Education in the Middle Ages, the emergence of the first universities. The World History. History of the study of university culture

The first universities in Western Europe appeared precisely in the classical Middle Ages. So, at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. Universities were opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and other European cities. Universities then were the most important and often the only source of information. The power of universities and university science was exceptionally strong. In this regard, in the XIV-XV centuries. the University of Paris stood out especially. It is significant that among his students there were completely grown-up people and even old people: everyone came to exchange opinions and get acquainted with new ideas.

University science - scholasticism - is formed in the XI century. Its most important feature was boundless faith in the power of reason in the process of knowing the world. In the course of time, however, scholasticism becomes more and more dogma. Its provisions are considered infallible and final. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and denied experiments, becomes an obvious brake on the development of natural science in Western Europe. Almost all departments in European universities were then occupied by monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and the usual topics of disputes and scientific works were: “Why did Adam eat an apple in Paradise and not a pear? and "How many angels can fit on the point of a needle?".

The whole system of university education had a very strong influence on the formation of Western European civilization. Universities contributed to the progress in scientific thought, the growth of public consciousness and the growth of individual freedom. Masters and students, moving from city to city, from university to university, which was a constant practice, carried out cultural exchange between countries. National achievements immediately became known in other European countries. Thus, the "Decameron" by the Italian Javanni Boccaccio was quickly translated into all the languages ​​​​of Europe, it was read and known everywhere. The beginning of book printing in 1453 also contributed to the formation of Western European culture. Johannes Gutenberg, who lived in Germany, is considered the first printer.

FERDINAND AND ISABELLA

Europe is the beautiful face of the world: important in Spain, handsome in England, playful in France, reasonable in Italy, ruddy in Germany. » These words belong to the Spanish writer Baltasar Gracian, who lived in the 17th century. However, they are true today, and even more so at the end of the 15th century - when the forehead of Spain acquired this significant importance.

Isabella, daughter of King Juan II of Castile, as often happened among the crowned heads of Europe, was intended to be the wife of the Portuguese monarch Alfonso V. There were other contenders for her hand and heart, but. The 18-year-old princess made a daring challenge to tradition and court etiquette. Few chivalric novels of that era could match the poignancy and unpredictability of the plot with the story of her marriage.

Renaissance, Florence, Medici - three words, inextricably linked. The Renaissance is the time of the brilliant flowering of culture, which came in Europe after the long bloody troubles of the early Middle Ages. Florence is a city-republic that has become one of the centers of the Renaissance. The Medici family is a famous Florentine family, many of whose members were typical people of the new time - talented, enterprising, cruel, inspired, like all true Florentines, by the ideas of freedom and devotion to the motherland.

Woolen fabrics made in Florentine factories are sold in many cities of Europe, Asia and Africa. Enterprising city merchants found shopping centers around the world. No wonder Pope Boniface VIII said with irony that the Florentines, like earth, water, air and fire, are the basis of the universe.

medieval universities

The goal of science and education was the same as in Ancient Greece, but was not the concern of private people, but was proclaimed a universal and mandatory task. The care of the soul was carried out not independently, but under the control of the church.

The most characteristic form of cognitive organization has become a university - a corporation, a community of people of learning. The first universities appeared in the XII century. They were created to bring order, as there were often skirmishes between the townspeople and the arriving students.

Organizational structure of the university. Education was not divided into disciplines. Among the general educational faculties were the faculties of law, medicine, liberal arts, but the main one was the faculty of theology. Here theology is the science of Holy Scripture, attempts to formalize the conversation about God and the other for the purpose of definition, determination. At the University of Paris, the term of study was 8 years. The medieval university was similar to a professional workshop, nations stood out. Education began with a long apprenticeship, the exam was held in the form of a public debate, a successful performance at which was admission to lecturing. Education at the university was free, but he himself embodied poverty; usually the university was located at the monastery. New knowledge was not developed in medieval universities. The purpose of education was to streamline, preserve and transfer existing knowledge.

University management. unified system there was no funding, but there were sponsors who represented rival ecclesiastical and royal authorities. State power began to establish universities in the 14th and 15th centuries, before only the church was engaged in this. The university was supported not in the form of salaries, but in the form of gifts, sometimes scholarships, and not necessarily money: for example, libraries were presented as gifts. Tariffs were one source of funding. In the 16th century, the paid position of royal lecturer appeared. The medieval university is a self-governing organization; Each faculty has its own stamp. But this right was achieved gradually and not always completely. Bull Gregory IX of 1231 established the subordination of the University of Paris only to the church, in particular, only to the ecclesiastical court.

Sources: www.bibliotekar.ru, murzim.ru, otherreferats.allbest.ru, lects.ru, revolution.allbest.ru

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1. The emergence of higher professional schools and universities in the Middle Ages
2. The device of medieval universities and features of their functioning
3. Privileges and Common Features of Medieval Universities
4. The process of education in medieval universities

It is known that with the development of cities in Europe in the VIII-X centuries. church and secular higher professional schools began to form, which, accumulating methodological teaching experience, became widely known. So, monastic and cathedral (or cathedral) schools, giving higher theological education, in their history go back to the early Christian tradition. The main subject of study here was Bible. On the basis of biblical texts, the monks were taught grammar and philosophy. The texts were read together, then rewritten and interpreted. The head of the monastery school was called " interpreter". They studied at monastic schools for about three years. It is clear that graduates of monastic schools became clergymen.

The philosophical and pedagogical thought of medieval Europe was reflected mainly in the works of theologians. An example would be the activities and works Pierre Abelard (1079-1142), the famous French philosopher and theologian, who at the age of 24 became a teacher at the famous highest cathedral theological school of Notre Dame in Paris. Contemporaries called Abelard Socrates of Gaul, Plato of the West and Aristotle of his era.

Determining the exact time of the emergence of universities is a controversial scientific problem. Thus, individual historians consider educational institutions to be the starting dates for the birth of universities. advanced level Hellenistic era, Imperial Auditorium in Byzantine Constantinople (425), higher law schools in Beirut (VII century), Constantinople (VIII century) and Bologna (X century), higher theological schools in Toulouse and Rome, educational centers in Salerno and Montpellier (X century).
But the prevailing number of scientists believe that the first universities arose in the XII-XIII centuries. in the course of the independent development of authoritative theological, legal, medical and artistic schools, initially closely associated with urban communities: Bologna (1158), Oxford (1168) and Cambridge (1209), Paris (1200) (according to other sources 1215 and 1231), Naples (1224), Lisbon (1290) and etc.
It was in these universities that the main ideas of academic autonomy were formulated, and many procedures for the internal life of universities were developed. Universities were created with the active participation of the church and the state, since Church dominated the society of this period, which influenced science and education (both religious and secular).
A combination of many circumstances predetermined the emergence of universities in this period: the flourishing of trade, the emergence of a money economy, the growth of cities, the improvement of agricultural production, the growth of the welfare of the population and, as a result, the focus of citizens on obtaining knowledge and practical training, etc.
In pedagogical and historical literature, the term " university» is most often associated with the universality of the content of education. However, in the XII-XIV centuries. word university used to refer to some collections of persons with common interests and independent legal status: for example, indicated a specific group, in particular, interethnic corporation teachers - licentiates, masters, doctors, professors - and students ( scholars), united in the interests of enlightenment and the development of true and unified Christian knowledge.
The highest ecclesiastical or secular authorities (imperial or royal) endowed universities with many privileges: self-government based on statutes, rector's jurisdiction, tax exemption, guarantee of personal security for professors and students and etc.
The main privilege of universities was considered the right to award academic degrees who were recognized throughout the Christian world. The guarantor of this right was the universal, ecumenical power, which issued to the university a document on the foundation and rights - charter. Not to recognize the usefulness of a university degree or licenses (Licentiaubiquedocendi), which gave the right to teach everywhere, meant to challenge this authority . This power was primarily papacy, but privileges could issue emperors And kings, although universities became full-fledged only after they acquired papal charter. This is what universities, called differently studiogenerale – "general schools" or higher schools, differed from studiumparticulare- local urban schools or religious schools of an advanced level (monastic or cathedral), which did not have privileges and the right to award academic degrees.



The universities themselves wanted to descend from the legendary kings. So, it was believed that the University of Paris was founded by Charlemagne, Cambridge - King Arthur, and Oxford - Alfred the Great.

students various countries united in universities "nation» or community. Later in medieval universities appeared faculties or colleges(from lat. collegium- partnership, society) as educational and structural units, where a range of scientific disciplines is taught in a particular specialty, as well as corporations of students and professors of these units. Representatives of nations and faculties - deans(from lat. dekanus– foreman - in the Middle Ages, an official in the monastery, who helped manage ten communities, and then the head of the faculty) chose the official head of the university - rector(from lat. rector– steward). The rector had temporary powers and was usually elected for one year. At rector were observant and scientist advice elected from professors and masters. Represented the interests of the church at the university chancellor(from lat. cancellarius– gatekeeper, head of office) who approved the decisions on the award of academic degrees and verdicts rector's court.
Admission to students on the principle of compliance with educational requirements distinguished universities from other medieval corporations, in which social origin played a decisive role in admission.
In some universities, the right to elect professors (since the 14th century) passed to the city, which opened paid departments at the universities. Thus, the towns of Oxford and Cambridge gradually lost their independent role and became in fact appendages of the respective universities.

From the very beginning of their activities, European universities have differed in their focus, powers and internal structure. So, University of Bologna always had predominantly secular orientation and enough important student guild, which determined internal politics, the content of the courses taught and the choice of professors for conducting classes.
University of Paris had a clear theological orientation, and the master's guild influenced the internal university life.
Cambridge university still largely retains its traditional features: it is structurally represented by a set of independent colleges, each of which trains 300-400 people in different specialties.
Over time, specialization has increased in individual universities: Oxford University became famous for teaching canon law; Italian universities have achieved high level teaching Roman law; Spanish universities have become centers of mathematics and natural sciences .
But there was much in common in the university education of the Middle Ages. In general, the university education of the Middle Ages was characterized by the following features: 1) teaching was on Latin ; 2) professors and students formed self-managed corporations those who have privileges received from local and / or ecclesiastical authorities; 3) academic titles, awarded by any university enjoyed pan-European recognition; 4) the traditional set of faculties– theological, medical, legal and artistic; 5) availability of academic freedoms etc. Consequently, we can conditionally speak of the existence unified educational space already in medieval Europe.
In the XIV-XV centuries. many universities in Central Europe - Krakow (1364), Vilnius(1579) and others - were created according to the model Prague university(1348), established by the royal authority.
Note that the emergence of a network of universities in Europe was very intensive: if in the XIII century. there were 19 universities, then in the XIV century. 25 more are added to them (in Angers, Orleans, Pisa, Ferrara, Heidelberg, Cologne, Vienna, etc.), and by the end of the 16th century. There were already 63 universities.

A university with four faculties was considered complete: theological legal, medical and artistic (or Faculty of Arts). Among the faculties there was a traditional hierarchy with the priority position of the theological faculty, followed by the legal, medical and artistic, which corresponded to the importance of equivalent branches of knowledge in the society of that time.

The widespread idea that the arts department was a preparatory school for admission to other faculties is not entirely true. The statutes of the university did not directly prescribe this, although it is worth recognizing that such a tradition did exist.

The "core" of the content of education in the medieval university was "trivium" - grammar, rhetoric, dialectic And "quadrivium" - arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. The main attention was paid to arithmetic and geometry with astronomy, then the foundations of scholasticism were invariably covered, and from the works of Aristotle they received basic knowledge about nature, society and man. The professors were confident that the body of valuable knowledge contained in ancient writings, so the central place in content of education and teaching Aristotelian philosophy. Head of one of the most authoritative cathedral schools of the XII century. Bernard of Chartres spoke about the continuity of the content of education: We are dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants, we owe it to them that we can see beyond them.". The students had to acquire knowledge from the writings of Greek and Arabic scholars, and any deviation was considered heresy.
As a rule, medieval universities in their development relied on ancient traditions in vocational education, but at the same time, new mechanisms of functioning were also developed. Thus, teaching at universities eventually became multistage and hierarchical, suggesting continuity and mandatory passage of the previous steps. For example, preparation bachelor arts(from lat. baccalaureus- decorated with laurel, the first academic degree) of the artistic faculty took about 2 years, Master of Arts(from lat. master-master, mentor, second degree after bachelor) - from 3 to 10 years.

At the theological faculty, training lasted about 12 years. Often students (from lat. student- diligently working, mastering knowledge) of the theological faculty were aged 25-30 years old, they themselves had already taught and held church positions. Central location in theological education occupied the study of the Holy Scriptures and " maxims» Peter Lombard(beginning of the 12th century - 1160) - a famous philosopher and theologian who taught at the Paris Cathedral School, who made the first and most authoritative until the 16th century. code of catholic theology. Completion of the course led to a degree licentiate of theology(from lat. licentiatus- admitted), giving the right to teach, followed by a degree Master of Theology.

In law faculties, law was considered in the forms of Roman (Codex Justinian) and canon or ecclesiastical law. After 4 years of study, one could become Bachelor of Laws, after 3 years licensee of law, and then master And doctor of law.
On medical faculties selected works were studied Hippocrates, Avicenna, Galeni and others. After 3-4 years of study, a bachelor of medicine had to practice for another 2 years under the guidance of a master, and then after 5-6 years he could pass an exam for the title of licentiate.
The main forms of education in medieval universities were lecture(from lat. lecture- reading), its variety Questia(from lat. questio- ask, ask questions) - a problematic presentation of the material through the consideration of options for answers to the question posed, dispute(from lat. disputare– argue, argue), aimed at the independent development of thinking, demonstrating dexterity and wit, recitations as presentations on a given topic in verse or prose.

Despite the endless variety of university statutes, the basic principles of teaching were the same everywhere. Read in the morning cursor or ordinary lectures- usually the teacher read the text of the book, then singled out the main problem and divided it into sub-questions. For evening or extraordinary lectures already other teachers (professor's assistants or the best students) explained and repeated the morning lecture or dwelled on individual questions. The ability to highlight questions (question) was considered the most important. Considerable attention was paid to the development of the ability to lead controversy, i.e. reasoned dispute when discussing any issues. Ordinary, ordinary disputes ( dispute) were carried out weekly. The events that attracted the public were the disputes " about anything" or quadlibets which were carried out according to special rules.

In the notes of that time, disputes were compared with a battle, since they often ended in real battles between the participants, as evidenced, for example, by an excerpt from the work Geoffroy of Saint Victor « The spring of philosophy» [cit. Reader of poetic works on history ancient world and Middle Ages // Compiled by A.D. Rogov, G.M. Linko - M .: Education, 1961. - p. 196.]:

Here you will see youth in a tense battle:
Arrows are carried, and the sword shines naked;
He struck a blow, he demolished, defeated in a fight,
Here he who slew won, there he who was slain fell...

Most of the acts of university life were theatrical, and once a year carnivals, which allowed for extraordinary behavior of students, but in officially permitted forms and in a strictly limited period of time. In a circular from the University of Paris (dated March 12, 1444), the meaning of this action is formulated as follows: “ Stupidity, which is our second nature and seems to be innate to man, could at least once a year outlive itself. Barrels of wine will burst if you do not let air into them from time to time. All of us, people, are poorly made barrels that will burst from the wine of wisdom if this wine is in continuous fermentation of reverence and fear of God. You need to give it air so that it does not spoil. Therefore, on certain days we allow ourselves buffoonery (stupidity), so that later, with great zeal, we return to the service of the Lord.» .
Over time, each university rank, as well as each faculty, has its own dress, and discussions about the symbolism of its colors have become a frequent topic of university literature and disputes.

  • introductory
    • The subject of the science of history and its place in the system of historical sciences
    • Functions of historical knowledge
    • Science and course methodology world history
    • Principles of studying historical data
    • Stages of development historical science
    • Variants of periodization of history
  • Primitive era of mankind
    • Periodization options ancient history
      • Paleolithic
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    • Decomposition of the primitive communal system
  • History of the states of the ancient East
    • The era of early Antiquity (the end of IV - the end of II millennium BC)
      • Egypt
      • Sumero-Akkadian period
      • The first civilizations in India and China
    • The heyday of the ancient states (the end of the II - the end of the I millennium BC)
    • Late Antiquity
  • History of ancient states
    • Ancient Greece (3rd millennium BC - 30 BC)
      • Archaic period
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    • Ancient Rome (VIII century BC - V century AD)
      • Republic period
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  • Civilization ancient Rus'
    • Civilization of ancient Rus'
    • The oldest settlements on the territory of our country (from the beginning to the VI century AD)
      • The ancestral home of the Slavs and their ethnogenesis
    • Eastern Slavs on the threshold of the formation of the state (VI - IX centuries)
    • The formation of European civilization
    • general characteristics Western European Middle Ages (V-XVII centuries)
      • Vassalage system
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    • Early Middle Ages (V - X centuries)
      • Classes of early feudal society
    • Classical Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries)
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      • Principal princely lands
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      • Formation of the Moscow centralized state
  • States of the East in the Middle Ages
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      • Cathedral Code of 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
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  • Europe in the 18th century
    • Enlightenment is a necessary step in cultural development
      • English Enlightenment
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    • Great French revolution
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    • Economic development European countries in the 18th century
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  • Russia in the 18th century
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      • Strengthening of feudal landownership and the dictatorship of the nobility
    • Enlightened absolutism in Russia
      • Order of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code
      • Russian enlighteners

medieval universities

Another part of the Western European medieval society was also mobile - students and masters. The first universities in Western Europe appeared precisely in the classical Middle Ages. So, at the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. Universities were opened in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and other European cities. Universities then were the most important and often the only source of information.

The power of universities and university science was exceptionally strong. In this regard, in the XIV-XV centuries. the University of Paris stood out in particular. It is significant that among his students (and there were more than 30 thousand of them in total) there were also completely grown-up people and even old people: everyone came to exchange opinions and get acquainted with new ideas.

University science - scholasticism - is formed in the XI century. Its most important feature was boundless faith in the power of reason in the process of knowing the world. In the course of time, however, scholasticism becomes more and more dogma. Its provisions are considered infallible and final. In the XIV-XV centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and denied experiments, becomes an obvious brake on the development of natural science in Western Europe.

Almost all departments in European universities were then occupied by monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, and the usual topics of disputes and scientific papers were: “Why did Adam eat an apple in paradise and not a pear? and "How many angels can fit on the point of a needle?".

The whole system of university education had a very strong influence on the formation of Western European civilization. Universities contributed to the progress in scientific thought, the growth of public consciousness and the growth of individual freedom. Masters and students, moving from city to city, from university to university, which was a constant practice, carried out cultural exchange between countries.

National achievements immediately became known in other European countries. Thus, the "Decameron" by the Italian Javanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) was quickly translated into all the languages ​​​​of Europe, it was read and known everywhere. The beginning of book printing in 1453 also contributed to the formation of Western European culture. Johannes Gutenberg (between 1394-1399 or 1406-1468), who lived in Germany, is considered the first printer.

Universities arose in the Middle Ages. It is a mistake to say that the university as a form educational institution existed before. There were magnificent Confucian schools of the “semicircular pool school” back in the days of the Tang Empire, since the 9th century graduate School The Pandidacterion in Constantinople, and the Al-Karaouine school in Morocco, have been active from the ninth century to the present day, but all these are not universities by their nature. This does not detract from their glory and dignity at all, but the university is something very specific.

1. How Universities Arise

Universities arose in the 11th century, when the West entered a period of amazing growth, when the Middle Ages in its classical sense, with all the attributes of a feudal society, set in. The beginning of this period is marked by the Gregorian reform and the strengthening of the positions of the papacy. Then there is the rise of cities, the assertion of senior relations. It is against the backdrop of these processes that university corporations emerge.

No one founded the first universities, they arise on their own. Therefore, the statements “Philip Augustus founded the University of Paris in 1200” or “Frederick Barbarossa founded the University of Bologna” are fundamentally wrong. These schools arose on their own, having acquired the only conceivable then and very convenient form of mutual oath ( conjuratio), which quickly became known as university- a community of equal people who brought each other a mutual oath, which possessed what would later be called a legal entity. Universitas- this is not only an association of masters and students, any city commune, any corporation of artisans was university. Subsequently, at the beginning of the XIII century, this term began to be used only in relation to educational organizations.

We cannot talk about the existence of universities in the 11th and 12th centuries, but rather about pre-university formations, studios, training centers. This is a very important, interesting, rich in traditions era. At this time, the reception of Roman law was made, canon law was created, and rational theology was born.

2. The life of a new type of intellectual

In previous periods, intellectuals lived either at the court of a prince, emperor, king, or, more often, in monasteries. Intellectuals of a new type lived in the city and taught to all comers, who were becoming more and more. It is no coincidence that the science that arose was called school science, or scholasticism. The thinkers of that era took the formal logic of Aristotle and applied it to new areas of knowledge. A system was created that sets the algorithm of actions in cases where the opinions of authorities on a particular issue differed. This was extremely important, since nothing was done in the Middle Ages without recourse to authorities.

The intellectual of the new formation was not a practitioner, but a specialist in the field of thinking. It was not necessary to know Roman law well in order to judge the peasants in the English Manor: society lived according to other laws. Wounds and fractures were better treated not by an expert on Hippocrates and Galen, but by a poorly educated barber surgeon. A highly learned theologian could not captivate his flock with a passionate sermon, as did a simple Franciscan monk. But a person who took a university course was able to think logically - this gave him the opportunity to formulate a problem and cope with any task. Since this period, the transformation of the world has gone by leaps and bounds.

3. Formation of university corporations

Universities arose at the beginning of the 13th century. Paris, Bologna, Montpellier, Oxford are the places where they arose on their own. What is a corporation and affiliation? The German scientist Exle gave a very good definition: "a corporation is a community of the living and the dead." The first university charter of 1215 in Paris gives a very large place to the regulations for the funeral of masters and students, clearly prescribing what and how each member of the corporation should do.

This logic is very clear. What is the most important thing in the life of a medieval person? Death and how he will leave this life. The further existence of his soul depends on this. If he dies in a foreign land, who will take care of a righteous death? These are the people who took the mutual oath. They took a mutual oath to live in peace, not to conflict. And for this it was necessary to determine the order of lectures, exams, rules of conduct, uniforms (what is now called a dress code). And, most importantly, to guarantee mutual assistance. Thus, an organizational form was developed, which quickly began to be replicated. Secular or ecclesiastical authorities simply took the ready-made form of charter and opened new universities.

The status of university corporations was based on independence from the local secular authorities, representatives of the king and, most importantly, from the local spiritual authorities. Initially, the bishop controlled the teaching, issuing permission to teach ( licentia docendi). After the establishment of the university, the bishop's chancellor continued, with the permission of the Pope, to issue permits in new form - licentia ubique docendi, that is, the right to teach everywhere in Christendom. This right was given only after an examination conducted by a corporation of equal people. It was she who decided whether the applicant was worthy to enter the corporation or not worthy, whether he was worthy of conferring the title of bachelor, master, doctor or not worthy. And the chancellor only agreed with this decision and issued permission. This can be called the basis of Western European intellectualism.

Undoubtedly, European intellectualism as an autonomous corporation exists with the permission of the authorities. If there is no charter issued by the Pope (less often by the emperor, sometimes by the king who tried to make himself independent of the emperor), then there is no university.

4. Social magic

I like to ask: “Tell me, please, who was Thomas Aquinas by social origin?”. And, as a rule, people cannot answer this question, although his father was an earl. Who was the origin of Jean Gerson? His parents were peasants, and of rather low status. Who was Erasmus of Rotterdam? He was illegitimate, his father is a priest. This is important: entering the world of people of knowledge, a person, as it were, broke with his former environment (although the origin was always extremely important for medieval society), acquiring a new social status. The French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu called this moment social magic: there was one person, but there was another. From my point of view, the ability to award degrees is the most important thing that constitutes the essence of the university corporation. This ability was perfectly conveyed by Soviet folklore: "You may not be a scientist, but you must be a candidate."

5. University logic

Over the years, the situation changed: the independence of the university weakened, the role of secular authorities became stronger, but the universities still had great authority, which allowed them to act as advisers to monarchs. What we call university culture is forming very quickly: a special type of thinking, folklore, habits, discursive practices that are characteristic of university people. This type of culture survived the Middle Ages and set a certain type of communication for the universities of modern times. Thus, the indispensable medieval rampage of students is inherited by the German universities of the Enlightenment. Students- burshi they were simply obliged to behave defiantly towards the philistine townsfolk. As you know, M. V. Lomonosov mastered the manners of the Bursh so well that only a miracle saved him from serious troubles in Germany, and the quietest person Pierre Bezukhov ties the bear to the quarter, demonstrating his involvement in the German traditions of university culture. A similar code of behavior is miraculously reproduced in other eras and in other regions.

The logic of the corporation, which asserted that “our degrees are our inalienable right, no one can take them away from us,” was also characteristic of Soviet scientists. It was this that became an important argument for the refusal of the Academy of Sciences to deprive Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov of his scientific title.

This logic is inherent in both modern universities and academies. To undertake their reform without understanding their medieval nature is rather strange. This does not mean the preservation of the archaic principle. But successive university reformers such as Wilhelm von Humboldt and John Newman looked to the origins of university autonomy and corporatism.

6. The spread of the university form to the world

Universities have spread all over the world - this can be seen as European expansion. If we compare with this other social and political institutions exported by Europe (European parliamentarism, freedom of speech, the doctrine of human rights) and taking root far from everywhere, then the triumphal procession of universities around the world looks more than convincing. Today there is no such country where there is no university, and the best are often located outside Europe. That is, the university turned out to be a surprisingly tenacious form, invented in the great era of the XII-XIII centuries, from my point of view, in the golden age for European civilization.

7. History of the study of university culture

There are many current research on the history of the university, but the most interesting things were said by the French medievalist Jacques Le Goff, his critics, his supporters in the 50s-60s of the 20th century. Interesting is the attempt to include Russian universities in the context of European history - these are the works of A. Yu. Andreev on the transfer of the university idea to Russia, the works of E. A. Vishlenkova and her co-authors, which show from the inside how university traditions took root and formed in Russia.

Promising will be research on the history of universities, which, unfortunately, we do not have. But the last generalizing work in Russian on the history of European universities was published in 1896 (albeit republished in 2012). It remains to be hoped that the situation will change soon: the history of medieval universities is in demand in our country today more than ever.

Andreev A. Yu. Russian universities XVIII - the first half of the XIX century in the context university history Europe M., 2009.

Vishlenkova E.A., Galiullina R.Kh., Ilyina K.A. Russian professors: university corporatism or professional solidarity. M., 2012.

De Libera A. Medieval thinking. M., 2004.

Le Goff J. Intellectuals in the Middle Ages. SPB, 2003.

Suvorov N. S. Medieval universities, M., 1896, 2nd ed. M., 2012.

Development medieval cities, as well as other changes that took place in the life of society, have always been accompanied by changes in education. If during the early Middle Ages it was received mainly in monasteries, later schools began to open in which law, philosophy, medicine were studied, students read the works of many Arabic and Greek authors, etc.

History of occurrence

The word "university" in translation from Latin means "set", or "association". I must say that today, as in the old days, it has not lost its significance. Medieval universities and schools were communities of teachers and students. They were organized for one purpose: to give and receive education. Medieval universities lived by certain rules. Only they could award academic degrees, gave graduates the right to teach. This was the case throughout Christian Europe. Medieval universities received a similar right from those who founded them - popes, emperors or kings, that is, those who at that time had the highest power. The foundation of such educational institutions is attributed to the most famous monarchs. It is believed, for example, that Alfred the Great founded, and Paris - Charlemagne.

The head was usually the rector. His position was elective. Just as in our time, medieval universities were divided into faculties. Each was headed by a dean. After listening to a certain number of courses, students became bachelors, and then masters and received the right to teach. At the same time, they could continue their education, but already at one of the faculties considered “highest” in the specialties of medicine, law or theology.

The way the medieval university was organized is practically no different from the modern way of getting an education. They were open to everyone. And although children from rich families predominated among the students, there were also many people from the poor class. True, from the moment of admission to medieval universities and until receiving the highest degree many years passed, and therefore very few went through this path to the end, but on the other hand, the academic degree provided the lucky ones with both honor and opportunities for a quick career.

students

Many young people in search of the most the best teachers moved from one city to another and even went to a neighboring European country. I must say that ignorance of languages ​​did not bother them at all. European medieval universities taught in Latin, which was considered the language of science and the church. Many students sometimes led the life of a wanderer, and therefore received the nickname "vaganta" - "wandering". Among them were excellent poets, whose works still arouse great interest among contemporaries.

The students' daily routine was simple: lectures in the mornings, and repetition of the studied material in the evenings. Along with the constant training of memory in the universities of the Middle Ages, great attention was paid to the ability to argue. This skill was practiced during daily debates.

student life

However, the life of those who had the good fortune to enroll in medieval universities was formed not only from classes. There was time for both solemn ceremonies and noisy feasts. The students of that time were very fond of their educational institutions, here they spent best years their lives, gaining knowledge and finding protection from strangers. They called them "alma mater".

Students usually gathered in small groups according to nations or communities, bringing together students from a wide variety of regions. Together they could rent an apartment, although many lived in colleges - colleges. The latter, too, as a rule, were formed according to nationalities: representatives from one community gathered in each.

University Science in Europe

Scholasticism began its formation in the eleventh century. Its most important feature was considered to be boundless belief in the power of reason in the knowledge of the world. However, over time in the Middle Ages university science became a dogma, the provisions of which were considered final and infallible. In the 14-15 centuries. scholasticism, which used only logic and completely denied any experiment, began to turn into an obvious brake on the development of natural scientific thought in the territory Western Europe. Almost completely the formation of medieval universities was then in the hands of the Dominican orders. Education system of that time had a rather strong influence on the evolution of the formation of Western European civilization.

Only centuries later, the medieval universities of Western Europe began to contribute to the growth of public self-awareness, the progress of scientific thought and the freedom of the individual.

legality

To qualify as an educational institution, an institution had to have a papal bull approving its establishment. By such a decree, the pontiff removed the institution from the control of secular or local church authorities, legitimizing the existence of this university. The rights of the educational institution were also confirmed by the privileges received. These were special documents signed either by popes or by royalty. Privileges secured the autonomy of this educational institution - a form of government, permission to have its own court, as well as the right to grant academic degrees and exemption of students from military service. Thus, medieval universities became a completely independent organization. Professors, students and employees of the educational institution, in a word, all, were no longer subordinate to the city authorities, but exclusively to the elected rector and deans. And if the students committed some misconduct, then the leadership of this locality could only ask them to condemn or punish the guilty.

Graduates

Medieval universities made it possible to get a good education. Many well-known figures studied there. The graduates of these educational institutions there were Duns Scott, Peter of Lombard and William of Ockham, Thomas Aquinas and many others.

As a rule, a great career awaited those who graduated from such an institution. After all, on the one hand, medieval schools and universities were in active contact with the church, and on the other hand, along with the expansion of the administrative apparatus of various cities, the need for educated and literate people also increased. Many yesterday's students worked as notaries, prosecutors, scribes, judges or lawyers.

Structural subdivision

There was no separation of higher and secondary education, so the structure of the medieval university included both senior and junior faculties. After deep learning by 15-16 year old young people in Latin in primary school, they were transferred to the preparatory level. Here they studied the "seven liberal arts" in two cycles. These were the "trivium" (grammar, as well as rhetoric and dialectics) and the "quadrium" (arithmetic, music, astronomy and geometry). But only after studying the course of philosophy, the student had the right to enter the senior faculty in law, medicine or theology.

Learning principle

Even today, modern universities use the traditions of medieval universities. Surviving to the present day educational plans were drawn up for a year, which in those days was divided not into two semesters, but into two unequal parts. The large ordinary period lasted from October to Easter, and the small one - until the end of June. The division of the academic year into semesters appeared only towards the end of the Middle Ages in some German universities.

There were three main forms of teaching. The lectio, or lectures, were the complete and systematic exposition, at fixed hours, of a particular academic subject, according to a predetermined statute or charter of a given university. They were divided into ordinary, or compulsory, courses and extraordinary, or additional. Teachers were classified according to the same principle.

For example, obligatory lectures were usually scheduled for the morning hours - from dawn until nine in the morning. This time was considered more convenient and designed for the fresh forces of students. In turn, extraordinary lectures were read to the audience in the afternoon hours. They started at 6pm and ended at 10pm. The lesson lasted one or two hours.

Traditions of medieval universities

The main task of teachers of medieval universities was to compare different versions of texts and give the necessary explanations along the way. The statutes forbade students from demanding repetition of material or even slow reading. They had to come to lectures with books, which were very expensive in those days, so the students rented them.

Already since the eighteenth century, universities began to accumulate manuscripts, copying them and creating their own sample texts. Audiences did not exist for a long time. The first medieval university, in which professors began to arrange school premises - Bologna - already from the fourteenth century began to create rooms for lectures to accommodate it.

And before that, students were grouped in one place. For example, in Paris it was the Avenue Foir, or Straw Street, called by this name because the listeners sat on the floor, on the straw at the feet of their teacher. Later, semblances of desks began to appear - long tables at which up to twenty people could fit. Chairs began to arrange on a hill.

Grading

After completing their studies at a medieval university, students passed the examination, which was taken by several masters from each nation. The dean supervised the examiners. The student had to prove that he had read all the recommended books and managed to participate in the amount of disputes required by the statutes. The commission was also interested in the behavior of the graduate. After the successful passage of these stages, the student was admitted to a public debate, in which he had to answer all the questions. As a result, he was awarded the first bachelor's degree. Two academic year he had to assist the master in order to qualify to teach. And six months later, he was also awarded a master's degree. The graduate was supposed to give a lecture, take an oath and arrange a feast.

The history of the oldest universities dates back to the twelfth century. It was then that such educational institutions as Bologna in Italy and Paris in France were born. In the thirteenth century there are in England, Montpellier in Toulouse, and already in the fourteenth the first universities appeared in the Czech Republic and Germany, Austria and Poland. Each educational institution had its own traditions and privileges. By the end of the fifteenth century, there were about a hundred universities in Europe, which were structured into three types, depending on from whom the teachers received their salaries. The first was in Bologna. Here, students themselves hired and paid for teachers. The second type of university was in Paris, where the teachers were funded by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were supported by both the crown and the state. It must be said that it was this fact that helped them survive the dissolution of the monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of the main English Catholic institutions.

All three types of structures had their own characteristics. For example, in Bologna, for example, students controlled almost everything, and this fact often gave teachers great inconvenience. In Paris it was the opposite. Precisely because the teachers were paid by the church, the main subject at this university was theology. But in Bologna, students chose more secular studies. Here the main subject was the law.

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