science, profession. To such vocabulary belong, first of all, terms- words, isp. for a logically accurate name spec. concepts, establishing their differences. signs, for example, medical terms: scanning, shunting, inoperable; linguist. terms: polysemy, semantics, morpheme.

In addition to terms, in spec. vocabulary is allocated professionalism, i.e. words and expressions, cat. are not strictly legalized, scientific definitions of certain professions. concepts, but are widely used by specialists in a particular field.

To limited use. Vocabulary also includes words, called. jargon, cat. form the basis of a special social types of speech jargon. These words are used by people. community of interests, habits, occupations, social. provisions, etc. In the language of the artist. literature elements jarg. vocabulary is used for speech. some characteristics. characters.

The vocabulary of limited, little-used includes the so-called. slang, character. special artificiality, conventionality, strict secrecy.

Ticket 14

General grammatical meaning, morphological and syntactic features of significant parts of speech (on the example of one part of speech as directed by the teacher)

Words in Russian are distributed by class, cat. called parts of speech. Modern scientific classification of parts of speech is based on the following trace. signs:

1) general grammar. meaning (of an object, action, sign of an object, sign of an action, quantity);

2) a general system of change (nouns are declined, adjectives are declined, verbs are conjugated, etc.);

3) common syntax. function.

According to these signs, a trace is distinguished. parts of speech.

1 . Noun denotes an object in width. sense; has a gender, changes in numbers and cases; in a sentence it is usually the subject or the object.

2. Adjective designates a sign of an object; changes by gender, number and case, consistent with the noun; in a sentence performs the function of a definition or nominal part of comp. predicate.

3. Name numeral denotes quantity; changes in cases; can be subject, predicate, object, definition.

4 . Pronoun as a part of speech is highlighted in schools. traditions on the basis of his own indication. functions. Pronouns are words, cat. they don’t name anything, but they can also indicate objects (you, nobody, someone, he), and signs (some, some, that), and quantity (how many, several).

5 . Verb denotes an action or state; conjugates (changes in persons and numbers); most often in a sentence is a predicate.

6 . Adverb denotes a sign of an action or sign, i.e., an adjective; does not change; is a circumstance, less often - a definition.

This is an independent, or znam., part of speech. In the proposal, they are its members. Allocate also services. parts of speech that are not able to independently be members of a sentence:

1 . Pretext serves to link words in phrases and sentences (in, due to, through, during, due to).

2. Union serves for communication. members of a sentence and sentences (a, but, for, as if, etc.).

3. Particle makes an additional meaning in a sentence - denial, doubt, question, amplification, etc.: (didn't know about it; Didn't you know about it?; Even he didn't know about it; Did he know about it?).

There is also a group of sound engineers. words and interjections, cat. are not members of the sentence, do not name anything, but express feelings and motives. In speech, they act as inseparable sentences: Ah! Yes! Well! Hooray! Meow-meow, kitty-kitty.

Let's consider each group in more detail. So, noun- it's self. part of speech, the most numerous. In russian language. She names the phenomena of reality:

names of objects and things;

the names of living beings;

Names of events and phenomena in common. life;

names of natural phenomena;

The names of the substances

Names of distractions properties and signs.

Thus, one of the main grammar. signs of a noun is its objectivity. The composition distinguishes several groups of nouns:

Common nouns and own;

· abstract and concrete;

· animate and inanimate;

Collective and real.

TO household name include such nouns as cat. denote a general names of phenomena and objects. They call the groups one. items. Such nouns include, for example, a constellation, a river, a student, etc.

Own nouns are called concr. an object or phenomenon, for example, Russia, Germany, the Yenisei, etc. In turn, own. nouns are divided into sep. groups: names, nicknames, surnames of people (Nikolai, Chizhik, Bazarov); geographer. and territory. names (Thames, Petrovka, Smolensk region, etc.); names of holidays, history. events, etc.

inanimate nouns call inanimate objects, for example, a car, a house, a machine tool, etc. a animated, on the contrary - live, for example, a badger, a mosquito, a fox, a person, a horse, a bear, etc.

Specific nouns are called concr. object, events, facts, animal, etc.

Distracted nouns characterize distraction. concepts, qualities, properties, actions.

Real nouns characterize a particular substance, oxygen, hydrogen, salt, etc.

Collective nouns unite a lot of nouns. objects into one whole, for example, youth, peasantry, merchants, etc.

Concerning adjective, then according to the lexico-grammar. features distinguish quality And relative.

quality adjectives are characterized by the fact that they denote a sign, adj. subject directly. Qualities. adjectives are divided into several categories according to their gender. groups: signs of emotions. human condition (sad, cheerful), signs of color, signs of space and place (narrow, spacious), signs of quality (bad, good), moral intelligence. signs (cowardly, heartless).

relative adjectives denote a sign, indicating. relation of this object to other objects. In turn, relation. adjectives are divided into groups: self-relative(glassware, stone floor, iron railings); possessive adjectives(mother's hairpin, grandmother's cakes, bear's paw); ordinal adjectives(seventh day, first player, third marriage). Self-relative, in turn, are divided into several subgroups. They are due to different relationships: attitude to action (drilling machine, dining table, washing machine); relation to time or place (station square, daily task); attitude to another object (coffee table, thundercloud, crystal vase). Sometimes in trans. use relates. adjectives go into the category of quality. (stone face, peaceful conversation, cordial conversation, steel muscles, golden hands).

There are several word forms. attraction types. adjectives: adjectives with suffixes -on-, -ov- (father's hat, squirrel mink); adjectives with suffixes -sk- (Lermontov's poems, Turgenev's girls); adjectives with the suffix -j- (sheep's wool, wolf's paw); adjectives with the suffix -in- (rat tail, chicken egg).

At numeral also has some differences. lexico-grammar. features. There are a number of numerals (eight more than six), numerals of whole units and fractional ones (one-fifth of crops). There is also a variety such as collective numerals(four, seven).

Several types of pronouns:

Pronouns-nouns (something, someone, you, I, he, someone, they, yourself);

Pronouns-numerals (as many as);

· pronouns-adjectives (mine, yours, which, what, whose).

Within the framework of pronouns, several lexical grammars are distinguished. ranks: personal and personally-indicate. pronouns (you, we, he, you, I); return pronoun (self); def. pronouns (all, every, each, different); indicate pronouns (this, that, such, both); attraction pronouns (our, yours, mine, yours); negative pronouns (none, nobody, nothing); asks. - relates. pronouns (who, what, which, whose, which); indefinite pronouns (someone, someone, something, something, someone, someone, something).

Among adverbs there are two varieties:

Derivatives (formed from the famous parts of speech);

non-derivatives (about, here, where, then, very, slightly).

Prepositions distinguish between primitives that arose a very long time ago. These include (for, on, from, over, under, through, for, before). There are derivatives, adverbs, verbal, denominative, compound, simple.

Particles are included in proposals. meaning. and modal. shades. There are several types of particles: (exactly, exactly, just, exactly), indicate. (over there, here, this, that), will highlight. - limit. (only, only, only, almost), strengthen. (already, even, already, and), will yield. (nevertheless, all the same), asks. (really, perhaps), encourage. (let, come on, well), approve. and deny. (by no means, exactly), formative and derivational. Interjection distinguish between emotional, incentive).

Sometimes one gram. forms can be used in the meaning of others. Thus, speech is stylistically colored. Here we are talking about verb forms. For example, the verb is present. tense can be taken to denote the past. Thus, there is a visual representation of actions. Sometimes the verb in present. time is used to denote events, cat. should happen in the near future: "Farewell, beloved city, we leave tomorrow for the sea."

Ticket 15

Synonymy of syntactic constructions

The Russian language has ogr. reserve syntactic synonyms, i.e. parallel. turns of speech, cat. differ in subtle nuances in their meanings and can in some cases replace one another: She was sad. - She was sad. - She felt sad. - She was sad!

Or: Ivanov, having made a decision, set to work. - Ivanov, after making a decision, got down to business. - After the decision was made, Ivanov got down to business. - Ivanov, who made the decision, got down to business.

Following. examples of synonymy syntax. constructions is represented by a comparison expression in Russian: took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon; flew like a falcon.

Synonymous are two-component. simple sentences with different types of predicates: He was sick (compound nominal predicate). - He was sick (simple verb). - He began to get sick (compound verbal predicate); He's glad. - He rejoices. He became gray. - He is quite gray.

To syntax. synonyms also apply valid. and suffer. revolutions: The student read the book. - The book is read by the student; The plant exceeded the plan. - The plan was overfulfilled by the plant. The difference between these proposals is that in action. In turnover, the subject of the action (student, plant) is put in the foreground, and in suffering. the main object in the message becomes the object. Wed Also: The director called the master. - The master is called by the director. In the first sentence, the message refers to the director and his activities, and in the second, main. the character is the master.

Synonymous sentences with isolation. turns and complex offers: Carried away by the game, the children did not pay attention to the approachers. - Since the children were passionate about the game, they did not notice the approachers; The boy sitting by the window stood up. - The boy who was sitting at the window got up; As she left the porch, she dropped her crutch and stood helplessly on the steps. - When she came down from the porch, she dropped her crutch and stood helplessly on the steps; I stepped aside, not knowing what to do. I stepped aside because I didn't know what to do.

Single gerund, ref. accompanying action, can be replaced by a verb-predicate, but at the same time, the shade of secondary importance, additionality disappears: She smiled affectionately, nodding her head several times. She smiled kindly and nodded her head several times.

A synonym appears. relationships and in complex sentences when the parts are linked by a synonym. Connect. unions: Only somewhere the wheel rattles, and the nightingale whistles in the garden (and the nightingale whistles in the garden); The birches had blossomed, but the oaks stood bare. - The birches blossomed, the oaks stood bare; The soloist was not very good, but the choir was excellent. - The soloist was not good, but the choir was great.

Some meaning. relationships can be expressed as complex, and complex subordination. offers. This is how syntax comes about. synonyms, diff. stylist. shades or scope. Complex composition. sentences are distinguished by liveliness, lightness, immediacy and therefore are more characteristic of conversations. speeches: It became stuffy in the sakla, and I went out into the air to freshen up. - Since it became stuffy in the sakla, I went out into the air to freshen up.

There is a synonym for non-union complex sentences, compound sentences. and subordinates. suggestions: Winter will come - the pond will be covered with ice (unionless). - Winter will come, and the pond will be covered with ice (compound). - When winter comes, the pond will be covered with ice (complex). Another example: It will be a good day - we will go out of town. - It will be a good day, and we will go out of town. When it's a good day, we'll go out of town.

So, the syntax has a rich synonym. opportunities. In conversation. speech, the most common use of one- and two-part sentences: I suggest getting started. - I propose to start work. The second sentence is more dynamic, categoricalness is emphasized. Synonymous constructions: Lightning split the tree. - Lightning split the tree. - The tree is split by lightning.(If the doer is emphasized, it is expressed by the subject; if the action is important, an idle turn is used, in the passive construction, attention is focused on the object.)

We can talk about the synonymy of participial revolutions and adjuncts. def. sentences, about the synonymy of complex subordinations. and non-union proposals. Writers and poets skillfully use these means.

Pictorial means of syntax: syntactic parallelism; rhetorical question, exclamation and appeal; repeated alliances and non-union, etc.

The most important function of language is communication. To carry out this his chief. role allows syntax, it is in the field of syntax that the moment of message, communication occurs.

Syntax- section of the science of language, in the cat. the structure and meaning of phrases and sentences is studied. Main syntax units - phrase And offer. The sentence performs a communal function, that is, it serves to communicate, question or induce, in other words, to communicate. Unlike a sentence, a phrase serves to specify the names of objects, actions, signs. For example: white birch, young birch, green birch, etc. The group is closely connected. in meaning and grammatically forms sentences complex syntactic integer.

Thus, phrases, sentences (simple and complex) and complex syntax are studied in syntax. whole.

The syntax of a phrase sets the rules for matching words. These rules are determined by grammar. signs of the word as one or another part of speech. For example, phrases like " early spring" are possible because a noun as part of speech is able to attach an adjective, subordinating it to itself, and an adjective as a consonant. part of speech can take the form, dict. noun (gender, number, case). This type of connection is called agreement.

In some cases, the connection in phrases is determined by the meaning and order of words. This type of connection is called adjoining.

Types of syntax. connections in a sentence are wider, more diverse than in a phrase. Distinguish simple and complex offers. A simple sentence has one gram. basis, in the complex - at least two. Syntax also studies the ways of connecting parts of a complex sentence: coordinating and subordinating, intonation as a means of connecting parts of a complex sentence.

Words in a sentence are arranged according to def. laws. For rights. constructing sentences word order matters, any rearrangement of the members of the sentence leads to a change in meaning, highlights, emphasizes a particular word. This is easily found in the most simple sentences, For example: Even he does not know this (he already knows everything); He does not even know this (such an elementary thing); He does not even know this (i.e., he has not heard about it at all).

In Russian, direct and reverse word order (or inversion) are distinguished. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, agree. definition comes before def. in a word, inconsistent - after it, addition - after ex. words, the circumstance of the mode of action - before the verb: The new foreman quickly set up the work of the brigade. This word order is called stylistically neutral.

At inversions(from lat. inversio - inverting) words are arranged in a different order than is established by the grammar. rules. This will express the strong. means. It is often used in emotional, excited. speech.

Display. syntax tools are called stylistic figures. Text stylist. figures are usually represented by special syntax. constructions of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences.

Among the stylist. figures are most often distinguished asyndeton And polyunion.

Asyndeton- intention. connection pass. unions between members of a sentence or between simple sentences as part of a complex one. The absence of unions, as a rule, gives the statement dynamism, swiftness, allows one phrase to convey the richness of the pictures.

Unionless single connection members creates the impression of incompleteness, inexhaustibility of the list. series, and sometimes emphasizes logical. connection heterogeneity. concepts: Everywhere, under the lazy wind, the wings of mills, manors, farmsteads, houses with steep tiled roofs, with nests of storks, rows of low willows along the ditches (A. N. Tolstoy).

Such constructions are typical for calm stories. speech.

polyunion- intention. the use of the same union to highlight (logical or intonational) connections. them members of the sentence and enhance the expressiveness of speech.

In the artist works to enhance figuratively express. speech writers use such a stylist. figure like anaphora (unity). Anaphora- this is a repetition of words or turns at the beginning of passages, from the cat. consists of a statement.

Among the images syntax tools allocate exclamation And appeal. Appeal - word or combination of words addressee. Most often, proper names act as an address, less often - nicknames of animals or names of inanimate souls. items. The appeal is not a member of the proposal, retaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its inherent name. intonation.

In some cases of space conversion to poetry. speech becomes the content of the sentence: A soldier's son who grew up without a father and matured noticeably ahead of time, you are not excommunicated from the joys of the earth by the memory of a hero and father (A. Tvardovsky).

So, the syntax has ogr. will express. opportunities. Known trace. image means, isp. in syntax.

1. Syntactic parallelism- It is one. construction of several sentences, when the members of the sentence, equally expressed, are located in the same sequence.

2. Rhetorical question- this is an interrogative sentence in structure, but conveying, like a narrative, a message about something.

3. Handling- bright expression. artist's tool speech. An appeal is a word or a combination of words, called. addressee. Most often, proper names act as an address, less often - nicknames of animals or names of inanimate souls. items. The appeal is not a member of the proposal, retaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its inherent name. intonation. If in conversation main speeches. function of references - the name of the addressee of the speech, then the poet. treatment is performed, in addition, by the stylist. Features: They are often express carriers. - est. values

4. Non-Union lies in the intention. pass connect. unions between members of a sentence or between simple sentences as part of a complex one. The absence of unions gives the statement dynamism, swiftness, allows one phrase to convey the richness of the picture. In thin works, the authors often use polyunion, zakl. in intention. using the same union to highlight (logically and intonationally) the connection. them members of the sentence and enhance the expressiveness of speech. Rep. unions, firstly, emphasize the incompleteness of the series, and secondly, they express the meaning of amplification.

5. Inversion- the arrangement of words in a different order than that established by the grammar. rules. In inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than the one established by the grammar. rules. This is a strong expression. means. It is often used in emotional, excited. speech.

Another image. syntax is period- such difficult sentence, cat. contains a series of uniformly built. sentences (for example, clauses), usually beginning. one. unions and having approx. the same size.

Modern Russian literary language and language norm. Norms orthoepic, lexical, grammatical, spelling

According to the definition of scientist Vinogradov, lit. language - this is the common language of writing of a people, the language of official. - household, document. - letters. communication, science, journalism, art. literature, all manifestations of culture, express. in words. form, usually written, sometimes oral. Liter. language is characterized by several signs, among the cat. should be especially noted:

processing (language means are selected from common language. inventory based on def. criteria);

· fixation in writing; general obligation for all members of a given language. collective;

The ability to function in all areas of the community. life;

The ability to perform decomp. functions (message, communication, impact);

availability of style. differentiation (there are several styles in the literal language);

Normalization (there are strict, obligatory rules for the selection and use of words).

The specifics of the letters norms is theirs codification- selection and consolidation of def. forms of language. means, as well as clarifying their use in the norm. manuals (dictionaries, textbooks, reference books).

For Russian letters. language is characterized by variability (the presence of options). Live speech serves as a source of variability. Liter. the rate is dynamic over time. The norm is obligatory for all members of the language. team. However, this phenomenon is not limited to letters. language (there are norms in dialects). The specifics of the letters the norm is its processing and awareness. Liter. norms are stable and conservative. One of the main features of letters. language is its normalization, i.e., the presence of norms.

Language norm- this is a sample, this is how it is customary to speak and write in this language. society in this era. The norm determines what is right and what is not, it recommends one language. means and modes of expression and prohibits others. For example, you can’t say collidor, you should - a corridor, you can’t pronounce it calls - it only rings. Language. norms are objectively formed in the process of language. practices of members of the society. Norms can change over time, but still for a long time. time they are stable. Compliance with the rules facilitates the use of letters. language.

Norms permeate all tiers of letters. language. There are orthoepic norms, that is, pronunciation, prescriptive, how to stress a word, how to pronounce a particular sound. Under the lexicon norms understand the correctness of the choice of the word and the appropriateness of its application. For example, meetings. the expression author of the goal is undesirable. Also wrong cavalcade of clouds, I wish you good luck, for the word "cavalcade" denotes a group of riders on a ride, and success cannot be bad.

Grammar norms subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Morphologist. norms determine the correctness of the formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form genus. case plural. numbers a lot of stockings, boots, but socks, you can't talk gestures, doing do not change the slope. nouns: in a new palette, incorrect: more better (simply - better) or smartest (smartest or smartest). syntax. norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when driving: you can’t talk shows that ... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience (patience) has come, pay for the fare (pay for what?); After watching this movie, I felt sad (Watching this movie made me sad. Or: I felt sad after watching this movie).

Under spelling rules understand spelling and punctuation. Spelling norms- these are the rules for writing words, they are fixed in the spelling. dictionaries, school textbooks on the Russian language and manuals. Punctuation norms dictate the rules for punctuation. They are set out in textbooks and manuals on the Russian language and in the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation" (1956).

The principle of uniform spelling of morphemes is the leading principle of Russian spelling

Spelling. There are many rules related to the spelling of roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. But the main one, principle is one. Consider examples. Why in the word water in the root is written o, and in the word grass - a? Why different endings in the noun: from the village and to the village? Why should one write oak but soup? After all, the same sound [p] is heard. Why is sad spelled with the letter t, and tasty without it? Seems like there are different spellings. rules, but they can be combined on the basis of the Vedas. principle of spelling, which requires the writer to:

1) did not trust his hearing and did not write as he hears;

2) checked dubious spellings;

3) remembered that verification is possible only in the same morpheme (root, ending, etc.);

4) knew how to choose the right check. word.

The main thing is to know the strong positions: for vowels, this is the position. So all rules have one. grounds. They define the Vedas. the principle of Russian spelling. This principle, when the sound is checked by a strong position, is called morphological. This principle is the most convenient for Russian writing.

The essence of morphology. principle of Russian spelling is that common to kinship. words meaning parts (morphemes) retain a single style in writing, although they differ in pronunciation depending on the phonet. conditions, in the cat. turns out to be sounds, input. in the composition of the meaning. parts of a word. Regardless of the pronunciation of the morphologist. the spelling principle is applied when writing the roots (move, walker, running - [hot], [had] ok, [hd] ova); suffixes (oak, linden - oak [ov] yy, lip [yv] yy); prefixes (sign, signature - [nbt] write, [pot] write) and endings (on the river, on the river - on the river [e], on the river [b]).

In addition to morphology principle, cat. is the main one in Russian orthography, they are also used phonetic writing, i.e. writing, resp. pronunciation. The most striking example of such spellings is the writing of prefixes, ending. on z: without-, air-, from-, bottom-, times-, through-, through-. Con. the sound z in these prefixes in front of the deaf consonants of the root is deafened, which is reflected in the letter: soulless - stupid, head - exclaim, publish - interpret, overthrow - send down, smash - disband, excessive - interlace.

Finally, there is also traditional, or historical, spellings, yavl. relic of the past. An example here is the writing of the letter and after the hard hissing w, ksh and after b: in ancient times. In the language, the sounds [g], [ksh] and [b] were soft and the writing of the letters after them was natural, as it corresponded to the pronunciation.

The role of semantic and grammatical analysis in the choice of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling

Merged, hyphenated and separate spellings include different grammars. ranks of words: compound nouns and adjectives, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, as well as the spelling of particles not with decomp. parts of speech. The principles of writing such words are based on the meaning of the word (its sense), and on the distinction between words and phrases, and on taking into account the belonging of the word to one or another part of speech. For example, the spelling of complex adjectives like hard to reach, fast cutting, long lasting and free phrases based on the same words. To write correctly, you need to take into account the syntax. sign: if the first component answers the question "how?", then it is itself. part of speech and written separately: The children playing in the garden for a long time did not want to go home. - Long-playing records have now been replaced by CDs. It is also necessary to take into account the meaning of the word and its belonging to the part of speech when writing nouns and omon. adverbs with them: We looked into the distance for a long time, but could not distinguish anything. - Call me into the bright distance (V. Shukshin); The same preposition in time and adverb in time. Here, too, the place of emphasis changes.

Separately, phrases such as in my opinion, along the trail of a wolf, along the summer garden are written. But if the agreed words from these phrases become adverbs, they are written with a hyphen (dash): in my opinion, like a wolf, like a summer (warmly).

There are several rules for writing a word not with different parts of speech, but the general rule is this: if it is not a prefix in a word, it must be written together, if not, it is negative. particle, then separately. For example: Unnecessary things (superfluous), stupid act (stupid). - These things are not necessary, as you think, but completely superfluous. - Your act is not smart, as you think, but rather stupid. When spelling numerals, it is important to take into account their structure: complex numerals are written together, and compound ones are written separately: two hundred - two hundred two, seventy - seventy eight.

There is a peculiarity in the spelling of pronouns with not and neither: they are written together without a preposition (no one, no one) and separately with a preposition (with no one, no one). In some cases, the correct spelling of words depends only on the knowledge of the basic rules of Russian spelling. Here are the most important ones:

Rules for merged writing. General rules

are written together everything is difficult to abbreviate. words (savings bank, trade union), words with prefixes (pre-war, infrared, trans-Iranian), compound nouns, adjectives, adverbs, the first element of which is a numeral (five-year plan, two-story, three times). Nouns are written together: compound nouns with the first element agro-, meteo-, aero-, bio-, micro-, neo-; slope. compound nouns with a verbal first part (hold the tree, daredevil, spinner). Compound adjectives are written together if they are formed from concatenated nouns (water supply - from water supply), if they are formed on the basis of subordinations. phrases (railroad - Railway), if they denote a single concept (often these are terms: infrequent, instant). Adverbs are written together if they are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs (to this day, forever, through and through), from the collection. numerals with prepositions in or on (twice, three times, four times), from a full adjective or pronoun with a preposition (hard-boiled, close, in a draw, with might and main), from short adjectives with prepositions (to the left, dry, from afar, in vain), from a noun with a preposition (forward, sideways, crouching), by merging prepositions with a pronoun (why, therefore, therefore, why, why). Negative and neopr. pronouns are written together if there is no preposition between the root and "not" or "neither": nobody, somebody, nobody, nothing. Prepositions are written together: in view of, due to, like, instead of, like, about, over. Unions written together: but, moreover, moreover, so that, too, also, if, supposedly.

Hyphen rules. General rules

Are written through hyphen lexical formations, rep. is a repetition of the same word (small-small, barely) or a repetition of the same root (day-to-day, a long time ago, glad-radechonek); combination of two synonyms. words (unexpectedly, unexpectedly, quietly, peacefully, path-road); complex pores. numerals, if they are written in numbers (183 millionth); since. numerals, if they are written in digits with gram. ending (15th, 128th). Nouns are written with a hyphen if compound word formed without connections. vowel (firebird, cafe-restaurant, prime minister), if they are the name of a watered. parties and directions (social democracy, anarcho-syndicalism), complex units of measurement (man-day, kilowatt-hour), name interm. cardinal points (northeast, northwest), if there is a verb or conjunction in the names of a complex noun (love-don't-love, ivan-da-marya), from the floor - from the last. genus. case, if the noun begins with a vowel or consonant l or with a proper name (half an apple, half a lemon, half a Moscow), if the first part of the noun is foreign language. elements of ober-, non-commissioned, life-, staff-, vice-, ex-. Adjectives are written with a hyphen if they are formed from nouns written with a hyphen (social democratic, northeastern), formed on the basis of a combination of words with compositions. connection (meat-milk, blue-white-red), indicate quality with additional. shade (bitter-salty, pale pink, bright red). Adverbs are written with a hyphen if they start with po-, and end in - om, - him, - ki, -i (in Russian, in bearish), as well as adverbs like first, second, etc. Complex prepositions because of, from under, over, over are written with a hyphen. Words with particles something, - like, - either, - something, - that, - that, - with, - de, are written with a hyphen (something, come on, etc.).

Separate spelling rules

Apart nouns are written with a preposition (along the road, past the houses, at the well); pronouns with a preposition (with no one, no one); adverbs, image. a combination of a preposition with a noun, if a definition can be inserted between them. word: for a moment (for one moment), for a gallop (for all the gallop), to a dead end (to such a dead end that), if the noun begins with a vowel and the preposition ends with a consonant (in exchange, short cut, alone), if formed from nouns, keep. at least some. pad. forms in combination with prepositions (squatting - squatting, on all fours - on all fours, abroad - abroad, under the arms - under the arms); combinations of adverbs with not and neither (too much, beyond the power, not for thunder, not in a hurry); all particles, unless they are part of unions or prepositions (no matter what I did, nothing came out; I heard the same thing; he did the same as I did).

Punctuation as a way of reflecting in writing the semantic side of speech, its syntactic structure and intonational features

Punctuation- this is a section, study. punctuation rules, as well as the signs themselves. Punctuation is a very important means of writing letters. speech.

Punctuation as an element of letters. Speech is a kind of means of communication between people, and between people, both writing and reading. In this regard, two sides can be distinguished in it: what is relevant to the writer, and what is relevant to the reader. Thus, punctuation is a means of expressing def. meanings and shades of the writer, cat. are included in their letter. statement. In turn, the reader, when he sees punctuation marks in writing. text, perceives the meanings that they express.

acc. with this, it should be concluded that both the meanings and shades, the cat. expressed by punctuation marks, should not be different for the writer and the reader. acc. with this, the meaning of punctuation marks should be the same for all literate people.

Often, many people put punctuation marks, not paying attention to their common principles. use. In this regard, there is a deviation from the main punctuation rules. There is nothing to worry about if the post is wrong. punctuation marks do not make it difficult to understand the text. Indefinitely contact between the reader and the writer is established in this way only if the general rules are respected. Paragraph. norms.

Russian punctuation also reflects intonation: a dot in place of a large drop in voice and a long one. pause, question. and exclamation. signs, intonation dash. For example, an appeal can be separated by a comma, but pov. emotionality (and therefore a special intonation) dictates another sign - an exclamation mark:

It's me, mama," he said.

Well, God is merciful, mother! - continued Judas (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

The choice of sign may depend entirely on intonation: It will rain, let's go to the forest. - It will rain - let's go to the forest. In the first example, there is a simple enumeration, in the second - the intonation of conditionality (When it rains, let's go to the forest). But it should be remembered that intonation. the principle operates in Russian punctuation as a secondary one and is often violated in favor of a structural one: the deer digs up the snow with its front foot and, if there is food, begins to graze (V. Arseniev). The Bashkirian stepped with difficulty through the threshold and, taking off his high hat, stopped at the door (A. Pushkin). In both cases, the comma comes after the union and, since it fixes the boundary of the struct. parts (adj. sentences and adverbs. turnover), but there is no pause after the union. Thus, the intonation is broken. principle in favor of structural. And in general intonation. principle rarely works in its purest form. Usually it is combined with meaning. and struct. division of the proposal.

Thus, punctuation is closely related to intonation. There are different intonations in Russian. First, intonation can act as a means of conveying meaning. shades, and an indicator of emotions. speech quality.

For letters. genres the degree of importance thought. and succession. spelling punctuation will be different. So, for example, in cases. documents (reports, reports, statements, programs, etc.) syntax. the structure is simple, so the writer does not have to get confused in subtle shades of meaning. Quite differently is the case with thin. speech, especially with prose. Since its main task - disclosure of meaning is important. total phenomena, souls. experiences, people relationships, so thin. speech uses all possibilities. tricks, cat. has the Russian language.

Punctuation marks on execution. functions are divided into 2 groups:

separating;

highlighting.

Department. punctuation marks are used to separate parts of text from others. offers from immediate behind him next, one single. member from another, etc. This also includes those punctuation marks, cat. placed at the end of the sentence. Thus, to the department. punctuation marks include period, exclamation. sign, question. sign, comma, colon, dash, ellipsis, semicolon. However, sometimes the department functions can play the role of allocators.

Punctuation marks, adj. to the second group, are necessary to denote the syntax. structures, insert in the proposal as an addition, clarification, explanation, disclosure of the content of the proposal or its members. Selected punctuation marks can also be used to indicate syntax. structures, sod. the name of the object or person to the cat. speech is turned. Such proposals, despite the complexity of the design, are structurally integral, that is, they cannot be divided into separate parts. offers.

Varieties of speech according to the form of language use (oral and written speech). Varieties of speech according to the nature of the participation of interlocutors in the process of communication (dialogic and monologue speech)

Depending on how the speaker uses the language, there are two forms of it: oral and written. Let's consider them in comparison.

Oral form:

primary in relation to writing. Initially, the sound was the only one, the most eating. form of existence of language. The language was only spoken. And so far, in terms of the degree of use, oral speech clearly predominates;

Speech has the means of sound. expressiveness: tempo and timbre, pauses, logical. accents, sound power. In addition, it can be accompanied by gestures, facial expressions;

Orthoeps are presented to oral speech. requirements (right pronunciation of sounds, stress).

Written form:

Written language is secondary. It appeared because of the need to transmit speech at a distance and save it for a long time. At first it was only a way of transmitting oral speech, but then it turned out that the difference between them is so great that they talk about a special letter. speech;

· letters. speech is more strict, complex in form, more complete and logical in content, letters are observed in it. norms. It has a stricter choice of words, more complex sentences;

· writing this is unusual, therefore it is less expressive (to some extent, these shortcomings are compensated for by the use of punctuation marks, italics, petite, font, emphasis, etc.);

· To letters. Speeches are presented with a speller. and paragraph. requirements.

In present time there is an interaction between oral and written. forms of speech: oral speech often relies on written language. Reports, speeches, sound. letters, etc., are first compiled in writing and then voiced, therefore such oral speech has many features of written speech: preparedness, completeness and correctness, but at the same time it retains such oral advantages as sound. expressiveness, facial expressions and gestures.

Speech also exists in the form monologue or dialogue. Monologue- this is the speech of one person, the address. many listeners (rarely one). This is developed. type of speech, usually prepared in advance. He has def. idea and composition, possesses Rel. completeness (report, lecture, speech at a meeting, etc.).

Dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It is connected with the situation, in the cat. speech flows. Each new replica in the dialogue is based on the previous one. Gestures, facial expressions, indications of the environment play an important role in the dialogue. objects, appeals, interjections, sound words, tone.

So, the language exists in 2 of its varieties: oral and written. Initially, the language was only spoken and the sound was one. form of its existence. The need to transmit speech at a distance, to keep speech for a long time. time led to the invention of writing. Written speech appeared. Letters first. speech only recorded the sounding speech, but over time it turned out that the difference between the sounds. speech and writing. so great that they began to talk about 2 languages: the language of sounding, oral and written language.

Language of letters. more often expresses intellectual information, so it is used more often in book speech. Oral language usually serves to express emotions, moods, attitudes.

Language. differences between oral and written. speeches are reduced primarily to differences in syntax. In oral speech, there are fewer complex sentences, but there are many understatements. replenish gestures, facial expressions, many incomplete sentences. Letter. speech, on the contrary, requires completeness of the statement, coherence, logic. Letter. language sets the rules for writing and reading. So arose spelling and punctuation.

Spelling. and paragraph. writing standards. languages ​​are required for all. The laws of speech and writing themselves. communication are different. Often in the same situation it is impossible to say or write the same way.

Text as a speech product. The main features of the text

In terms of linguistics text is a group of sentences, combined. into a coherent whole by one theme using the language. funds. The text has a trace. main signs:

· Articulation. The text consists of several offers. One, even very spread. a sentence is not a text;

semantic integrity. This quality of the text is manifested, firstly, in the fact that any text is a statement in def. topic (it is often named in the title); secondly, in the fact that, by reporting something about the subject of speech, the author realizes his intention, before. his attitude to what he reports, his assessment of what is depicted (the main idea of ​​the text);

Rel. completeness (autonomy), it has a beginning and an end;

connectivity. The connection of the text is manifested in the fact that each last. the proposal is built on the basis of the previous one, absorbing one or another part of it. What is repeated in the last. sentence from the previous one, was called "given", and what is reported additionally - "new". "New" usually stands out logically. accented and placed at the end of a sentence. For example: A well was dug in the yard. A frog (new) settled near the well (given). She (given) sat (new) all day long in the shade of a well log house. The role of "given" is to connect sentences with each other. The role of the "new" is in the development of thought in the text. To link sentences in the text, "given" and "new", 2 methods are used: sequential and parallel. At the last connection, the "new" of the first sentence becomes "given" in the second, the "new" of the second becomes "given" in the third, and so on. connection in all sentences, the same “given” is preserved, and in each sentence, “new” is added to it. The text can be used diff. means of communication: rep. words, pronouns, synonyms, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence, words with the meaning of part and whole.

An important means of communication is ratio of types of temporary forms verbs-predicates, as well as word order. In artistic, journalistic, scientific and business styles, the repetition of words is more often used, which ensures the accuracy of speech. Pronouns are widely used in all styles of speech. Repeat when para. communication usually gives speech solemnity, elation. In scientific grammar, the text is considered as the result of the use of language. At the same time, a trace is highlighted. its signs:

expressiveness (the text is always expressed in oral or written form);

Delimitation (autonomy) - each text, even the smallest one, has clear boundaries - a beginning and an end;

Such a characteristic of the text as coherence suggests that the language. units, image. text, interconnected in def. okay.

Scheme of connected speech in terms of comp. its units can be represented as follows. way: sentence - prose. stanza - fragment; chapter - part - finished work.

There are texts, comp. from one sentence (less often - two). These are aphorisms, riddles, proverbs, chronicles. notes in the newspaper, etc. There are texts equal to prose. stanza or fragment: an article in a newspaper, a poem or a fable in prose. And there are, of course, texts mean. volume.

Another important feature of the text is its wholeness. The text in relation to content and construction is a single whole, for understanding the structure of the text is important. the relationship between content and form matters. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition.

The content of the text is revealed only through its words. shape. The content is related to the topic. Subject- this is what is described in the text, what the narration is about, reasoning is unfolding, dialogue is being conducted, etc. In non-art. texts, the topic is usually indicated in the title. The names of the artists works can be directly related to the theme ("Woe from Wit", "Undergrowth"). Artistic works, even rel. small in volume (for example, stories), they can reveal several topics, and stories, novels, plays are almost always multi-dark.

Track. a lot. text attribute - orderliness. All language. units, image. text, all its parts and all contents, meaning. sides def. orderly, organised. It has already been mentioned that articulation. The presence of this characteristic implies that the ways of linking words in a sentence and parts of a complex sentence are well known.

Distinguish serial (chain) and parallel connection of sentences. With para. sentence links are not linked, but compared. Features of this type of communication - one. word order, the members of the sentence are expressed one. grammar. forms, sometimes by repeating the first word of sentences.

With a consistent connection of sentences, one sentence, as it were, merges into another: each trace. the sentence begins where the previous one ended. For example: I have often marveled at the shrewd insolence of crows. They, as if jokingly, fooled me more than once (A. Platonov).

Based on everything that has been said above about the text, we can give such a definition. Text is an expression. in a letter. or oral form order. language sequence. units, unit in the whole theme and main. thought.

Functional-semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning

Depending on the content of the utterance, our speech is divided into three types:

· description;

narration;

· reasoning.

The description says about the same time. signs, in the narrative - about the last. actions, in reasoning - about the causes of properties and phenomena.

Description: A huge bird swam on the black water. Its plumage shimmered with lemon and pink. A beak with a red leather bag was glued to the head.

Narration: Pelican hurriedly climbed ashore and hobbled to our halt. Then he saw a fish, opened his beak, clicked it with a wooden thud, shouted "wek" and began to desperately beat his wings and stamp his paw.

reasoning: Pelicans can't dive. This is due to the special structure of the bones and the presence of subcutaneous air sacs (according to K. Paustovsky).

The description can be used in any style of speech, but in the scientific description of the subject should be as complete as possible, and in the artistic - the emphasis is on only the brightest details. Therefore, the language. funds in thin style is more diverse than in scientific. In the first one there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons, various transfers are very common. the use of words.

The peculiarity of the narrative lies in the fact that it talks about the next. actions one after another. Change notification. events and there is "new" in the sentences of such a text. "Data" is a person, owls. action. The narrative often uses past verbs. the time of owls. kind. But in order to give the text expressiveness, other forms are used simultaneously with these forms.

Every argument has two parts. The first contains thesis, i.e., the statement to be proved. The second part provides the rationale for the statement. thoughts: given arguments and examples. In reasoning, there is often a third part - conclusion. The thesis and justification are usually associated with unions because, since. The conclusion is joined by the words therefore, thus, therefore. Full reasoning, parts of which are connected by unions, is especially common in scientific and business speech. In conversation. and thin. speeches are more often found incomplete reasoning, and conjunctions are omitted.

Ticket 24

Functional styles of speech and their main features (on the example of one style of speech as directed by the teacher)

Styles are varieties of language. differences in the areas of communication and DOS. language features. In linguistics, such a special section as stylistics deals with the study of styles.

There are five areas of communication (they are also called language situations): everyday life, science, law, politics, art. As for the main functions of the language, then there are three of them: communication, communication, impact.

Depending on speech situations and functions of the language stand out next. style varieties:

Conversational style (everyday sphere, function of communication, less often - messages);

Scientific (field of science, message function);

official business (field of law, function of communication);

publicistic (the sphere of politics and art, the functions of communication and influence);

Artistic (sphere of art, function of emotional impact).

Characteristics of speech styles

Conversational style serves primarily for communication with the environment us people. It is characterized by ease and unpreparedness of speech. It often uses conversations. words (young instead of newlyweds, start instead of start, now instead of now, etc.), words in translation. value (window - in the meaning of 'break'). Words in conversation style often not only name objects, actions, signs, but also contain their assessment: good fellow, dodger, careless, take a liking, be smart, cheerful. For conversation syntax. style is characterized by the use of simple sentences. Widely presented in it are sentences that are incomplete, since they are spoken. Speech is mostly dialogue.

scientific style- it's style scientific works, articles, textbooks, lectures, reviews. They contain information about a variety of environmental phenomena. us of the world. In the field of vocabulary, the scientific style is characterized primarily by the presence of special. vocabulary, terms (declension, conjugation, theorem, bisector, logarithm, etc.). Words are used, as a rule, in their direct meanings, since scientific speech does not allow ambiguity and must be extremely accurate.

Formal business style serves the wide area of ​​legal, administrative, diplomatic relations. His main purpose - information, message. This style is used when writing dec. documents, instructions, charters, etc. The words in it are used in their direct meaning in order to avoid them being wrong. interpretation. There are many words and mouths in the vocabulary of this style. combinations, closed it is for this style: a petition, a statement, a resolution, an order, a protocol, an appeal, to file a claim, to initiate a case; We, the undersigned. Frequency in the syntax of this style of non-verbal. proposals with the meaning of necessity, order (it is necessary to urgently prepare, measures should be taken, etc.).

Journalistic style- This is the style of newspapers, speeches for the act. total - watered. Topics. To the most dist. genres of journalism are before. article, correspondence, essay, speech at a rally, meeting, etc. In the works of journalism, 2 tasks are usually set: first, a message, information about the definition. social phenomena or acts and, secondly, an open assessment of the exposition. questions in order to actively influence the listener or reader, in order to attract the interlocutor to support that position, the cat. occupies and defends the author.

There are many words and phrases in the vocabulary of this style. total revolutions - polit. character: progressive humanity, the struggle for peace, advanced ideas.

Art style used in art. works to paint a picture, depict an object or event, convey the author's emotions to the reader. Sayings thin. styles are distinguished by figurativeness, visualization, emotionality. K har. language. means of styles include words with concret. meaning, words in trans. use, emotion - evaluative words, words with the meaning of a sign, object or action, words with the meaning of comparison, comparison; owl verbs. species with a prefix for-, ref. beginning of action, trans. use of tenses and moods (To this Dunyasha andfall in love Akim!) emots. - color. offers: Suddenly, something broke in the stagnant air, the wind blew violently and with a noise, with a whistle, swirled around the steppe. Immediately, the grass and last year's weeds raised a murmur, and dust swirled in a spiral on the road, ran across the steppe and, dragging straw, dragonflies and feathers, rose to the sky in a black spinning pillar and clouded the sun (A. Chekhov).

Language of fiction is the most complete expression of the common national. language. In the works of art. Literature artist uses words almost unlimited. freedom in the choice of language. means to create the most convincing., memo. images, for aesthete. impact on the reader. Therefore, the language is thin. literature is able to include all the wealth of letters. and public language.

In order to give the reader an idea of ​​the era, the place of action, the way of life, the writer uses obsolete in the narrative. words (historicisms, archaisms), words of local dialects.

In stylistics, there is such a thing as stylistic language resources. These include style. color vocabulary (steal - neutral, steal - bookish, steal - colloquial); style color morphemes (male, officer, chauffeur, soldier - colloquial, ponder, collect - colloquial, rejoice, love - bookish); style the possibilities of parts of speech (five kilograms of oranges - five kilograms of an orange - colloquial, on vacation - bookish, on vacation - colloquial, on a sofa bed - colloquial, on a sofa bed - bookish); style means in syntax (due to drought, the harvest was low (book) - due to drought ... (neutral); task completed by students (book) - task completed by students (neutral)).

When pronouncing a combination of letters h And n mistakes are often made. This is due to a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation, according to which in many words this combination was pronounced as [shn]. According to the norms of modern Russian literary language combination – h– usually pronounced as [ch], especially in words of book origin (greedy, careless) as well as in words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing etc.).

However, the traditional pronunciation [sn] preserved in the following words: of course, on purpose, scrambled eggs, trifling, birdhouse. In addition, the pronunciation [sn] instead of the spelling "ch" is required in female patronymics ending in - ichna: Ilyinichna, Lukinichna, Nikitichna, Kuzminichna and so on.

Some words with a combination – h– in accordance with modern norms of the literary language are pronounced in two ways - or as [shn], or how [h]: bakery, laundry, penny, decent, milky, creamy and etc.

In some cases, a different pronunciation of the combination – h- serves for semantic differentiation of words:

[h] - [sh]

heart attack - heart friend;

midnight serenade - night owl, midnight.

According to old Moscow norms, the combination – Thu– pronounced like [PCS] in a word What and in words derived from it: nothing, something etc. Currently, this rule is kept for all specified words, except for the word something -[Thurs]. In all other words, spelling - th - is always pronounced as [th]: mail, dream and etc.

Pronunciation of foreign words

The Russian language is characterized by a tendency towards the adaptability of the sound image of borrowed words to Russian phonetic ones.

laws. In accordance with this, some borrowed words with the letter e after the primordially hard consonant "Russified" and are pronounced with a soft consonant before e. For example: museum[h "e], academy[d "e].

However, a number of words retain a hard consonant before e. For example: business[ne], test[te].

Solid consonant before letter e

computer

cafe

sandwich

summary

manager

dispensary

modern

model

parterre

identical

thesis

hotel

service

pace

tennis

test

Soft consonant before letter e

academy

pool

decade

coffee

cream

museum

Odessa

patent

pate

press

service

tenor

term

overcoat

jurisprudence

Words in which it is necessary to observe one or another pronunciation of the consonant are given in the appendix to this chapter.

Control tasks

Exercise 1. Read the sentences, setting the correct stress in the underlined words in the dictionary.

1. Expert made a decision to re-examine the quality cottage cheese on wholesale market.

2. In the first quarter We we will conclude an agreement about gasket gas pipeline.

3. On the cover catalog depicted a porcelain pendant on a silver chain.

4. I started to get sick sealed tooth. To alleviate my suffering, the doctor had to seal up him again.

5. School uniforms have already been introduced in many schools: boys have trousers and jackets, and girls have beautiful ones. corrugated skirts and blouses.

6. Chain With shells from porcelain looked much more beautiful on her neck than on her arm.

7. Today our company sent barge With flounder to Moscow.

8. The saleswoman began to lift a heavy box with cakes, but the employee helped her, thereby relieved her work.

9. In directory this company's things turned out to be more beautiful, than in directory company "Maria".

10. Cottage cheese tasted bad and had to be thrown away garbage chute.

11. We bought beets By wholesale price.

12. In the past chain quarter this store had a lot more beautiful and were cheaper.

13. Input oil pipeline into action was scheduled for the second quarter this year.

14. Treaty on the supply of a batch of high quality porcelain will be signed only after expert will give his opinion.

16. For ensure a healthy lifestyle is desirable to exclude from your diet cakes And alcohol.

17. Experts prepared a new catalog quality alcoholic products.

18. By expert commissions guardianship over the object will be carried out by the mayor's office of the city.

19. In the last quarter this year experts one of the firms entered into a profitable contract, what were rewarded.

20. spoiled the child did not want to eat meatballs and reached for cake.

21. Flounder- sea fish, which can be bought at wholesale price.

22. In old quarters no city plumbing.

23. Security safety of residents oil pipeline - the most important tasks facing the special forces.

24. For breakfast, they prepared a salad from cottage cheese co beetroot and boiled flounder.

25. During the conference was signed treaty about providing air transport safety.

26. Expert concluded that there were no nitrates in beets And sorrel.

27. Marine shell on chain- beautiful decoration.

28. While the soup was being cooked from sorrel I did meatballs.

29. On funeral we expressed condolences relatives of the deceased.

30. We we will conclude an agreement about guardianship only next quarter.

31. With a long voyage, the sides barges overgrow seashells.

32. Expert on real estate spoke about various scams.

33. In drug treatment dispensary discussions about harm alcohol.

34. We ordered at the restaurant beets with mayonnaise, potatoes, flounder, and for dessert - a piece cake.

35. Home management coming soon will conclude an agreement with a construction campaign to repair the plumbing and garbage chute.

36. He calling acquaintances to express their condolences and warn that he will not be able to attend funeral.

37. Porcelain should be wrapped in sheet, otherwise it may break.

38. He will call me when I get a new one catalog.

39. Porcelain and gold chain put up for sale in the past quarter.

40. Expert found traces in the victim's blood alcohol.

41. Cottage cheese just as useful as sorrel.

42. The department of social protection received solicitation about guardianship over orphaned children.

43. Experts decided to check the conditions contracts.

44. Our neighbors ordered kitchen headset by directory.

45. Shoe factory brought rubber And tarpaulin.

46. ​​The management decided reward employee for timely security materials production.

47. The office was installed computer, to alleviate work expert.

48. Conclude profitable treaty was only possible with expert's request.

49. We reviewed catalog with the offered products and decided to conclude treaty with this firm.

50. The young economist managed to conclude treaty on financing the development of the latest software ensure and thereby bypass the competing firm, for which he was rewarded board of directors.

51. Experts claim that food should be consumed cottage cheese and other dairy products, as many vegetables as possible, for example beets, carrots, cabbage, and from greens - sorrel, dill, parsley.

52. spoiled children eat a lot of sweets and cakes.

53. In the next quarter there are garages -shells, and in our quarter They are not here.

54. The little boy was afraid fill up tooth and mom tried encourage him, promising to buy him a lot cakes.

55. The storekeeper after each shift must fill up the doors of the warehouse where corrugated paper and rubber.

56. Security employees of the enterprise with new inventory significantly facilitated their work.

57. In two quarter there is a shop selling cakes.

58. You need to go two quarter before wholesale market.

59. In this directory presented most beautiful products from porcelain.

60. The court will consider your solicitation about guardianship over the son.

61. We can alleviate your life if you tell me who else was involved in this scam.

62. Kitchen the knife was so dull cakes just broke and flounder And beets didn't cut at all.

63. More beautiful this kitchen headset I did not see anything.

64. Experts legal department advised turn on V treaty additional clause concerning acceptance wholesale batches of goods.

65. In the furniture department of our shopping center you can purchase beautiful kitchen headsets, as well as conclude treaties on wholesale furniture supplies.

Brief pronouncing dictionary

The dictionary contains words in which fluctuations in stress and pronunciation are often observed. The stressed vowel in words is indicated by a capital letter.

Those words where stress fluctuations are observed not in the main form ( Nominative case singular), but in other grammatical forms (for example, baggage, beard, board etc.), are marked with the following marks indicating which accent type given word applies to:

(n) - words with fixed stress;

(o) - words that have an accent on the ending in oblique cases;

1 - words in which the movement of stress type 1 occurs;

2 – words in which type 2 stress moves;

3 - words in which the movement of stress type 3 occurs;

4 - words in which the movement of stress type 4 occurs;

5 - words in which the movement of stress type 5 occurs.

adequate (de)

academy (not te)

alcohol

antenna (te)

apostrophe

asymmetry atheism (te) SCAM

ball 1

pamper

bow (n)

pool (se)

hopeless

PETROL PIPE

bijouterie (te)

blocked

block

pain (n)

bombard

board 1

barrel

marriageShepherd

keychain (n)

rattling

drill: drill, drill etc.

buffer 1

shaft 1

monogram 1

recruiter

religions

supremacy

VeterinarianAria

take a look: look, look, look etc.

turn on: turn on, turn on etc.

fit: put in, put in etc.

age (n)

wolf 2

wave 4

thief 2

harm (O)

reprimand (n)

carbonated

gas pipeline

gastronomy

emblematic ironing

jamming: muffle, muffle etc.

year 1

Goal 1

mustard plaster (sn)

hospital

corrugated

corrugate

engraved

engraving

column (O)

grenadier

priming (n)

dirt (n)

bigamist

grandfather (n)

decollete

detective (de; te)

village 2

hyphen (de)

director 1

dispensary (se)

contract, contracts

agreement

treaty

doctor 1

hammer: hammer, hammer etc.

job title 2

tolerance (n)

board 5

confessor (O)

capacitive

Capacity (n)

tourniquet (O)

wand (O)

gland 4

bile (permissible bile)

bile (permissible bile)

tin

mute: silence, silence etc.

folded

loan: loan, loan etc. (n)

to conclude: conclude, conclude etc.

legitimate

cork up

disguise

closed

freeze: freeze, freeze etc.

seal

Sealed

rusty

clog: litter, litter etc. beast 2

call: calling, calling etc.

Earth 5

the Omen

jagged

needle 3

identical (de)

spoiled

iconography

X (n)

Index (de)

interview (te)

interior (te)

exclude: exclude, exclude etc.

confession

expired (term)

exhaust

cabaret (re)

border (O)

stone 2

a drop (n)

cafeteria (te)

cough

fermentation

brush 2

pantry

glue: glue, glue, glue etc.

ring 3

combiner

computer (te)

of course (sh)

root 2

kosa 3

costume

cottage (te)

tap (n)

more beautiful

dyeing

cream (re) (n)

roll: roll, roll etc.

fortress 2

circle 1

hook (O)

cube (n)

kitchen

camp 1

laser (ze)

swan 2

ift (n)

popular print

marketing

mark

masterful

medicament

trifle 2

terrain (n)

scanty

almond (O)

minus (n)

centuries old

model (de)

stain: morish, morit etc.

motel (te)

garbage chute

emery (O)

bank: roll up, roll up etc.

intention

on purpose (sn)

obituary

unposted

unbeaten

pipeline

newborn

news 2

nail 2

normalize

security

promised

Region 2

ease

exchanged

encourage

Hoop 2 flint

dress: dress, dress etc.

embittered

window 3

county 1

rejuvenated

seal

horde 3

Order 1

Order 1

settled (O)

inform - sia

disable: turn off, turn off etc.

unpin: unfasten, unfasten etc. otk

split off: chip off, chip off etc.

rated

eyeglass case (sn)

pantheon (te)

boy 2

partner (te)

sail 1

scenery (n)

ashes

move: move, move etc.

pizzeria

plan (n)

glider (permissible E)

mold

fetus (O)

Sealed

seal

plane 2

tale

whitewashed

story 2

repeated

submit 2

cheer

to plug: connect, connect etc.

bent over

signature (n)

teenage

candlestick (sh)

call: call, call etc.

regiment (O)

band 4

it's time 5

salted

funeral: from the funeral, at the funeral

honor (n)

laundrette (sn)

bonuses

reward

profit (n)

reduced

brought

sentence

dowry

brought

force

cheer up

acquisition

acquired

tamed

pinch: pinch, pinch etc.

conducted

project (e)

produced

sermon 2

sheet

profile (n)

spinning

trifling (shn)

overpass

Separate: tear apart, tear apart etc.

unbent

open

uncork

split

revolver

river 5

belt (O)

reputationE (re, me)

border (O)

ruble (O)

sanitation

carried

beetroot

drill: drill, drill etc.

sweater (te)

service (se)

service (se)

earring 4

session (se)

orphan 3

tablecloth 2

birdhouse (sh)

stock (n)

pan 4

speed 2

fastened

tailored

cheekbone 3

boring (sn)

plum

Sloboda 4

servant 3

resin 3

drug

condolence

sable 1, 2

bent

bent

convening (n)

pine 3

concentration

back 5 Wednesday 5

means (n)

glass 3

wall 5

shorthand

kernel (n)

sterlet 2

foot (O)

side 5

insurer

planer

system 1

line 4

stanzaA 3

sole (O)

soup 1

linked

dancer

trend (te, te)

tennis (te)

shadow 2

heat conduit

thermos (te)

tiger

circulation (O)

volume 1

tone 1

poplar 1

auction, auction 1

end (O)

trail 4

cable (n)

cane 2

pipeline

shoe (n)

rear 1

Gone

taken away

deepen

in-depth

Coal 2

pay: give, give etc.

legalization

Ukrainian

kill: die, die etc.

blown away

strengthening

simplified

exacerbate

junk (n)

iron (O)

discounted

infringe: infringe, infringe etc.

facsimile

queen (O)

philanthropy

fund (n)

form

move 1

moveThailand

move to hide

Hill (O)

choir 1

Christian

crystal (O)

price 5

church 2

citadel (de)

tea 1

canoe (O)

quarter 2

cleaner

step 1 scarf (n)

gear (O)

chimpanzee (ze)

closet 1

chauffeur (n)

font (n)

headquarters 1

stack 1

stamp 1 (te)

plug (te)

storm (n)

fine (n)

jester (O)

cheek 5

alkaline

gap 2

shield (O)

expert

psychic (se)

enamel

yurOdivy

language (O)

scrambled eggs (sn)

yoke manger (n)

barley (O)

Chapter 7
Correctness of written speech (Workshop)

Spelling

Principles of Russian spelling:

1) morphological (morphemic)- the vowel is checked by stress, and the consonant is checked by choosing a word in which this consonant is clearly heard (before a vowel or sonorant). This pattern applies to all significant parts of the word;

2) phonetic- spelling depends on pronunciation (prefixes on – s/s -, vowel s after prefixes, alternating consonants, etc.);

3) traditional (historical)- spelling cannot be explained from the point of view of the current state of the language; you can't check a vowel or a consonant.

Combination ch, as a rule, is pronounced in accordance with the spelling, i.e. [ ch]: precise, durable. However, in some words ch pronounced like [ sh]: of course - horse[sh]O, boring - boring[sh]O. In some cases, pronunciation options are acceptable: bulo[sh]aya - bulo[ch]and I. In new words ch pronounced like [ ch]: filming[ch]oh, then[ch]th etc. In some words, the pronunciation [ sh] is deprecated: creamy - plum[sh]th, brown - measles[sh]left(*):

Combinations with unpronounceable consonants.

With the confluence of several consonants between vowels in some combinations, one of the consonants is not pronounced. Such cases are accompanied in the dictionary by the corresponding marks.

1. In combinations stn, zdn And stl consonants are not pronounced [ T] And [ d]: charming - lovely [sn] th, reed - tro [sn] ik, private trader - cha [sn] ik, ladder - l [sn] nitsa, regional - cloud [sn] oh, sixteen - six [sn] eleven, peer - sver [sn] ik, starry - stellar [know] th, late - after [know] o, idle - right [know] th, happy - happy[sl]ivey, envious - envy[sl]willow, compassionate - sting[sl]willow, conscientious - owl[sl]willow. In a number of words belonging to the book style, in combinations stn, zdn And stl consonants [ T] And [ d] are not completely lost: ace T ma, glis T ny, compos T ny, holly T ny, without d on, free of charge d ny, braid T left, pos T lat.

2. Combinations stsk, ntsk And ndsk pronounced with the consonant [ c s] in place of combinations ts And ds: tourist - turi[c s]cue, racist - race[c s]cue, amateurish - amateurish[c s]cue, Irish - Irish[c s]cue, Icelandic – islan[c s]cue, scottish - scottish[c s]cue.

3. In combinations stk, zdk And ntc consonant pronunciation [ T] is saved: jess T cue T ka, weight T ka, hang T ka, trip - poe[With T To]a, bulky - thunderous[With T To]uh, graduate student T ka, laboratory T ka, waiter T ka, student T ka. Consonant [ T] is not pronounced in a borrowed word that has long been mastered in colloquial speech dutch (oven) - golla[nk]A.

4. In combinations RDC And rdch consonant [ d] is not pronounced: heart is[rc]e, core - se[rc]evina, heart - behold[RF]ishko.

5. In combinations vstv And lvl first sound [ V] is not pronounced in words feeling hello And keep silent and also in their derivatives: feeling - chu[st]in, feel - chu[st]wow, sensitive - chu[st]poignant, sensual[st]venous; hello - hello[st]wow hello hello[st]howl; be silent - be silent[st]in-vat.

In other cases, in place of the first V in combination vstv pronounced [ f]: obvious - me[f]stvenny.

6. Combined lnts not pronounced consonant [ l]: sun - with[nc]e.

4. IN words of foreign origin, which are not widely used, there are specific features of pronunciation. for example, in words from different fields of science, technology, politics, culture, as well as proper names, there may be a lack of qualitative reduction of unstressed vowels.

1. In the first and second pre-stressed syllables, at the absolute beginning of a word, as well as in stressed syllables at the absolute end of a word after consonants or vowels in place of a letter O pronounced vowel [ O] without the reduction characteristic of Russian words: b[O]a, b[O]rdo, with[O]no, G[O]gene, B[O]dler, b[O]lero, r[O]To[O]ko, M[O]nparnas, M[O]passan,[O]burrow,[O]tello,[O]ttava, t[O]rnad[O], vét[O], credit[O], Karuz[O], Castres[O], Mexico[O], adazi[O], trú[O], how[O], for[O], Toki[O], Fideli[O].

2. In some little-used proper names in pre-stressed syllables, combinations of letters oh, oh, oh, oh And wow are pronounced as they are written, i.e. without reduction: the island of Aogasuma[O]gasuma, city of Oaxaca -[oa]haka, island of Moorea - M[oo]rea, Lourival - L[OU]rival, luoravetlány - l[wow]ravetlans.

3. In non-Russified borrowed words in place of letters e And I unreduced vowels can be pronounced in all prestressed syllables: legato -[l'e]gato, Vespucci -[w'e]sleep, Nero -[AD]ron, gyar -[g'a]Er, Lyashko -[l'a]school, genocide -[g'e]notsud, Benvenýto –[b'env'e]nuto, lambiosis -[l'a]mbioz, Lyatoshunsky -[l'a]Toshno.

4. After [ and], [sh] And [ c] in some loanwords unstressed letter e can be pronounced without reduction: masterpiece - sh[uh]Devre, Chenier - W[uh]no, ginseng - well[uh]Nshén, Gerard - F[uh]rár, time trouble - c[uh]ytnot, centuria - c[uh]ntýria, Ceres – C[uh]rera, mielut - mi[uh]lut, piety - pi[uh]tét, chevrolet - w[uh]role, Sheri-dan - Sh[uh]ridan, Gerardin - F[uh]arden.

5. At the beginning of words of foreign origin, as well as after a vowel in place of a letter uh the sound is pronounced [ uh]: ek-ran -[uh]crane, ether -[uh]fur, eucalyptus -[uh]vkalypt, Evry-duk –[uh]vridka, dielectric - di[uh]lectruk, coefficient - ko[uh]Officer, Buenventura - Bu[uh]inventory. The pronunciation in these cases of the sound [ And] is wrong, as it gives speech a reduced stylistic coloring.

6. In most words of foreign origin, consonants before e soften. However, in many non-Russified borrowed words, consonants before e do not soften. The labial consonants [ p, b, c, f, m] and dental consonants [ t, d, s, s, n, r]. A special mark is given next to such words in the dictionary. Recently, there has been a tendency to preserve the hardness of the consonant, if such is the pronunciation in the source language. In the prefix de- there is a tendency to soft pronunciation. Some words allow two consonant pronunciations. However, unambiguous rules for the pronunciation of hard-soft consonants before e it is impossible to cite, each case should be checked in a dictionary and memorized.

Questions for self-control:

1. What are accentological variants and what are their main types?

2. What caused the instability of stress norms in nouns, short adjectives, verbs and participles?

3. What basic laws determine the pronunciation norms of the Russian language?

4. Why is there a mixing of drums [ ó ] And [ uh], denoted on the letter, respectively, by the letters yo And e?

5. What trend is observed in the pronunciation of hard consonants before soft ones?

6. What is the pronunciation of combinations - ch- And -shn- obsolete?

7. What are the main features of the pronunciation of foreign words?

Lecture 5

LEXICAL STANDARDS

Plan

1. Subject and nominative accuracy of speech.

2. The problem of lexical compatibility.

3. The problem of speech redundancy.

4. The appropriateness of the word.

5. Logical errors of word usage.

6. Purity of speech.

As noted, under lexical norms understood usage rules. Compliance lexical norms- the most important condition for correct, accurate and expressive speech.

1. To achieve speech accuracy, first of all, it is necessary to have a clear idea of ​​the subject of speech itself, as well as knowledge of the meaning of the word used in modern language. Often, speech errors occur precisely when the speaker or writer cannot adequately express his thought, using words in a sense that is unusual for them. Here are some examples of such errors from student essays: “Pechorin goes to Persia, having found no use for his mind and his resourcefulness(?)"; "He created around himself range(?) a well-read person”; “Matryona lives alone in an old hut. Her only roommates(?) is a cat, mice and cockroaches”; "Andrey Bolkonsky touches(?) with Kutuzov and becomes his adjutant.”

The problem of the accuracy of speech (objective and conceptual) is closely related to the ability to distinguish between the so-called paronyms, those. words (most often with the same root) that are similar in sound, but have different meanings and are used in different ways, for example: enter - act, imagine - provide, distant - distant, human - human - humane etc. The indistinguishability of paronyms also leads to annoying and ridiculous mistakes, examples of which, alas, are numerous in the same works of applicants: Lermontov showed infertility(futility?) of the activities of his hero.”; “The harmony of nature gives rise to thoughts about the inviolability of moral devices(foundations?) of this world.”; "Tatiana contraindicated(opposed?) to Onegin and Lensky.”; "Pushkin was bound by strong knots(ties?) with the Decembrists.

2. Compliance with lexical norms is impossible without knowledge lexical compatibility, those. the ability of words to connect with each other. The fact is that in speech some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very similar definitions - long, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy- are “attracted” to nouns in different ways: you can say long (long, long) period; long (long) way; long fees; long-term (long-term) credit.

In place of letters ch in some words it is pronounced [h "n] or [h "n"]: then [h "n] th, ve [h "n] th, pe [h "n"] ik; in other words it is pronounced [shn] or [shn "]: kone[shn]o(Certainly), sku[shn]o(boring), laundry(laundry), two[shn "]ik(double); in the third group, both options are acceptable: boo-lo[shn]aya And bakery(bakery), orderly And decent(decent). In some cases, the same word can be pronounced differently, depending on the combination in which it is found: heart disease, But friend of the heart(cordial); kopee [h "n] th coin And co-pee [shn] th soul(penny).

This difference has existed for a long time, and this is how it is reflected in A. S. Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin":

(1) First by mutual differences

They were to each other boring;

Then they liked it; Then

Riding every day

And soon they became inseparable.

(2) - I can’t sleep, nanny: it’s like this here stuffy!

Open the window and sit next to me.

- What, Tanya, what's the matter with you? - To me boring.

Let's talk about antiquity.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, many words were pronounced with [shn], and not with [ch "n]. The pronunciation [shn] became one of the signs of the old Moscow pronunciation norm. In " explanatory dictionary of the Russian language ”, edited by D. N. Ushakov, which reflected mainly the Moscow pronunciation, it is recommended to speak bulo [shn] th, weekday [shn] yy, brusni [sn] yy, young [sn] yy, taken [sn] ik and so on.

In modern linguistic literature, such pronunciation is characterized as already outdated. The orthographic pronunciation [h "n] has now become the norm. However, in some cases (of course, boring, on purpose, scrambled eggs, birdhouse, laundry, eyeglass case, loser, trifling) in place of spelling ch should be pronounced [shn]. This traditional deviation from the general norm of pronunciation is accepted and legitimized by dictionaries and reference books. In addition to these words, the pronunciation [shn] is also preserved in some female patronymics: Ilyini[shn]a(Ilyinichna), Nikiti[shn]a(Nikitichna).

In place of letters thu usually pronounced in accordance with the spelling sounds [h "t]: mail(mail), mast(mast). But in the word “what” and its derivatives, it is pronounced [pcs]: [pcs] about(What), [pcs]oby(to), something [piece] about(something) but not [h "t] o(something).

Combination schn in all words it is pronounced as it is written: graceful, urgent, future, accomplice, pronunciation elegant, dry, will be [shn] awn, message [shn] ik is a deviation from the norm under the influence of vernacular.

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