How to understand the behavior of another person? Why do people have different abilities? What is the "soul" and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.
A rational approach to cognition of the world is based on the fact that the reality surrounding us exists independently of our consciousness, can be investigated empirically, and the observed phenomena are quite explainable from a scientific point of view. To implement this approach, it is necessary to have a general idea of the subject of research. IN various directions science scientists are not
Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods ¦
Ananiev Boris Gerasimovich (1907-1972) - an outstanding Russian psychologist. scientific activity He began as a post-graduate student at the Institute of the Brain during the lifetime of V. M. Bekhterev. In 1968-1972. Dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad State University. He is the founder of the Leningrad psychological school. Author of fundamental works in the field of sensory perception, psychology of communication, educational psychology. He proposed a system of human knowledge in which data were integrated various sciences about a human.
once attempted to formulate a holistic view of a person. Of course, such a notion exists in psychology as well.
One of the most popular in domestic psychology approaches to the study of man was proposed by B. G. Ananiev. Assessing the significance of Ananiev's activities for domestic science, it must first be emphasized that he developed a fundamentally new methodological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible not only to single out new sections of psychology that had not previously existed as independent ones, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Speaking about the main features of the development of scientific knowledge about man, Ananiev noted that the problem of man is becoming common problem for science as a whole. At the same time, the scientific knowledge of man is characterized by both the ever-increasing differentiation and specialization of individual disciplines, and the tendency to combine various sciences and methods of studying man. modern science more and more interested in problems related to human health, his creativity, learning and, of course, his thoughts and experiences, and the study of man and human activity is carried out comprehensively, taking into account all aspects of these problems.
Ananiev singled out four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality and individuality.
The concept of "individual" has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes THIS concept is used to refer to a person as a separate representative of the human community, as social being using tools. However, in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied.
A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1.1). Ananiev singled out the primary and secondary properties of the individual. He referred to the primary properties inherent in all people, such as age features(correspondence to a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain sex), as well as individual-typical characteristics, including constitutional features (body composition features), neurodynamic
1. The structure of the concept of "individual" (according to B. G. Ananiev)
properties of the brain, features of functional geometry hemispheres. The totality of the individual's primary properties determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psycho physiological functions and structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of temperament and the makings of a person.
Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is "personality".
This concept, like the concept of "individual", has various interpretations. In particular, a person is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, which is formed in joint activities and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of "personality" characterizes a person as a social being (Fig. 1.2). As part of this concept such psychological properties of the personality as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.
2. The structure of the concept of "personality" (according to B. G. Ananiev)
The next concept that Ananiev singled out when studying a person is “subject of activity”. This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of "individual" and "personality". The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be regarded as a social being, since his evolution and social development impossible without action.
Before characterizing a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the concept of "subject" as a philosophical category. Most often, this concept is used in conjunction with the concept of "object". The object and the subject are always in a certain relationship. An object is an object or phenomenon of the real world that exists independently of our consciousness, acting as a goal to which the activity of a person is directed - the subject of influence. A person is always surrounded by certain objects or faces the phenomena of the real world. Depending on what or to whom its activity is directed, this or that object can act as an object. The object can be the human activity itself.
The main feature of a person as a subject, which distinguishes him from other living beings, is consciousness (Fig. 1.3). Consciousness is the highest form mental development, which is unique to humans. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of purposeful behavior and, as a result, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Thus, the subject is an individual as a carrier of consciousness, possessing the ability to act.
So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative of living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. Combining these three levels into one whole forms an integral characteristic of a person - his individuality.
Individuality is a combination of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person in terms of his uniqueness, originality and originality. The prerequisite for the formation of human individuality is the anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the process of education, which has a socially conditioned character. A variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variability in the manifestations of individuality.
Thus, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. Structural organization of a person is of a multilevel nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Fig. 1.4). Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.
3. The structure of the concept of "subject of activity" (according to B. G. Ananiev)
This is the science of the laws and mechanisms of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (or phenomena).
Psychology is the science of the soul (from ancient Greek).
The term psychology first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Psychology is the science of the mind and mental phenomena. The subject of psychology is the essential natural connections and mechanisms. The object of psychology is the psyche and the world of mental phenomena. (Konstantinov Viktor Veniaminovich)
According to the textbook: The subject of psychology is the psyche and mental phenomena of both one particular person and mental phenomena observed in groups and collectives.
The task of psychology is the study of mental phenomena.
The structure of mental phenomena:
Mental processes: cognitive (sensations, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, attention), emotional (excitation, joy, indignation, anger, etc.), volitional (decision-making, overcoming difficulties, struggle of motives, control of one's behavior and etc.).
Mental states (rise, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency, etc.).
Mental properties (orientation, temperament, ability, character).
The most popular approach to the study of a person in Russian psychology is the approach of B. G. Ananiev. Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev developed a fundamentally new psychological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible to single out not only new sections in psychology, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Ananiev noted that the problem of man is becoming a common problem for all science as a whole.
Ananiev singled out 4 basic concepts in the system of human knowledge:
Individual- this is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo Sapiens. (The biological essence of a person, in which primary and secondary properties are distinguished: primary properties: age, gender, individual-typical characteristics, constitutional (body composition), neuro-psycho-physiological, GNA features, temperamental characteristics. They determine secondary properties, i.e. (e. the dynamics of psychophysiological functions, the structure of the individual's organic needs. The integration of these properties is realized in temperament and inclinations).
Personality- an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity (characterizes a person as a social being).
Subject of activity- the average m / d by an individual and a personality - this concept combines the whole biological principle and the social essence of a person.
Subject- this is an individual, as a carrier of consciousness, with the ability to act.
Individuality is a combination of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person in terms of his uniqueness, originality and uniqueness.
Conclusion: a person is one of the most complex objects of the real world. The structural organization of a person is multi-level and reflects his natural and social essence:
Individual + subject + personality = individuality.
Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a significant number of sciences that study man and his activities.
(A person is a multifaceted phenomenon. His research should be holistic. Therefore, one of the main methodological concepts used to study a person is the concept of a systematic approach. It reflects the systemic nature of the world order: any system exists because there is a system-forming factor (- the person himself). )
*Methodological foundations of the study of man
Basic concepts
An individual is a person as a representative of a genus, having a natural and bodily being of a person.
The subject of activity - a person as a subject of activity is determined from t.z. and when included in a specific activity, a person as a carrier of subject-practical properties (abilities)
Personality - a person as a representative of society, inclusions in the system social interaction and actions, freely and responsibly defining one's position among other people
Individuality - a person as a unique original personality, possessing only his own unique unique qualities and features that realize themselves in creative activity (Ananiev: personality is the pinnacle of human properties of characteristics) - the depth of personal manifestations.
Universum - / Slobodchikov, Issaev / the highest level spiritual development a person, a person as a link in the macrocosm, a person who is aware of his place in the world.
Man as an individual
1st property: Primary
– neurophysiological property
– functional asymmetry of the brain
– constitutional features (physical I)
- a sign of sex or sexual demorphism
- age and stage of life
2nd property: Secondary
– dynamics of psychophysiological functions (changes in the process of development, inheritance of functional mechanisms)
- the structure of the organic needs of the individual
- the need for security
all these properties are manifested in the makings and temperament
Research methods: observation, survey, tests, experiment, modeling.
2
The concept of the psyche. The main stages in the development of the psyche
Psyche- this is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject in the construction (by the subject) of the subjective image of this world and self-regulation on this basis of his behavior and activity.
From this definition follows:
1) The psyche is a property of only living matter, highly organized matter, i.e. it appears at a certain stage of the living world.
2) is the ability to actively reflect objective reality.
3) - to actively reflect - means to create your own subjective image of this world, i.e. the world doubles (a cockroach has its own world, a dog has its own, a man has his own world).
4) - in accordance with this subjective image, a living organism builds its behavior and activities.
Basic functions of the psyche:
To determine the functions of the psyche, it is necessary to list all the forms and characters of its manifestation, and it is very difficult to do this, but it is more accurate to determine the functions of the psyche in the interaction of a living organism with environment seems possible. From this point of view, the following functions can be distinguished:
1. The function of mental reflection of the objects of the world;
2. Preservation of the integrity of the body (the constancy of the internal environment with the external environment - homeostasis);
3. Regulation of behavior and activity.
All these functions are interconnected and are elements of the integrative function of the psyche, which is to ensure the adaptation of a living organism to environmental conditions.
The evolution of the psyche.
There are a number of points of view, approaches to the problem of the evolution of the psyche:
1. Theological approach (religious) (theology is the science of God). The psychic (soul) is given by God and there can be no talk of any evolution.
idealistic point of view.
2. Vulgar materialistic direction. Empedocles - ancient Greek. The doctor, he said that the world went through 4 stages: 1 - chaos (different parts of the body floated), 2 - freaks, 3 - same-sex organisms, 4 - modern man.
With great reservations can be attributed evolutionary theory Darwin.
3. scientific view or scientifically materialistic, says that the world developed in the process of long evolution, but spasmodically, i.e. intermittently, gradually.
4. Cosmogonic hypothesis (cosmic origin)
In psychology, there are such views on the evolution of the psyche:
A.N.Leontiev and K.E.Fabry "The concept of the development of the psyche" distinguish two stages:
II - Stage of the perceptual psyche - has 3 levels: the lowest (fish, mollusks), the highest (birds, mice), the highest (monkeys, dogs, dolphins).
The allocation of these two stages of the development of the psyche is based on the main characteristics of the methods for obtaining information about the world around us.
Stage I is characterized by a sensory mode, or level of sensations. For stage II - the perceptual way, or the level of perception.
K.K. Platonov - at the core - the position that one level, a form of mental reflection, differs from another by the formation of a systemic attribute.
|
Forms of mental reflection |
The systemic sign that is formed in this case |
|
Physical reflection or Physical form of reflection biological Consciousness |
(Living arises from non-living) irritability (Living cell) nervism The ideal image + the appearance of 2 signal systems according to Pavlov: these are speech, words, concepts. |
* The development of the psyche in animals goes through a series of stages
1. Stage of elementary sensitivity - behavior is determined by innate instincts,
2. individually acquired behavioral skills appear.
3. Stage III - reflect interdisciplinary connections, in general, is able to bypass obstacles, "invent" new ways to solve two-phase problems. Intellectual behavior does not go beyond the biological need.
The human psyche - developed in the process of labor activity, which arises out of necessity, the implementation of joint actions.
Mediated by the use of aids, speech signs created in the process historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms the consciousness of man.
Structure: 3 large groups of mental phenomena, namely:
mental processes- dynamic reflection of reality in various forms mental phenomena - this is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction - provide the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity
mental states - determined in given time a relatively stable level of mental activity, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual (attention, EM, mood, inspiration).
mental properties - stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior that is typical for a given person
Mental properties do not exist together, they are synthesized and form complex structural formations of the personality, which include:
1) the life position of the individual (a system of needs, interests, beliefs, ideals that determines the selectivity and level of activity of a person);
2) temperament (a system of natural personality traits - mobility, balance of behavior and tone of activity - characterizing the dynamic side of behavior);
3) abilities (a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional properties that determines the creative possibilities of the individual)
4) character as a system of relations and ways of behaving.
3
Psychology as a science. Basic methods of psychology
When dividing the sciences into groups according to the subject of study, they distinguish:
natural (study nature),
Humanitarian (study society, culture, history),
Technical (associated with the study and creation of means of production and tools)
Man is a social being => psychology is usually attributed to the humanities. Any science reveals essential natural connections, research, necessary recurring connections of objective reality. Each science has a subject of study and an object of study in connection with its purpose.
The subject is What science studies, and the object is for what it is directed, i.e. to which area.
IN modern understanding psychology is the science of the laws and mechanisms of the emergence, development and functioning of the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (or phenomena).
Psychology - from ancient Greek - "the science of the soul"
(psyche - "soul"; logos - "concept", "doctrine")
The first term to designate the world of mental phenomena was introduced by Heraclid - "psyche".
The first term "psychology" belongs to Goklenius, the first treatise Psychology.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the term "psychology" entered the scientific circulation, thanks to the works of Christian Wolf in 1832, 1834.
Subject psychology are essential regular communication mechanisms.
object psychology is the psyche and the world of mental phenomena (the object of psychology from the point of view of A.G. Maklakov, Kulikov and others is a person, an individual, a group of people, animals, a community of animals).
Methods psychology: the following systematics has historically developed:
1. The method of introspection (self-observation, self-reflection) is observation, analysis of one's own subjective states, experiences.
The idea of this method is attributed to Socrates: "Know thyself", later as a scientific method - the study of consciousness - it is scientifically substantiated by R. Decardi.
The method of experimental introspection was carried out in the first psychological laboratories of Wundt, Titchener, G. Ebenhaus and others. Then, due to subjectivity, the method of introspection ceases to satisfy scientists and there is a search for objective methods, they are widely used in modern psychological schools and trends, such as: observation And experiment, using special equipment and in laboratory conditions or without using them.
We started using them in natural sciences ah, and then they were transferred to the area of mental phenomena (Sechenov, Pavlov, Bekhterev (experiments with goats), representatives of behaviorism: E Thorndike (rats), B. Skinner).
2. Method of hermeneutics (or understanding)
Capturing someone else's soul.
The psychologist practicing this method must have empathy and intuition.
Thus, the methods of psychology can be divided into subjective:
Observation: self-observation, external, free, standard, included.
Survey: oral, written, free, standard.
Test: test questionnaire, test task.
AND objective methods:
Experiment and its varieties (natural, laboratory).
Row test tasks to identify abilities, knowledge, skills, physiological functions (objective, projective tests).
The main methods of obtaining facts in psychology are: observation, conversation (survey), experiment.
*The structure of modern psychology
1 classification (3 blocks):
1. The doctrine of the subject and methods and the theory of psychological knowledge (experimental psychology).
2. The doctrine of mental processes (general psychology)
3. Teachings about personality (applied psychology)
Classification of methods
1. Ananiev B.G. identifies 4 main groups of methods:
--- 1 gr. Methods of conducting psychological research (the answer to the question of how to build a psychological research)
1 method. Organizational
– requirements for the composition of the working group
- the procedure for informing the subjects during the study
- features of the organization of the external environment
2 method. Longitudinal
characteristic of the duration of psychological research (the process of long-term psychological research can be differentiated into longitudinal - long-term and slice - diagnostics of characteristics is carried out at a time)
Method 3 Complex (several groups of methods at once)
--- 2 gr. empirical methods
1 method Observational (observation, self-observation) in the form of frontal observation, free form
goal: to identify key patterns
Method 2 Experimental
Types of experiments:
– Laboratory experiment (artificial situations in laboratory conditions)
– natural experiment(parameter change in vivo)
- Formative experiment (psychological and pedagogical - learning, development, formation)
Method 3 Psychodiagnostic (test studies)
Standardized (list of questions, tasks - the key for analysis)
Projective methods (qualitative analysis)
Questionnaires, survey questionnaires (statistical analysis)
Sociometry (method of sociometric research)
– Unlimited
– Pre-limited choices
Interview (question-answer)
Conversation Method (equality and participation)
4 method Methods of techniques for analyzing the processes of products of activity
Timing measurement method (objective evaluation criterion)
Method of professional descriptions
– Psychographic research (identification of requirements for a person - psychogram)
– Professional studies (personal-activity description + psychogram)
Content analysis method (analysis of written and verbal-logical phenomena)
Method 5 Biographical methods (person's biography)
Analysis of diary entries
Analysis of the results of human activity
In the form of a questionnaire (author Golovik)
--- 3 gr. Data processing techniques
1 method Quantitative and qualitative analysis
Method 2 Reception of grouping (combining)
3 method classification
4 method Interpretation method (principles of psychology explanation) genetic and/or structural methods general disciplinary research
Typology method (identification of the research method of an existing classification)
Psychology of the profession (features on the direction of practical activity)
2. Classification by P. Piriev
--- 1 gr. Observation methods
1 method Objective observation
Immediate
mediated
- using questionnaires
- using questionnaires
Method 2 Self-observation
Intraspection (report)
Mediated introspection
– diaries
– letters
--- 2 gr. experimental
1 method Laboratory
Classic (environment, activity)
test
Method 2 Natural (according to analysis results)
gaming activity
Educational
Labor
Method 3 Psychological and pedagogical experiments
Ascertaining (slice diagnostics)
Formative
--- 3 gr. Psychology Modeling Method
1 method Mathematical modeling
Method 2 Physical modeling
Method 3 Schematic modeling (prior to the study of key concepts)
Method 4 Cybernetic modeling (assessment by objective criteria)
--- 4 gr. Psychological characteristics (various interpretations of primary psychological data) - practical advice, forecast of the development of situations in 2 directions:
a) how the situation will develop itself
b) how the situation can develop with the intervention of psychologists
--- 5 gr. Helper Methods
1 method of Mathematical statistics
2 method Experimental estimates
3 method of Analysis of products of activity
--- 6 gr. Special Methods
1 method Genetic method (heredity)
Method 2 Phylogenetic method (in historical perspective)
Method 3 Biographical (features of individual development)
4 method Comparative (causation)
Method 5 Pathopsychological (deviations, unfavorable development)
4
The main directions of psychology of the twentieth century
1. Psychoanalytic direction in :
Psychoanalysis: founder Z. Freud (1856-1939) 3 digits. term "psychoanalysis":
1). Theory L and psychopathology
2). Method of therapy for personality disorders
3). A method of studying the unconscious thoughts and feelings of an individual
Carl Gustav Jung(1875-1961) analytical theory L.
Structure L
Typology: extraversion, introversion
Adler Alfred(1870-1937) L's individual theory, he was the first social psychologist.
Neo-Freudianism: developed from Freudianism, supporters are trying to overcome the biologism of classical Freudianism and introduce its main provisions into a social context.
Karen Horney(1885-1952) German sociocultural theory L
Eric Erickson(1902-1994) ego-theory L
Erich Fromm(1900-1980) humanistic theory L
2. Behaviorism:
The subject is behavior (and not consciousness)
Moving from Intraspectionto scientific methods observations
Goal - Behavior Management
The attraction of a person depends on external influences
Edward Thorndike(1874-1949) considered himself a "connectionist" (connection) studied the relationship between m / s behavior and environment
John Watson(1878-1949) - am a psychologist, wrote a program of behaviorism: subject-behavior; the method is observation, the goal is behavior control.
Neobehaviorists:
Burres Frederick Skinner(1904-1990) Operant learning theory: Behavior can be predicted and anticipated.
Juman Rotter(1916) - the theory of social learning: the prediction of human behavior in difficult situations.
Adbert Bandura(1925-1988) Canadian. Social cognitive theory L: it is necessary to consider the unity of the environment, behavior and cognitive processes.
3. Cognitive direction : ! cognitive - cognitive
George Kelly(1905-1966) cognitive appeared in 1955. It is based on constructive alternativeism (each person has his own choice)
Jean Jean Piaget(1896-1980) Swiss. The goal of a person: adaptation to the environment, to the world around him.
4. Gestalt psychology : the earliest psychological concept of the twentieth century. "Gestalt" is a single "whole" "structure". Gl idea - the idea of integrity; main task - the study of St. in the whole.
Frederick Perls(1883-1970) - Gestalt therapy - helping people become whole.
5. Humanistic :
Understanding the essence of a person as a personal potential;
Personal growth is the main goal and the criterion for the work of a psychologist;
Main subject proper human manifestations: freedom, love, response;
Transition to the position of the principle of development and self-development (from the principle of balance)
Gordon Allport(1897-1967) - dispositional theory L
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970) - humanistic theory L
Carl Rogers(1902-1987) - phenomenological theory of L
6. Transitional concepts
Roberto Assagioli(1888-1974) Italian - psychosynthesis (complex theories of Z. Freud)
Eric Bern(1910-1970) Canadian - transactional analysis
Kurt Lewin(1890-1947) germ - USA - field theory (Gestalt psychology)
George Meade(1864-1931) am. - symbolic interactionism; the concept of social behaviorism (internal action)
neurolinguistic programming - NLP beginning of the 70s of the XX century
* Vygotsky gov - the end of the 19th century - the crisis of the methodological foundations of psychology - at the beginning of each direction there is a thread of factual discovery. The contradictions between the individual and society were perceived as the eternal incompatibility of the biological nature of man with the moral requirements of society. Instinct and intuition are more important than reason (Sorel and Bergston).
Vernandsky gov - about the explosion of scientific creativity in all sciences.
NEW psychological directions:
Freud destroyed the idea of identifying consciousness with psychology, and declared the science of the functions of consciousness.
Anatomical psychology and sensationalism were opposed by a holistic psychology - descriptive psychology, Gestalt psychology.
Psychoanalysis, behaviorism/cognitive, humanistic/existentialism
~~~35. Structuralism - 263
From functionalism to psychoanalysis of the content of consciousness. M.I. Vladeslavlev - gave a historical overview of the development of psychic knowledge from antiquity. A.I. Vvedensky - studies mental phenomena in a non-judgmental way as facts of an internal nature. The law of the absence of objective signs of animation => introspection as the only method of study in psychology. MM. Troitsky - attracted professors from all faculties in order to combine disparate works of a psychological nature with a view to a broader and more fruitful development of psychology. N.Ya. Grotto - g / r "Issues of Philosophy and Psychology". He singled out the theory of mental turnover: external impression, processing by the body, internal movement, external movement towards the object.
Schools of Psychology >> Structuralism Representatives: Edward Titchener
The subject of study. Pilot study structures of consciousness
Basic theoretical provisions: Psychology is the science of experience that depends on the subject experiencing it. Consciousness has its own structure and material hidden behind the surface of its phenomena. In order to highlight this system, the subject must cope with the “stimulus error”, which is expressed in the confusion of the mental process with the observed object, i.e. process stimulus. Knowledge about outside world pushes aside the "matter" of consciousness, this knowledge settles in the language.
Three categories of "matter": sensation, image and feeling. Practice: The search for the simplest elements of consciousness and the discovery of regularity in their combinations.
Contribution: The contribution to the development of psychology can be called negative, because. activity was based on the canons of half a century ago. Which led to a complete lack of support for psychologists.
~~~36. Functionalism - 260
William James (1842-1910), John Dewey (1859-1952)
The subject of study. To study through what mental functions the individual adapts to a changing environment, to find ways of more effective adaptation.
Basic theoretical provisions. Psychology is a natural, biological science, the subject of which is mental (mental) phenomena and their "conditions". The doctrine of emotions: shows that "conditions" are not only internal bodily processes, but also phenomena that represent a category of action. Emotion is the result of physiological changes in various systems, i.e. removed the role of stimulus behavior.
The doctrine of the ideomotor act: Any thought comes into motion, if it is not prevented by another thought.
Personality structure: I (self) consists of four forms - the material I, the social I, the spiritual I and the pure I.
The degree of self-esteem depends on the increase in success or on the decrease in the level of claims, i.e. self-respect = success / claims
Practice. Functionalism sought to consider all mental manifestations from the angle of their adaptive, adaptive nature. This required determining their attitude to environmental conditions, on the one hand, to the needs of the body, on the other. Understanding mental life in the image of biological as a set of functions, actions, operations. Functional psychology considered the problem of action from the point of view of its biologically adaptive meaning, its focus on solving vitally important problem situations for the individual.
Contribution. He proposed, contrary to the seemingly indisputable idea that emotion is a source of physiological changes in various systems, to consider it not as the root cause, but as a result of these changes.
John Dewey - opposed the idea that reflex arcs serve as the basic units of behavior. In an atmosphere of weakness of functionalism, a new psychological trend is emerging.
Functionalism is being replaced by behaviorism.
~~~37. Behaviorism
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) , John Bradwas Watson (1878-1958)
Influence of the works of Pavlov and Bekhterev. S-R. All through learning. The learning curve.
The subject of study. To study not consciousness, but human behavior. Personality is everything that an individual possesses.
In the concept of behaviorism, a person is understood, first of all, as a reacting, learning being, programmed for certain reactions, actions, behavior.
Basic theoretical provisions. Thanks to the manipulation of external stimuli, it is possible to form different behavioral traits in a person. The "situation-reaction" relationship is characterized by the following features:
1) the starting point is a problem situation;
2) the organism resists it as a whole;
3) he actively acts in search of a choice;
4) is learned through exercise.
The laws of "natural selection" of useful actions in an individual: the law of exercise - ceteris paribus, the reaction to the situation is associated with it in proportion to the frequency of repetition of connections and their strength. the law of readiness - exercises change the readiness of the body to conduct nerve impulses. the law of associative shift - if, with the simultaneous action of stimuli, one of them causes a reaction, then the others acquire the ability to cause the same reaction. law of effect
The field of psychology is the interaction between the organism and the environment. Connection is an element of behavior.
Practice. Man is completely dependent on his environment, and any freedom of action that he thinks he can enjoy is pure illusion. One of the main reasons that made us the way we are is due to our tendency to imitate the behavior of other people, considering how favorable the results of such imitation can be for us. Thus, a person is influenced not only by external conditions: he also must constantly anticipate the consequences of his behavior by self-assessment.
Contribution. The experiment was raised to a high level of research.
As a result of the work done, 16 types of behavior were identified. (perceptual behavior, defensive, inductive, habitual, utilitarian, role-playing, scripting, modeling, balancing, liberating, attributive, expressive, autonomous, assertive, exploratory, empathic.)
~~~38. Gestalt psychology
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) , Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) , Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
The subject of study. The doctrine of the integrity of mental phenomena.
Basic theoretical provisions. Postulate: The primary data of psychology are integral structures (gestalts), which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. Gestalts have their own characteristics and laws.
The concept of "insight" - (from the English understanding, insight, sudden guess) is an intellectual phenomenon, the essence of which is an unexpected understanding of a problem and finding its solution.
Practice. The practice was based on one of two complex concepts of thinking - either associative (learning to build on the strengthening of connections between elements), or formally - logical thinking. Both impede the development of creative, productive thinking. Children who learn geometry in a school based on the formal method find it incomparably more difficult to develop a productive approach to problems than those who have not been taught at all.
Contribution. Gestalt psychology believed that the whole is determined by the properties and functions of its parts. Gestalt psychology changed the previous view of consciousness, proving that its analysis is designed to deal not with individual elements, but with integral mental images.
Gestalt psychology opposed associative psychology, which divides consciousness into elements.
~~~39. Freudian / Depth Psychology
1) in narrow sense words - a psychotherapeutic method developed by Z. Freud in the late 90s. XIX century for the treatment of psychoneuroses. Psychoanalysis as a method of therapy consists in identifying, then bringing to consciousness and experiencing unconscious traumatic ideas, impressions, mental complexes. 2) In the broad sense of the word, psychoanalysis is called various schools dynamic psychotherapy. Moreover, we can talk not only about the theoretical platforms of these schools, but also about the institutionalized movement that is carried out on their basis. Psychoanalysis as a movement originates from a circle of supporters of Z. Freud, who united around him in 1902 and founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908.
Modern successors and imitators of this movement belong to the so-called "classical" or "orthodox" psychoanalysis - its most numerous, powerful and influential direction.
In theoretical terms, classical psychoanalysis is Freudianism, in some respects refined and reformed in the 1930s and 1950s. A. Freud, H. Hartmann, D. Rapaport and others. The changes made by them concerned mainly the functions of the "I". Their research led to the development of a new theoretical aspect, called "ego psychology". Unlike Freud, who paid the main attention to the unconscious mechanisms of "IT", in modern classical psychoanalysis great importance give preconscious mechanisms "I", aimed at adapting to the social environment.
Quite remarkable is also the attempt of a formalized presentation of psychoanalysis by D. Rapaport, who at the same time also sought to translate the concepts of psychoanalysis into terms of behavior, which were used in the 40-50s. behaviorally oriented experimental psychology is the main rival of psychoanalysis. D. Rapaport tried to bring psychoanalysis closer to the canons of scientific character, which were dictated by the post-positivist philosophy of science.
Other areas (schools) of psychoanalysis, much less institutionalized and influential, were founded by breakaways from
Freud's students - A. Adler, O. Rank, as well as K.-G. Jung, who became close to him and to the Vienna Society only for a short time.
~~~40. cognitive psychology – 474
Jean Piaget.
The subject of study. Dependence of the subject's behavior on cognitive processes.
The task of cognitive psychology was to study the processing of information from the moment it hits the receptor surfaces to the receipt of a response.
Basic theoretical provisions. A person is not a machine blindly and mechanically reacting to internal factors or events in the outside world, on the contrary, more is available to the human mind: to analyze information about reality, make comparisons, make decisions, solve problems that confront him every minute. The development of the child's intellect occurs as a result of the constant search for a balance between what the child knows and what he seeks to know. External actions may be different, as thoughts and feelings were different.
Practice. Development of training programs designed to develop the intellect and scientific examination of testimony. Work, analysis, creation of applied theory.
Contribution. Introduction to the concepts of short-term and long-term memory.
There is an internal variability of personal interpretation schemes actualized in specific situations, which is the reason for inaccurate predictions by people of their own future behavior.
~~~41. Humanistic psychology - 478
Opport, Murray, Murphy, May, Maslow, Rogers.
The subject of study. A unique and inimitable personality, constantly creating himself, realizing his purpose in life. He studies health, harmonious personalities who have reached the top personal development, peaks of "self-actualization".
Basic theoretical provisions. Based on the hierarchy of human needs. Realization of oneself. Consciousness dignity. Social needs. Reliability needs. Physiological basic needs. The unsuitability of animal research for human understanding.
Practical use. Humanistic psychology - modern direction in psychological science. There are some tricks and concepts that apply. Today it is:
Basic holistic self-actualizing personality.
Stages of personality degradation.
Search for the meaning of life.
Contribution. Humanistic psychology opposes the construction of psychology on the model of the natural sciences and proves that a person, even as an object of research, should be studied as an active subject, evaluating the experimental situation and choosing a way of behavior.
As well as the French school (change of thinking over time) and descriptive psychology (methods of understanding and explanation).
5
Reflexological and behavioral direction in psychology
For a long time, the method of introspection was not only the main, but also the only method . The ideologist of the method of introspection was the philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704), who developed Descartes' term about the direct comprehension of thoughts.
J. Locke argued that there are 2 sources of all Zn.: objects external. world and the activity of our own mind.
On the objects of the external world, the check directs its external. feelings and as a result receives impressions of external things, and the activity of the mind is based on a special inner feeling – reflection.
Locke defined it as "observation mind subjected his activity" (thinking, doubt, faith, reasoning, knowledge, desire).
J. Locke stated that reflection involves a special focus on D own soul, as well as sufficient maturity of the subject.
Children have no reflection, because they are busy learning externally. Peace, but reflection may not develop in an adult if he does not learn to reflect on himself.
Proceeding from this position - Locke considers it possible to split the psyche.
Mental processes (according to Locke) proceed at 2 levels:
1). processes of perception, thoughts, desires, etc.
2). "Observation" or "contemplation" of these thoughts and images of perception.
A scientist can conduct psychological research only on himself, because process of consciousness open only to the subject.
This direction is based on the 2 principles of English materialism of the 16-18 centuries, the cat developed under the influence of achievements in mechanics and physics (Newton's discovery):
1. The principle of sensationalism is the sensibility of experience as the only source of knowledge.
2. The principle of automatism - the task of the cat is to decompose all complex phenomena into elements, and explain them based on the connections between these elements.
This is t.sp. called sensualistic materialism (J. Locke adhered to the principle of sensationalism)
In parallel with the teachings of Locke, another trend began to develop in science, close to it - association direction. And it is connected with the names of Hume and Gartley (based on the principle of automatism).
By the middle of the 19th century, the associative was the dominant direction (at the end of the 19th century, the method of introspection was widely used)
The theory of the elements of consciousness (Wundt, Titchener) in place of the real
acts of consciousness (Brentano) people became
Theory of streams of consciousness (Jaly) curl consciousness in the cat dissolves
human being
But the widespread use of the method of introspection led to a crisis.
And in the second decade of the 20th century. a new direction arose , the subject of which was behavior(and not the psyche and consciousness) and the name "behaviorism" was obtained.
Methodological foundations for the study of man
How to understand the behavior of another person? Why do people have different abilities? What is the "soul" and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.
A rational approach to cognition of the world is based on the fact that the reality surrounding us exists independently of our consciousness, can be investigated empirically, and the observed phenomena are quite explainable from a scientific point of view. To implement this approach, it is extremely important to have a general idea of the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists do not  |
once attempted to formulate a holistic view of a person. Of course, such a notion exists in psychology as well.
One of the most popular approaches to the study of man in Russian psychology was proposed by B. G. Ananiev. Assessing the significance of Ananiev's activities for domestic science, it is first of all extremely important to emphasize that he developed a fundamentally new methodological approach to the study of the human psyche. This made it possible not only to single out new sections of psychology that had not previously existed as independent ones, but also to take a fresh look at the person himself. Speaking about the basic features of the development of scientific knowledge about man, Ananiev noted that the problem of man is becoming a common problem for all science as a whole. At the same time, the scientific knowledge of man is characterized by both the ever-increasing differentiation and specialization of individual disciplines, and the tendency to combine various sciences and methods of studying man. Modern science is more and more interested in problems related to human health, his creativity, learning and, of course, his thoughts and experiences, and the study of man and human activity is carried out comprehensively, taking into account all aspects of these problems.
Ananiev singled out four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality And individuality.
The concept of "individual" has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to refer to a person as a separate representative of the human community, as a social being using tools. In this case, and in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied.
A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1.1). Ananiev singled out the primary and secondary properties of the individual. He attributed to the primary properties inherent in all people, such as age characteristics (correspondence to a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain sex), as well as individual-typical characteristics, including constitutional features ( features of body composition), neurodynamic
14 Part I. Introduction to General Psychology
Rice. 1.1. The structure of the concept of "individual" (according to B. G. Ananiev)
Chapter 1. The subject of psychology, its tasks and methods 1 5
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properties of the brain, features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres. The totality of the individual's primary properties determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of temperament and the inclinations of a person.
Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is "personality". This concept, like the concept of "individual", has various interpretations. In particular, a personality is commonly understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, which is formed in joint activities and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of "personality characterizes a person as a social being(Fig. 1.2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.
Rice.1.2. The structure of the concept - "personality" (according to B. G. Ananiev)
The next concept, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ, was singled out by Ananiev in the study of a person, - “subject of activity”. This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of "individual" and "personality". The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered as a social being, since his evolution and social development are impossible without activity.
Before characterizing a person as a subject of activity, it is necessary to understand the meaning of the concept of "subject" as a philosophical category. Most often, this concept is used in conjunction with the concept of "object". Object and subject are always in a certain relationship. An object is an object or phenomenon of the real world that exists independently of our consciousness, acting as a goal to which the activity of a person is directed - the subject of influence. A person is always surrounded by certain objects or encounters phenomena of the real world. Given the dependence on what or to whom its activity is directed, this or that object can act as an object. The object can be the human activity itself.
Methodological foundations for the study of man
1) What four concepts did Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev single out in the system of human knowledge? (individual, subject of activity, personality, individuality).
2) Expand the meaning of the concept of an individual.
an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homosapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized.
3) What psychological properties of a person are considered?
motivation, temperament, abilities and character.
4) The subject of activity is ...
The next concept that Ananiev singled out when studying a person is “subject of activity”. This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of "individual" and "personality". The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole.
5) What is individuality?
Individuality is a combination of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person in terms of his uniqueness, originality and originality.
Human and Human Sciences
6) Expand the meaning of the definition of "anthropology". What are the three main sections included in the structure of modern anthropology?
Anthropology is a special science of man as a special biological species. The structure of modern anthropology includes three main sections: human morphology(study of individual variability physical type, age stages - from the early stages of embryonic development to old age, inclusive, sexual dimorphism, changes in the physical development of a person under the influence of various conditions of life and activity), the doctrine of anthropogenesis(on the change in the nature of the nearest ancestor of man and of man himself during the Quaternary period), consisting of primate science, evolutionary human anatomy and paleoanthropology (studying fossil forms of man) and racial science.
7) What does paleolinguistics study?paleolinguistics, which studies the origin of the language, its sound means and control mechanisms.
8) what does paleosociology study? In connection with the fact that we have touched on the problems of sociogenesis, it should be noted the social sciences, which are most closely related to the problem of anthropogenesis. These include paleosociology, which studies the formation human society, and the history of primitive culture.
9) What can you say about the biogeochemical doctrine? How is this related to man? It is necessary to highlight the sciences that study the interaction of man with nature and mankind with natural environment. An interesting point of view on this issue was held by V. I. Vernadsky, the creator of the biogeochemical theory, in which he singled out two opposite biogeochemical functions that are in interaction and are associated with the history of free oxygen - the O2 molecule. These are the functions of oxidation and reduction. On the one hand, they are associated with the provision of respiration and reproduction, and on the other hand, with the destruction of dead organisms. According to Vernadsky, man and mankind are inextricably linked with the biosphere - a certain part of the planet on which they live, since they are geologically naturally connected with the material and energy structure of the Earth.
10) Ontogeny is... There are sciences, the subject of which is a specific person. This category may include the sciences of ontogeny - development process individual organism. Within the framework of this direction, gender, age, constitutional and neurodynamic features of a person are studied. In addition, there are sciences about personality and its life path, within the framework of which the motives of human activity, his worldview and value orientations, relations with the outside world are studied.
Psychology as a science
11) What is psychology as a science? The word "psychology" in translation from ancient Greek literally means "the science of the soul" (psyche-"soul", logos- concept, doctrine). The term "psychology" first appeared in scientific use in the 16th century. Initially, he belonged to a special science that dealt with the study of the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, i.e., those that each person easily detects in his own mind as a result of self-observation. Later, in the XVII-XIX centuries. the field studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious, but also unconscious phenomena. Thus, psychology is the science of the mind and mental phenomena.
12) What is the division of mental phenomena? We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental states And mental properties of personality
13) What are the differences between worldly psychological knowledge and scientific psychological knowledge?
14) What are the main characteristics of mental states? (Duration, Direction, Sustainability and Intensity)
Basic methods of psychological research
15) What groups are the methods of psychology divided into? 16) What is included in subjective methods? 17) What is included in objective methods? 18) what kind of modeling is there? 19) what contribution did Bekhterev make to the development of psychology? Bekhterev Vladimir Mikhailovich (1857–1927)- Russian physiologist, neuropathologist, psychiatrist, psychologist. Based on the reflex concept of mental activity put forward by I. M. Sechenov, he developed a natural science theory of behavior, which was originally called objective psychology (1904), then psychoreflexology (1910), and later reflexology (1917). Bekhterev made a significant contribution to the development experimental psychology. He was the creator of the first experimental psychological laboratory in Russia, which was opened in 1885 at the clinic of Kazan University. Later, in 1908, Bekhterev founded the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg, which currently bears his name.
I. Methodological foundations for the study of man. How to understand the behavior of another person? Why do people have different abilities? What is the "soul" and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased. A rational approach to cognition of the world is based on the fact that the reality surrounding us exists independently of our consciousness, can be investigated empirically, and the observed phenomena are quite explainable from a scientific point of view.
To implement this approach, it is necessary to have a general idea of the subject of research. In various areas of science, scientists have repeatedly attempted to formulate a holistic view of a person. Of course, such a notion exists in psychology as well. One of the most popular approaches to the study of man in Russian psychology was proposed by Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev.
Ananiev Boris Gerasimovich (1907 1972) - an outstanding Russian psychologist. He began his scientific activity as a post-graduate student at the Institute of the Brain during the lifetime of V. M. Bekhterev. In 1968-1972 Dean of the Faculty of Psychology at Leningrad State University. He is the founder of the Leningrad psychological school. Author of fundamental works in the field of sensory perception, communication psychology, pedagogical psychology. He proposed a system of human knowledge, in which data from various human sciences were integrated.
Ananiev singled out four basic concepts in the system of human knowledge: individual, subject of activity, personality and individuality. The concept of "individual" has several interpretations. First of all, an individual is a person as a single natural being, a representative of the species Homo sapiens. In this case, the biological essence of man is emphasized. But sometimes this concept is used to refer to a person as a separate representative of the human community, as a social being using tools. However, in this case, the biological essence of man is not denied. A person as an individual has certain properties (Fig. 1. 1). Ananiev singled out the primary and secondary properties of the individual.
He attributed to the primary properties inherent in all people, such as age characteristics (corresponding to a certain age) and sexual dimorphism (belonging to a certain sex), as well as individually typical characteristics, including constitutional features (body composition features), neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres. The totality of the individual's primary properties determines his secondary properties: the dynamics of psychophysiological functions and the structure of organic needs. In turn, the integration of all these properties determines the characteristics of temperament and the inclinations of a person.
Another concept that characterizes a person as an object of the real world is "personality". This concept, like the concept of "individual", has various interpretations. In particular, a person is understood as an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. Some authors understand personality as a systemic property of an individual, which is formed in joint activities and communication. There are other interpretations of this concept, but they all agree on one thing: the concept of “personality characterizes a person as a social being (Fig. 1. 2). Within the framework of this concept, such psychological properties of a person as motivation, temperament, abilities and character are considered.
The next concept that Ananiev singled out when studying a person is “subject of activity”. This concept in its content occupies an intermediate position between the concepts of "individual" and "personality". The subject of activity combines the biological principle and the social essence of a person into a single whole. If a person did not have the ability to act as a subject of activity, then he could hardly be considered as a social being, since his evolution and social development are impossible without activity.
Conclusion The main feature of man as a subject, which distinguishes him from other living beings, is consciousness. Consciousness is the highest form of mental development, inherent only to man. It determines the possibility of cognition of objective reality, the formation of purposeful behavior and, as a result, the transformation of the surrounding world. In turn, the ability of conscious activity to transform the surrounding world is another feature of a person as a subject. Thus, the subject is an individual as a carrier of consciousness, possessing the ability to act.
So, a person can be considered, firstly, as a representative of living nature, a biological object, secondly, as a subject of conscious activity, and, thirdly, as a social being. That is, a person is a biosocial being endowed with consciousness and the ability to act. Combining these three levels into one whole forms an integral characteristic of a person - his individuality. Individuality is a combination of mental, physiological and social characteristics of a particular person in terms of his uniqueness, originality and originality.
The prerequisite for the formation of human individuality is the anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the process of education, which has a socially conditioned character. A variety of upbringing conditions and innate characteristics gives rise to a wide variability in the manifestations of individuality. Thus, we can conclude that a person is one of the most complex objects in the real world. The structural organization of a person is of a multilevel nature and reflects his natural and social essence (Therefore, it is not surprising that there are a significant number of sciences that study a person and his activities.
